🧬 B2A: HOW DO LIVING THINGS

REPRODUCE?
1. Name the five kingdoms.

Biologists group all living organisms into five major groups called
kingdoms:

1. Animalia (Animals) – Multicellular, move, eat food.

2. Plantae (Plants) – Multicellular, make their own food via

photosynthesis.

3. Fungi – Mostly multicellular, absorb nutrients from decaying matter.

4. Protista (Protists) – Mostly unicellular, live in water, varied

characteristics.

5. Prokaryotae (Bacteria) – Unicellular, no nucleus, simplest

organisms.

2. Identify examples of living things found in each kingdom.

 Animals: Human, lion, ant

 Plants: Rose, oak tree, grass

 Fungi: Yeast, mushrooms, mould

 Protists: Amoeba, paramecium, algae

 Prokaryotes: E. coli, streptococcus

3. Key features of animals, plants, prokaryotae, fungi and

prototista.

Kingdom Features

Animals Multicellular, no cell wall, nervous system, move, eat

Multicellular, have chloroplasts, cell walls (cellulose), make

Plants
food

Multicellular or unicellular, absorb food, cell wall (chitin), no

Fungi
chlorophyll

Protists Mostly unicellular, live in water, some photosynthesize, some

Kingdom Features

feed

Prokaryot
Unicellular, no nucleus, simple structure, reproduce quickly
es

4. Identify animals as vertebrates or invertebrates.

 Vertebrates: Animals with a backbone/spine (e.g. birds, reptiles,

humans)

 Invertebrates: Animals without a backbone (e.g. jellyfish, insects,

worms)

5. Features of mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians, birds

Group Key Features

Mammals Warm-blooded, hair/fur, live birth, feed milk

Reptiles Cold-blooded, dry scaly skin, lay eggs

Gills, scales, fins, cold-blooded, external

Fish
fertilisation

Amphibia Moist skin, live on land and water, lay eggs in

ns water

Feathers, wings, lay hard-shelled eggs, warm-

Birds
blooded

6. Identify plants by seeds and flowers.

 Seed-bearing: Have seeds for reproduction (e.g. sunflower)

 Flowering plants: Produce flowers to make seeds (e.g. rose)

 Non-flowering: Use spores (e.g. ferns, mosses)

7. Label male and female reproductive systems (humans).

 Male: Testes (make sperm), sperm duct, penis, urethra

 Female: Ovaries (make eggs), fallopian tubes (where fertilisation

happens), uterus (womb), cervix, vagina
8. Functions of male and female reproductive parts.

 Penis: Transfers sperm

 Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone

 Urethra: Carries semen and urine out of body

 Ovaries: Release eggs, produce oestrogen and progesterone

 Fallopian tubes: Carry egg; where fertilisation occurs

 Uterus: Baby develops here

 Vagina: Receives sperm, passage for baby at birth

9. Adaptations and functions of gametes.

 Sperm:

o Tail (flagellum) to swim

o Enzymes in head to penetrate egg

o Nucleus with 23 chromosomes

 Egg:

o Large with nutrients

o Only one released per cycle

o Nucleus with 23 chromosomes

 o Special membrane that blocks other sperm once fertilised

10. Definition of fertilisation.

✅ Simple Definition:

Fertilisation is the process where a male gamete (sperm cell)

joins with a female gamete (egg cell) to form a new cell called a
zygote.

🧪 Scientific Detail:

 Gametes are special sex cells:

o Sperm = male gamete (from testes)

o Egg (ovum) = female gamete (from ovary)

 Both gametes carry half the number of chromosomes (23 each

in humans).

 During fertilisation, the nuclei of both gametes fuse together.

 These fusion forms a zygote, a single cell with the full number of
chromosomes (46 in humans).

 The zygote then begins to divide and grow, eventually becoming

an embryo.

🔄 Key Features of Fertilisation:

Feature Description

Sperm (male) and egg

Type of cell
(female)

Chromosomes Each gamete has 23

before chromosomes

Nuclei fuse to form one new

Process
cell

Resulting cell Zygote with 46 chromosomes

Start of a new individual

Outcome
organism
🎯 Importance of Fertilisation:

 Restores the full chromosome number (23 + 23 = 46)

 Combines genetic information from two parents – this creates

genetic variation

 Triggers the start of human development (embryo formation)

🧬 Type of Fertilisation in Humans:

 Internal fertilisation – happens inside the female body,

specifically in the fallopian tube.

