MODERN PHYSICS

CHAPTER 6

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Lecturer: Van ThiThu Trang

vtttrang@[Link]
1
Deparment of Physics and Engineering Physics
University of Science, VNU
Contents
In this chapter, we will learn about the properties and structure of the
atomic nucleus, including the basic properties of the nucleus, nuclear
forces and binding energy; nuclear structure models, radioactive decay
phenomenon.

5.1. Milestones in the development of nuclear physics

5.2. Nuclear structure
5.3. Nuclear binding energy
5.4. Nuclear structure models
5.5. Radioactive decay
5.6. Radioactive decay equilibrium
5.7. Radioactive decay process

12/12/2024 2
Milestones in the development of nuclear physics

❖ 1896: Nuclear Physics is born

o Becquerel discovered radioactivity of
Uranium salts

❖ Rutherford showed that there are 3 types of radiation

o Alpha (He nuclei)
o Beta (electrons, positrons)
o Gamma (high energy photons)

❖ 1911: Rutherford, Masrden and Geiger performed the scattering experiments

o Confirm that the nucleus is a center of mass with positive charge
o The mass of the atom is almost concentrated in the nucleus
o The nuclear force is a new type of force

12/12/2024 3
 5.1. Nuclear structure:

12/12/2024 4
 1. Nuclear properties
➢ All nuclei contain protons and neutrons (except hydrogen)
➢ Atomic number Z = number of protons in the nucleus
➢ Nutron number N = number of neutrons in the nucleus
➢ Mass number A = number of nucleons in the nucleus
o A=Z+N
o Nucleon is the general name for protons or neutrons
o Mass number A is not mass Hydrogen has three isotopes
A
➢ Symbol: Z X
o Isotopes: are nuclei with the same Z but
different N and A
o Natural abundance: is the % of isotopes
found in nature
235
12/12/2024 92 U (0,72%); 238
92 U (99,28%)
2. Charge and mass of nuclear
➢ Proton (p): positive charge, +e;
➢ Electron (e): negative charge, -e
➢ Neutron (n): no charge
➢ e = 1.6.10-19 C
➢ Nuclear charge: +Ze Helium atom model

➢ Atomic mass unit: u

o 1u = 1,660539.10-27kg
o Based on the convention that the mass of a 12C atom is 12u

➢ Nuclear mass is also measured in units of: MeV/c2

o From E = mc2
o 1u = 931,5 MeV/c2
12/12/2024 6
3. Nuclear size
➢ From Rutherford's experiment of Alpha particle kinetic energy
converted into electric
scattering alpha particles on potential energy
nuclei
➢ The closest distance an alpha
particle can get to the nucleus:
4kZe2
d=
m v2

➢ For Au: Z = 79, K = 7 MeV

d = 3,2.10-14m
12/12/2024 → Nuclear radius must be less than d: : r ~ 10-14 m 7
3. Nuclear size
Rutherford concluded that:
✓ Positive charges of atoms are tightly packed together in a
spherical shape, radius < 10-14m
✓ Nuclear radius: o Length is usually expressed
in femtometers,
r = r0 A1/ 3
−15 1fm (fermi) = 10-15m
r0 = 1,2.10 m

✓ Nuclear density: All nuclei have the same density.

Mn A.m p 3 mp
= = = = const
V (4 / 3)r0 A 4 r0
3 3

= 2,3.1017 kg/m3
12/12/2024 8
3. Nuclear size
Example 5.1:
a) Calculate radius of nucleus: 12C, 70Ge và 235U
b) Find nuclear A
. Knowing that the nucleus A has a radius is 3
of
13 X 13 X 3
radius of 9Be

c) Suppose the Earth can be compressed to nuclear density. Calculate the

radius of the Earth. Given the mass of the Earth, MTĐ = 5,69.1024kg
Solution
1/ 3
a) r = r0 A  r (C) = 1,2  121 / 3 = 2,74 (fm); r (Ge) = ....; r ( U) = .....

