Unit Two

Methods of Data Collection

and
Presentation

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Objectives

After completing the unit you should be able to:

 organize data using frequency distribution.

 present data using suitable graphs or diagrams.

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 Methods of Data Collection
What is data collection?
 Gathering information through surveys, observations,
or interviews.
 Systematic gathering and recording of any kind of
information through digital or manual methods

Stages In data collection

1. Define your goals

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 Methods of Data Collection
2. Identify your data sources
Depending on the source, data can be classified in to two:
Primary data & Secondary data
 Primary data refers to the statistical data which the
investigator originates for the purpose of inquiry.

 Secondary data refers to data which is not originated by the

investigator himself, but which he/she obtains from someone
else records. Secondary data can be obtained from
published or unpublished documents: reports, journals,
magazines, articles e t c.

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Methods of Data Collection
3. Choose your data collection method: It includes data
collection using
 Surveys and Questionnaires
 Interviews,
 Observation,
 Focus Groups,
 Forms,
 Experimental
 etc.

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Methods of Data Collection
4. Determine your sampling method:
✓ Understand Your Target Population
✓ Anticipate and Minimize Biases
✓ Maintain Cost-Effective Practices
✓ Consider Your Project’s Objectives
5. Identify and train collectors
 In-Class Training
 Tests and Assessments
 Mock Interviews
 Pre-Recorded Training Sessions
6. Design and test your instruments
7. Collect your data

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Methods of Data
Presentation(DP): Table
 The uses of classifying and tabulating data are:
 to display the points of similarity and dissimilarity;
 to save mental strain by systematic condensation and
suppression of irrelevant detail;
 to enable one to form a mental picture of objects of
perception; and
 to prepare the ground for comparison and inference.
 Classification Types
 Geographical- in terms of cities, districts, countries etc.
 Chronological - on the basis of time
 Qualitative - according to some qualitative
characteristics.
 Quantitative – in terms of magnitude.

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 Methods of DP: Table
Example: Students who took
 Tabulation: introduction to statistics in
2014 [Link] gender.
 tables may be classified according
to the number of characteristics
Gender Number
used for tabulation.
Male 2000
 Simple or one way table: Female 700
 Two-way table
 Manifold or higher order table Example: Students who took
introduction to statistics in
Example: Students who took introduction to 2014 [Link] gender and age.
statistics in 2014 [Link] gender, religion and
age. Age Gender
Male Female M F
Ortho Musl Prote Ortho Mus Prote <=19 200 180
Age dox im stant dox lim stant
<=19 90 60 50 95 40 45 20-25 1415 385
20-25 815 350 250 195 80 110 =>26 385 135
>=26 110 195 80 30 35 70

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 Frequency
Methods of DP:
Distribution
 Frequency Distribution
 The easiest method of organizing data, which converts
raw data into a meaningful pattern for statistical analysis
 Uses
 To organize data in a meaningful way.
 To enable one to determine the nature or shape of the
distribution; how the observations cluster around a central
value; and how the values spread around the center of
the data.
 To facilitate computational procedures for measures of
average and spread.
 To enable one to draw charts and graphs for the
presentation of data.
 To enable one to make comparisons between data sets.

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 Frequency
Methods of DP:
Distribution
 Terminologies
 Frequency distribution: a grouping of data into
categories showing the number of observations in each
mutually exclusive category.
 Array: data put in an ascending or descending order of
magnitude.
 Grouped data: data presented in the form of a
frequency distribution.
 Frequency: the number of observations corresponding
to a fixed value or to a class of values.
 Relative frequency: the number obtained when the
frequency of a class is divided by total number of
observations.