 Unlike external fertilisation (e.g. in fish or frogs), human fertilisation

occurs in a protected environment inside the reproductive
system.

11. Where fertilisation occurs.

In humans, fertilisation takes place in the fallopian tube (oviduct).

🧬 Point 11: Where Does Fertilisation Take Place in Humans?

✅ Short Answer:

Fertilisation in humans takes place in the fallopian tube (also called the
oviduct) of the female reproductive system.

🧠 What are the fallopian tubes?

 They are thin tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus
(womb).

 Each month, during ovulation, an ovary releases one egg into a

fallopian tube.

 These tubes are lined with tiny hairs (cilia) that help move the egg
toward the uterus.

🧪 What happens inside the fallopian tube?

1. Sperm is deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse.

2. Sperm travels through the cervix, into the uterus, and up into the
fallopian tubes.
 3. If an egg is present (after ovulation), fertilisation can occur.

4. In the fallopian tube, one sperm cell fuses with the egg cell.

5. This forms a zygote (a single cell with combined DNA from both
parents).

6. The zygote then travels to the uterus, dividing and developing

into an embryo on the way.

🧬 Why fertilisation happens here:

 The fallopian tube provides a safe, nutrient-rich environment.

 It ensures that the egg and sperm have the best chance of
meeting.

 It’s narrow, so only one sperm typically reaches the egg—

helping with selection.

🧭 Diagram Suggestion (for a visual aid):

❗ Fun Fact:

If fertilisation does not occur in the fallopian tube:

  The egg dies and breaks down.

 It leaves the body with the uterine lining during menstruation.

12. Key stages of fertilisation in humans.

1. Ovary releases an egg (ovulation)

2. Sperm travels through vagina to uterus

3. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube

4. Zygote forms → embryo → implants in uterus wall

5. Pregnancy begins

13. Substances that pass from mother to foetus.

Through the placenta:

 Oxygen

 Glucose (energy)

 Amino acids (growth)

 Vitamins/minerals

14. Substances that pass from foetus to mother.

 Carbon dioxide

 Urea (waste)
These leave via the mother’s blood.

15. How substances pass from mother to foetus.

Via diffusion through the placenta. The mother and baby’s blood do
not mix directly.

✅ Key Concept:

The mother and the foetus are connected by a special organ called the
placenta, which allows essential substances (like oxygen and
nutrients) to pass from the mother’s blood to the foetus’s blood.
These substances help the foetus grow, develop, and stay healthy.
👶🏻 Where Does This Happen?

It all happens in the placenta, which is connected to the baby by the

umbilical cord.

🔄 Step-by-Step Explanation:

1. The Placenta Forms:

 After fertilisation and implantation, a placenta forms inside the

mother’s uterus (womb).

 The placenta attaches to the lining of the uterus.

 The umbilical cord connects the placenta to the foetus.

2. Blood Does NOT Mix:

 The mother’s blood and the foetus’s blood do not mix directly.

 Instead, substances pass across a thin barrier between the two

blood supplies by diffusion (a process where substances move from
an area of high concentration to low concentration).

3. What Substances Pass from Mother to Foetus?

Substance Purpose

Helps the baby’s cells do respiration to make

Oxygen
energy.

Glucose (sugar) Also used in respiration for energy.

Amino acids Help build proteins for body growth.

Fatty acids Used to make parts of cells and for energy storage.

Vitamins & Help with body functions like bone growth (e.g.,
minerals calcium, iron).

Water Needed for all chemical reactions in cells.

Antibodies Help protect the baby from infections.

4. How Substances Reach the Foetus’s Cells:

 Substances move from the mother’s blood → placenta →

umbilical cord → baby’s bloodstream.

 Once inside the foetus, the blood carries substances to each cell,
just like in the adult body.
❌ What Doesn’t Pass Through Easily:

 Some harmful substances (like alcohol, nicotine, and drugs)

can also cross the placenta — which is why pregnant women need
to be careful.

 Large blood cells and bacteria usually do not pass through.

🔍 Important Scientific Terms:

 Placenta – The organ that connects mother and baby, allowing

exchange of substances.

 Umbilical cord – The tube that connects the placenta to the foetus.

 Diffusion – The movement of particles from high concentration to

low concentration.

16. Difference between embryo and foetus.

 Embryo: Early stage (up to 8 weeks), basic cells and structures

forming.