1/ 3
b) r ( X ) = 3r ( Be)  r0 A
3 = 3 3r0 91 / 3  A = 27 →
27
13𝐴l

c)  = M = M M3 5,69.10 24
R = = = 5,9.10 6  R = ...
V 4 4 4
R 3    2,3.1017
3 3 3
12/12/2024 9
 4. Nuclear stability
❖ There are very strong electrostatic repulsions between protons
→ These forces cause the nuclear structure to break apart
❖ Nuclear stability is due to the presence of another force, short-range:
❖ Nuclear force
✓ This is an attractive force acting on all nucleons in the nucleus
✓ The nuclear attractive force is stronger than the Coulomb repulsive force at
short distances in the nucleus
✓Nuclear force = 0 when
distance between particles
> few fermi
✓Nuclear force is charge
independent: n-n, n-p, p-p are
the same
✓Not affected by electrons
12/12/2024 10
4. Nuclear stability
❖ Most light nuclei are stable when N = Z
❖ Heavy nuclei are stable when N > Z
• From Z = 20 and above
• As the number of protons increases, the
Coulomb force increases, so more N>Z

neutrons are needed to maintain stability

❖ For Z > 83 no nucleus is stable

❖ Most stable nuclei have even A N=Z
❖ Magic nuclei are particularly stable
Z or N = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126

Z = 20 Z = 83
12/12/2024 11
 5.2. Nuclear binding energy

12/12/2024 12
1. Mass defect and binding energy
▪ Mass defect: m = mo - mhn
o mo = Zmp + Nmn

▪ Binding energy
o Binding energy is the energy required to split a nucleus
into nucleons.

E = m.c 2 = Zm m + Nm n − m hn  931,5 (MeV)

The larger A, the larger E Nuclear more stable?

12/12/2024 13
1. Mass defect and binding energy
o Specific binding energy is defined as the average binding energy
per nucleon
E Zm m + Nm n − m hn  931,5
= = (MeV / nucleon)
A A

The larger the , the more stable the nucleus!

Example 5.2: Calculate the binding energy and specific binding energy
238
of 56
26 Fe and 92 U

Knowing: m(56Fe) = 55,934942u, m(235U) = 238,050785u, mp =

1,007825u, mn = 1,008665u
Answer: A) 56Fe: E = 492,26 MeV ;  = 8,79 MeV/nucleon
B) 238U: E = 1801,7 MeV ;  = 7,57 MeV/nucleon
12/12/2024 14
 1. Mass defect and binding energy
Solution
For 56Fe
- Binding energy:
 
E = Zm p + Nm n − m hn 931,5 = 26  1,007825 + 30  1,008665 − 55,934942931,5 = ...

- Specific binding energy:

E
(Fe) = = ...(MeV / nucleon)
56

For 238U: similar

12/12/2024 15
1. Mass defect and binding energy
❖Proton separation energy: Energy to split a proton

A −1
A
Z X→ Z −1 X+p
 (
Sp = m A −1
Z −1 ) ( )
X + m p − m X  931,5 (MeV)
A
Z

❖Neutron separation energy: Energy to split a neutron

A −1
A
Z X→ Z X+n
( ) ( )
S n = m A −Z1 X + m n − m AZ X  931,5 (MeV)
12/12/2024 16
1. Mass defect and binding energy
Example 5.3: Find the energy of separation of protons and neutrons
of the nucleus 125 Te
Knowing: m(125Te) = 124,904435u, m(124Te) = 123,902825u,
m(124Sb) = 123,905936u, mp = 1,007825u, mn = 1,008665u
Answer: Sp = 8,69 MeV; Sn = 6,57 MeV
Solution
125
- Proton separation energy Te + S p =124 Sb +11 p

( ) ( )
S p = m 124 Sb + m p − m 125 Te  931,5 (MeV) = ....(MeV)

125
- Neutron separation energy Te + S n =124 Te + 01 n

( ) ( )
S n = m 124 Te + m n − m 125 Te  931,5 (MeV) = ...(MeV)
12/12/2024 17
 1. Mass defect and binding energy

From the graph, it can be seen that:

The binding energy gradually increases from the light nuclei to the maximum value
of 8.795 MeV of 62Ni, and then decreases slightly to around the value of 7.5 MeV of
the heavy nuclei. 18
12/12/2024
1. Mass defect and binding energy
From the graph, we can see:
➢ The largest binding energy for nuclei with mass numbers around A =
60 (50 < A < 70)

➢ Nuclei with mass numbers A > 70 or A < 50 have less strong binding
than nuclei with average mass numbers

➢ When a heavy nucleus (A > 200) splits into two lighter nuclei, the
process of releasing energy is called nuclear fission

➢ When two light nuclei (A < 20) combine to form a heavier nucleus,
the process of releasing energy is called nuclear fusion
12/12/2024 19
5.3. Nuclear structure models
There are two nuclear structure models presented here:

(1) The liquid-drop model

• Explains the observed binding energies well

(2) The shell model

• Explains the stability of nuclei

• Predicts the existence of stable nuclei

12/12/2024 20
(1) Liquid-drop model:
By Niels Bohr, 1936
✓ Nucleons are considered as
molecules in a liquid drop
✓ Nucleons interact strongly
only with their neighboring
nucleons

✓Nucleons undergo collisions as they gently shake around in the

nucleus
✓The shaking motion is similar to the thermal motion of molecules in
a drop
12/12/2024of liquid 21
 (1) Liquid-drop model:
❖Volume effect:
▪ The nuclear force acting on a nucleon
is only due to neighboring nucleons,
not all nucleons in the nucleus
▪ The binding energy is proportional to
A, so it is proportional to the volume
of the nucleus
▪ This effect contributes to the binding energy of the nucleus

E  E v = a v A (Volume energy)

where av is positive constant 22

12/12/2024
(1) Liquid-drop model:
❖Surface effect:
✓ Surface nucleons have fewer neighboring
nucleons than interior nucleons
✓ Surface nucleons have a reduced binding energy
proportional to the number of surface nucleons
✓ The number of surface nucleons is proportional
to the surface area
✓Due to the surface effect, the binding energy is reduced by:

E  E v − E s = a v A − a s A 2 / 3

where as is positive constant

12/12/2024 (Surface energy) 23
(1) Liquid-drop model:
❖Coulomb effect:
✓ Each proton displaces every other proton
in the nucleus
✓ The Coulomb interaction potential is
proportional to the number of protons, Z
✓ The binding energy decreases
proportionally to Z(Z-1)/A1/3

Z( Z − 1)
E = a v A − a s A 2/3
− ac
A1 / 3
where ac is positive constant
(Coulomb energy)
12/12/2024 24
(1) Liquid-drop model:

❖Symmetrical effect :
✓ If Z = N then the nucleus is
stable
✓ If Z  N then the nucleus tends to
decrease E

Z( Z − 1) ( A − 2 Z) 2
E = a v A − a s A 2 / 3 − a c 1/ 3
− aa
A A
Where aa is positive constant

12/12/2024 (Asymmetric energy) 25

(1) Liquid-drop model:
❖Pairing effect:
✓ Binding energy tends to increase or
decrease due to the pairing of
protons or neutrons.
✓ Even-even nuclear are the most stable
and have higher E; conversely odd-
odd nuclear have lower E

+ A −3 / 4 (Z even, N even)

E p = a p 0 (Z even, N odd or Z odd N even)
 −3 / 4
 − A (Z odd, N odd)

12/12/2024 26
(1) Liquid-drop model:
The binding energy of the nucleus is now
Weisacker semi-empirical formula
Z( Z − 1) ( A − 2 Z) 2
E = a v A − a s A 2 / 3 − a c 1/ 3
− aa + Ep
A A

+ A −3 / 4 (Z even, N even)

E p = a p 0 (Z even, N odd hoặc Z odd N even)
 −3 / 4
 − A (Z odd, N odd)

• av = 15,75 MeV;
• as = 17,8 MeV ;
• ac = 0,71 MeV;
• aa = 23,7 MeV;
12/12/2024
• ap = 33,6 MeV 27
(1) Liquid-drop model:
64
Example 5.5: The atomic mass of 30 Zn is 63.929u. Compare its
binding energy with that calculated from the Weisacker semi-
empirical formula
Answer: 559,2 MeV và 564,3 MeV
Solution:
- Binding energy of 64Zn
 