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 Frequency
Methods of DP:
Distribution
Components of a frequency distribution
 Class limits: the values of a variable which typically serve to
identify the classes of a frequency distribution.
 Class boundaries: the precise points which separate
various classes rather than the values included in any one
of the classes.
 Class mark: the point which divides the class into two equal
parts. This is also known as class mid-point. This can be
determined by dividing the sum of the two limits or the sum
of the two boundaries by 2.
 Class width: the length of a class

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 Frequency
Methods of DP:
Distribution
 Example 2.3: The following data are the weights in kg of 40
individuals participated in a diet program for weight loss:
70 64 99 55 64 89 87 65 62 38 67 70 60 69 78
39 75 56 71 51 99 68 95 86 57 53 47 50 55 81
80 98 51 36 63 66 85 79 83 70

By grouping data into Class Class Frequency

classes we can make the boundary
data much easier to read
and understand.
31 – 40 30.5-40.5 3
41 – 50 40.5-50.5 2
51 – 60 50.5-60.5 8
Considering 10 as a class
width. The smallest weight is 61 – 70 60.5-70.5 12
36 kg, thus the first class of 71 – 80 70.5-80.5 4
weights is 31 kg.
81 – 90 80.5-90.5 7
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Methods of DP: Frequency
Distribution
 Types of FD
 Absolute frequency distribution
Assigns actual frequencies to classes
 Relative frequency distribution
A distribution which specifies the
frequency of a class relative to the total
frequency
 Cumulative frequency distribution
Refers to the number of observations
that are below/above a specified value

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 Frequency
Methods of DP:
Distribution
❑ Steps of constructing frequency distribution
1) Find the highest and the smallest value,
2) Compute the range; R = H – S,
3) Determine the number of classes using sturgge’s
formula
K= 1 + 3.322Log n; n= Total frequency
❖ Round up the result to the nearest integer

4) Find the class width (W) by dividing the range by the

number of classes and round up. W=R/K
5) Identify the unit of measure(U) usually as 1, 0.1,
0.01,…..
6) Pick a minimum value as starting point. Your starting
point is lower limit of the first class, then continue to
add the class width to get the rest lower class limits.
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 Frequency
Methods of DP: Distribution
Steps …
7. Find the upper class limits UCLi = LCLi +w-U. then continue to add width
to get the rest upper class limit
8. Finally find the class frequencies.

 Example 2.4: The following data are on the number of minutes to

travel from home to work for a group of automobile workers:
28 25 48 37 41 19 32 26 16 23 23 29 36 31
26 21 32 25 31 43 35 42 38 33 28.
 Construct a frequency distribution for this data.
Solution: R = 48 – 16 = 32
Number of classes = 𝑲 = 𝟏 + 𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝟐log(𝟐𝟓) ≈ 𝟔
32
Width 𝑤 = ≈6
6

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 Frequency
Methods of DP:
Distribution
 Let the lower limit of the first class be 16 then the
frequency distribution is as follows
Class Class Absolute Relative Less More
limit boundaries FD FD than than CF
CF
16-21 15.5-21.5 3 3/25 3 25
22-27 21.5-27.5 6 6/25 9 22
28-33 27.5-33.5 8 8/25 17 16
34-39 33.5-39.5 4 4/25 21 8
40-45 39.5-45.5 3 3/25 24 4
46-51 45.5-51.5 1 1/25 25 1
Total 25 1

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 Frequency Distribution
Methods of DP: For Ungrouped Data
 Table of all potential raw score values that could
possibly occur in the data along with their
corresponding frequencies.
 It is often constructed for small set of data or a
discrete variable
 Example 2.7: A demographer is interested in the
number of children a family may have. He took a
random sample of 30 families. The following data is the
number of children in a sample of 30 families.
4 2 4 3 2 8 3 4 4 2 2 8 5 3 4 4 5 4 3 5 2 7
3 3 6 7 3 8 4 5
To group such data, we will use classes based on the
single numerical value.

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Methods of DP: Frequency
Distribution For
Ungrouped Data
 Ungrouped frequency distributions

Number of F Relative frequency

Children requency
2 5 .17
3 7 .23
4 8 .27
5 4 .13
6 1 .03
7 2 .07
8 3 .1
Total 30 1
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 Frequency Distribution
Methods of DP: For Categorical Data

 The categorical frequency distribution is used for data

which can be placed in specific categories such as
nominal or ordinal level data.
 For example, data on political affiliation, religious
affiliation, blood type, marital status, or major field of
study would use categorical frequency distributions
Blood type of 30 people
B B AB B A AB
O AB AB AB B B
B A B AB O AB
A O B O AB A
B AB AB A AB O