 Foetus: After 8 weeks, organs and systems develop, baby grows.

17. Function of amniotic fluid.

 Protects the foetus from injury

 Keeps temperature stable

 Allows movement, helping muscles and bones grow

18. Stages of giving birth.

1. Uterus contracts (labour)

2. Cervix dilates

3. Baby is pushed out through the vagina

4. Placenta is delivered (afterbirth)

19. Why some substances are harmful during pregnancy.

  Alcohol: Can cause brain damage, learning issues

 Smoking: Reduces oxygen; can lead to low birth weight

 Drugs: May cause birth defects or miscarriage

20. One male and one female reproductive hormone.

 Testosterone (male): Controls sperm production and puberty

 Oestrogen (female): Controls development of female body and

menstrual cycle

21. Key stages of the menstrual cycle.

 Day 1–5: Menstruation (lining sheds)

 Day 6–13: Lining rebuilds

 Day 14: Ovulation (egg released)

 Day 15–28: Lining thickens, prepares for pregnancy

✅ Definition:

Giving birth, also called labour, is the final stage of pregnancy

when the baby is delivered from the uterus through the vagina. This
process involves muscular contractions, hormonal changes,
and the work of several reproductive structures.

📆 When Does Birth Happen?

 Human pregnancy lasts about 9 months (around 40 weeks).

 The process of giving birth begins when the baby is fully developed
and ready to survive outside the womb.

📋 Key Stages of Birth (There are three main stages):

🟠 Stage 1: Labour Begins – Cervix Dilation

🔹 What happens:

 The muscles of the uterus begin to contract regularly. These are

called contractions.
 Contractions become stronger, longer, and closer together over
time.

 The cervix (the opening to the uterus) begins to open (dilate)

to about 10 cm wide.

 The amniotic sac breaks, releasing amniotic fluid — this is

commonly called the mother’s “waters breaking”.

🔹 Purpose:

 To prepare the birth canal for the baby to pass through.

 To help push the baby downward toward the cervix.

🟢 Stage 2: Delivery of the Baby

🔹 What happens:

 Once the cervix is fully open, the baby moves down the birth
canal (the vagina).

 The mother uses her abdominal muscles and pushes with each
contraction.

 The baby is delivered head first in most cases.

 The umbilical cord, which connects the baby to the placenta, is

clamped and cut.

🔹 Purpose:

 To safely deliver the baby from the uterus to the outside world.

🔴 Stage 3: Delivery of the Placenta

🔹 What happens:

 After the baby is born, the placenta (also called the afterbirth)
must come out.

 The uterus keeps contracting gently to push the placenta out

through the vagina.

 This usually happens within 30 minutes after the baby is born.

🔹 Purpose:

 To remove the placenta, which is no longer needed now that the

baby is breathing and feeding on its own.
 🧠 Key Structures Involved in Birth:

Structure Role in Birth

Uterus Contracts to push the baby out

Cervix Opens (dilates) to allow baby through

Vagina (birth
Pathway for baby to be born
canal)

Amniotic sac Breaks during labour, releasing fluid

Placenta Delivered after the baby

Cut after delivery to separate baby from

Umbilical cord
placenta

💡 Important Vocabulary:

 Labour – The process of giving birth.

 Contractions – Muscle tightening in the uterus that helps push the

baby out.

 Cervix dilation – The widening of the cervix to let the baby pass.

 Amniotic sac – The fluid-filled sac protecting the baby.

 Placenta – The organ that supplied nutrients during pregnancy.

22. Reproductive parts of flowering plants.

 Male (stamen): Anther + filament = makes pollen

 Female (carpel): Stigma + style + ovary = makes ovules

✅ Main Idea:

The flower is the reproductive part of a flowering plant. It contains

male and female reproductive structures, which work together
to allow sexual reproduction (involving pollen and ovules).

🧬 Key Parts of the Flower:

Flowers usually have four main whorls (layers):

1. Sepals – protection

2. Petals – attraction

3. Male parts – Stamens

4. Female parts – Carpel (Pistil)

🔹 1. Sepals (Calyx)

 Small, green leaf-like structures

 Protect the flower bud before it opens

🔹 2. Petals (Corolla)

 Usually brightly coloured and sometimes scented

 Attract insects and other pollinators

 In wind-pollinated plants, petals are small or absent

🧔‍♂️Male Reproductive Part – The Stamen

Made up of:

Part Function

Produces and stores pollen grains, which contain

Anther
male gametes (sperm cells)

Filame Stalk that holds up the anther to expose it to wind

nt or insects

👩‍🦰 Female Reproductive Part – The Carpel (or Pistil)

Made up of:

Part Function

Stigm
Sticky surface where pollen lands and sticks
a

Tube that connects the stigma to the ovary. Pollen

Style
grows a pollen tube down through this.