E = 30  m p + 34  m n − m  931,5 = ......(MeV)

- Binding energy of 64Zn tính from the Weisacker semi-empirical

formula :
30(30 − 1) (64 − 2  30) 2
E tn = 15,75  64 − 17,8  64 2/3
− 0,71 − 23,7 + 33,6  64 − 3 / 4 = ...
641 / 3 64
12/12/2024 28
 1) Liquid-drop model:
Example 5.6: Isochronous nuclei are nuclei with the same mass
number A. Find the formula for the number Z of the most stable
isochronous nucleus with a given A. Apply to find isochronous nuclei
with the nucleus with A = 25.
Answer: A1/ 3 + 0,0075
Z= Z = 12
2A − 2 / 3 + 0,015

Solution
dE
A = const The nucleus is most stable when: =0
dZ
ac 4a a
− (2Z − 1) + (A − 2Z) = 0
A1 / 3 A

A1/ 3 + 0,0075
Z=
2A − 2 / 3 + 0,015
where A = 25 Z = 11,77  12 29
12/12/2024
(1) Summary of Liquid-Drop model:
Explain:
• Explain the experimental curve of binding energy
• Calculate the mass of the nucleus
• Calculate the homogeneous nucleus
Limitations
• Only the first 3 parameters in the Weisacker formula are correct for the
liquid drop hypothesis
• Does not explain ground and excited state properties: spin and parity
• Does not explain the stability of nuclei with magic numbers: 2, 8, 20,
50, 82, 126

12/12/2024 30
(2) Shell model:
By two scientists:
✓ Maria Goeppert-Mayer (1906 – 1972): German-born American
physicist
✓ Hans Jensen (1907-1973): German physicist
✓ Shared Nobel Prize in 1963

12/12/2024 31
(2) Shell model:
➢ Shell model or also called independent particle model
➢ According to this model, each nucleon exists in only one shell, similar to
electrons in atomic shells
➢ Nucleons exist in quantized energy states

➢ Few collisions between nucleons

➢ Each state can contain only 2 protons or 2 neutrons
• They must have opposite spins
• They have spin ½
➢ Different sets of proton and neutron states

12/12/2024 32
 (2) Shell model:
✓ The energy level of protons is higher than that of neutrons due to
Coulomb interactions
✓ The spin-orbit interaction of nucleons is due to the nuclear force
The shell model explains some experiments.
❖ Nuclei with even Z and even N are more stable
❖ Any state is filled when it contains 2 protons or 2 neutrons
❖ An extra proton or neutron can be added resulting in an increase in
energy
❖ This increase in energy makes the nucleus unstable
❖ Explain the stability of magic nuclei

12/12/2024 33
(2) Shell model:

maximum
number of
nucleons
contained per
state: 2j + 1

12/12/2024 34
(2) Shell model
Limitations of the shell model

✓ Only correct for spherical or near spherical (magic number

matching) kernels
✓ Cannot explain far from magic or far from spherical symmetric
kernels

FERMI GAS MODEL EXTENSION MODEL

12/12/2024 35
5.4. Radioactive decay
➢ The Curies: Marie Curie
(1867 – 1934) and Pierre
Curie (1859-1906)
• Polish scientists
• Jointly received the Nobel
Prize in 1903 for research
on radioactivity Mr. and Mrs. Curie in the laboratory

▪ Nobel Prize in Physics

▪ Co-recipient with Becquerel
➢ Marie Curie received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 for the discovery
of Radium and Polonium.
12/12/2024 36
5.4. Radioactive decay
➢ Radioactivity decay is the process of spontaneous nuclear emission of radiation
• Discovered by Becquerel in 1896
• Marie and Pierre Curie discovered the two elements polonium and radium
• Many experiments showed that radioactivity is the decay process of unstable
nuclei (Rutherford).
➢ Types of radiation: there are 3 main
types of radiation
• Alpha particles (4He nucleus): penetrate
a thin piece of paper
• Beta particles: 𝛽- (electron: e-) and
+
𝛽 (positron: e+): penetrate 1 mm of
aluminum foil