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 Graphical Data
Methods of DP: Presentation

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 Graphical Data
Methods of DP: Presentation
 Graphs for quantitative data
Histogram:
 It consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are
marked off by class boundaries (not class limits) along the
horizontal axis and whose heights are proportional to the
frequencies associated with the respective classes.
 It indicate:
✓ how symmetric the data are; To construct a histogram
✓ how spread out the data are; from a data set:
✓ whether there are intervals Construct a frequency
having high levels of data table.
concentration; Draw adjacent bars
✓ whether there are gaps in the having heights
data; and determined by the
✓ whether some data values frequencies in step1.
are far apart from others.
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 Methods of DP: Graphical Data
Presentation

Time Class Numb

9
(in minute) mark er of
8
worker 7
s 6

Frequency
5
15.5- 21.5 18.5 3
4
21.5-27.5 24.5 6 3
27.5-33.5 30.5 8 2
33.5-39.5 36.5 4 1
0
39.5-45.5 42.5 3 15.518.5
21.5 [Link].536.5
39.5 42.5
45.5 48.5
51.5
45.5-51.5 48.5 1
Time

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 Graphical Data
Methods of DP:
Presentation
Frequency polygon
 is a graphic form of a frequency distribution. It can be constructed
by plotting the class frequencies against class marks and joining
them by a set of line segments.
 Note: we should add two classes with zero frequencies at the two
ends of the frequency distribution to complete the polygon.
Class Frequency c.F Cf
Boundaries (<) (>)
5.5 – 11.5 2 2 20
11.5 – 17.5 2 4 18
17.5 – 23.5 7 11 16
23.5 – 29.5 4 15 9
29.5 – 35.5 3 18 5
35.5 – 41.5 2 20 2
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 Graphical Data
Methods of DP:
Presentation
 Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogives)

Class Freque c.F Cf

Boundarie ncy (<) (>)
s

5.5 – 11.5 2 2 20

11.5 – 17.5 2 4 18

17.5 – 23.5 7 11 16

23.5 – 29.5 4 15 9

29.5 – 35.5 3 18 5

35.5 – 41.5 2 20 2

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 Diagrammatic
Methods of DP: Data Presentation
 Bar charts are diagrammatic representation of data in which the
data are represented by series of vertical or horizontal bars, the
height (or length) of each bar indicating the size of the figure
represented.

 Simple Bar-chart
 Deviation Bar-chart
 Component Bar-chart
 Multiple Bar-chart

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 Diagrammatic Data
Methods of DP: Presentation
Prod Sale(in 22
Simple Bar chart
uct millions)
20

18

A 14 16
Sales (in million birr)

B 21
14

12

C 9 10

D 17
8

6
A B C D

Product

Year Profit (in

Deviation bar chart
thousan 20

ds)
Profit (in thousands)

1997 12
10

1998 -5
1999 14
0

2000 9
2001 -6
-10
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Year

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 Diagrammatic
Methods of DP: Data Presentation
Year → 1990 1991 1992 1993
60
Crop EC EC EC EC
Barley 14 15 26 19 50
Wheat 10 15 14 25
Maize 2 6 10 3

Production
40
Total 26 36 50 47
30

30

20

20 MAIZE
10
WHAET

10 0 BARLEY
BARLEY 1990 1991 1992 1993
WHAET

0 MAIZE YEAR
1990 1991 1992 1993

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YEAR 09-Apr-25
 Diagrammatic Data
Methods of DP: Presentation
 Pie-chart: it is a circle divided by radial lines into sections or
sectors so that the area of each sector is proportional to the size
of the figure represented.
 Pie-chart construction:
 Calculate the percentage frequency of each component. It is given
𝑓
by 𝑖 × 100
𝑛
𝑓𝑖
 Calculate the degree measures of each sector. It is given by × 3600
𝑛

 Then draw the circle. Monthly budget of family

misclan
eous
Fuel 20%
and food
Light 40%
7%
House
Rent
27%

clothin
g
6%

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 Diagrammatic
Methods of DP: Data Presentation
 Pictogram:

Year Amount
in Kg
1990 3000
1991 3850
1992 3500
1993 5000

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 Thank You!

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