Ovary Contains ovules, which are the female gametes

 Part Function

(egg cells)

Ovule The structure that, after fertilisation, becomes a seed

🔄 Pollination and Fertilisation Overview:

1. Pollination – Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma

2. Pollen grows a pollen tube through the style

3. Male gamete travels down to fertilise the ovule inside the ovary

4. Fertilised ovule becomes a seed, and the ovary becomes a fruit

🌼 Summary Table – Key Flower Parts:

Structu
Type Function
re

Non-
Sepals Protect bud before opening
reproductive

Non-
Petals Attract pollinators
reproductive

Makes pollen (male

Anther Male
gametes)

Filament Male Holds anther up

Stigma Female Receives pollen

Pollen tube grows through

Style Female
it

Ovary Female Contains ovules

Gets fertilised to become a

Ovule Female
seed

Diagram Suggestion:
 🔍 Fun Fact:

 Some plants have both male and female parts in the same flower
(perfect/bisexual flowers, e.g., lily).

 Some have separate male and female flowers (e.g., corn,

cucumber).

23. Functions of flower reproductive structures.

 Anther: Makes pollen (male gametes)

 Filament: Holds anther

 Stigma: Sticky to catch pollen

 Style: Connects stigma to ovary

 Ovary: Contains ovules (female gametes)

  Ovules: Become seeds after fertilisation

24. Four methods of seed dispersal.

1. Wind – Light seeds (e.g. dandelion)

2. Water – Float (e.g. coconut)

3. Animals – Eaten or attach to fur (e.g. burdock, berries)

4. Explosive – Pods burst open (e.g. pea, balsam)

25. Seed/fruit adaptations.

 Wings for wind

 Floating shells for water

 Bright colours or tasty for animal attraction

 Hooks/spikes to cling to fur

26. Compare insect- and wind-pollinated plants.

Featu Insect- Wind-

re Pollinated Pollinated

Petals Bright, scented Dull or absent

Pollen Sticky, less Light, lots

Anther Hanging
Inside flower
s outside

Long and
Stigma Inside, sticky
feathery

🧬 B2B: GENETICS
27. Structure of DNA.

 DNA is made of two strands in a double helix

 Made of units called nucleotides: phosphate, sugar, base

 Bases: A (adenine), T (thymine), C (cytosine), G (guanine)

  A pairs with T, C pairs with G

28. What is a gene?

A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein. This protein
causes a characteristic (e.g. eye colour).

29. How chromosomes are made.

 DNA is coiled up tightly to form chromosomes.

 Found in the nucleus of cells.

 Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).

 DNA ---- WRAPS AROUND WITH A PROTIEN ----- FORMS

CHROMATIN----COILS INTO CHROMOSOMES.

30. Inheritance of characteristics.

 Offspring receive half of DNA from each parent

 This mix of genes causes children to have features from both

parents
31. Chromosome count in gametes.

 Normal cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

 Gametes (sperm and egg) have 23 chromosomes each

 After fertilisation: 23 + 23 = 46 in zygote

32. Genes, alleles, traits.

 Genes: Carry instructions for traits

 Alleles: Different forms of the same gene (e.g. blue vs brown eyes)

 Traits depend on dominant or recessive alleles

 TRAIT – A Specific Charateristics

33. Predicting offspring – genetic crosses.

 Punnett squares show how alleles from parents combine

 Example: Brown eyes (B) dominant over blue (b)

o Bb × Bb → 75% brown, 25% blue

34. Variation within species.

 All individuals are slightly different due to variation

 Variation can be inherited or environmental

35. Genetic variation.

Caused by:

 Different alleles from parents

 Mutations in DNA

 Sexual reproduction (mixes DN]A)

36. Environmental variation.

Caused by:

 Climate, diet, lifestyle, illness

 E.g. height can be affected by both genes and nutrition

37. Environmental changes and variation.

 If environment changes (e.g. pollution, climate), some traits may be

more helpful

 This can lead to natural selection (e.g. peppered moths)