• Gamma rays (𝛾): penetrate a few centimeters of lead 37

5.4. Radioactive decay
❖Conserved Quantities in Radioactive Decay:
• Conservation of Energy
• Conservation of Charge
• Conservation of Mass
• Conservation of Momentum
• Conservation of Angular Momentum and Spin

❑Decay constant, : describes the probability that a nucleus will

decay in a unit of time, unit : s-1
Example: 226Ra has  = 10-13 (s-1). That means in 1013 Ra nuclei, 1
will decay in 1s.
12/12/2024 38
5.4. Radioactive decay
❑Decay rate:
dN N: number of nuclei that have not
= −N
dt decayed
❑Number of nuclei that have not decayed (remaning):
N = N 0 e − t N0: Number of nuclei at time t=0 (initial)

m0 N A
We have: N 0 =
M
Therefore, the mass of radioactive substance remaining: m = m 0 e − t

Number of nuclei that have decayed: N = N 0 (1 − e − t )

Or, the mass of radioactive material that has decayed: m = m 0 (1 − e − t )
12/12/2024 39
 5.4. Radioactive decay
❑Radioactivity:
dN
A= =  N 0 e − t = A 0 e − t
dt

where A 0 = N 0 Initial radioactivity

If there are n different radioactive nuclei in the sample then:
n
A =  Ai
i =1

❑Unit of radioactivity :
o Curi (Ci)
o 1 Ci = 3,7.1010 decay/s
o Becquerel (Bq)
o 1 Bq = 1 decay/s 40
12/12/2024
 5.4. Radioactive decay
❖Half-life: The half-life of a
radioactive substance is the time it
takes for the initial number of
radioactive nuclei to decrease by half.

ln 2 0,693
T= =
 
Example 5.7: Calculate the radioactivity of 1g of
226Ra, knowing that T
1/2 = 1622 years.

Answer: A  1 Ci
Example 5.8: Find the time required for the initial 5mg of 22Na
(T1/2 = 2.6 years) to have 1mg left.
Answer: t = 6,04 năm
5.4. Radioactive decay
Example 5.9: A radioactive sample, after time t1, 20% of the nuclei
have not decayed. At time t2 = t1 +100s, the number of nuclei that
have not decayed is only 5%. Calculate the half-life of that
radioactive isotope..
Answer: T1/2 = 34,7s
Solution Ln 2
N1 − t1
- At t1: = 20% = e T
N0

- At t2 = t1 + 100
Ln 2 Ln 2 Ln 2 Ln 2
N2 − t2 − ( t 1 +100) − t1 − 100
= 5% = e T =e T =e T e T
N0

T = ....(s)
12/12/2024 42
5.4. Radioactive decay
Example 5.10: Radioactive nucleus X transforms into stable nucleus
Y. Initially, there is a pure sample of substance X. At a certain time t,
the ratio of the number of Y nuclei to the number of X nuclei is 3:1,
then after 110 minutes, that ratio is 127:1. Calculate the half-life of X.
Answer: T = 22 phút
Solution:  −
Ln 2 
Ln 2  t
−t N Y = N X = N 0 1 − e T 
- At t: N X = N 0e T  
 
Ln 2 Ln 2
NY t t
=3=e T −1  e T =4
NX

- At t + 110:
Ln 2 Ln 2 Ln 2
NY ( t +110) t 110
= 127 = e T −1  e T e T = 128
NX

12/12/2024 T = .... (mins) 43

5.5. Radioactive decay equilibrium
p
Consider the d
Parent daughter
decay chain
Radioactive decay
dN p equilibrium is achieved
❑ Rate of decay of the parent nucleus : = − p N p
dt when the ratios
between the activities
❑ The rate of decay of the daughter dN d of successive daughter
= p Np − d Nd
nucleus : dt nuclei in the decay
chain remain constant.
Number of parent and daughter nuclei present in the sample at time t
−pt
N p ( t ) = N p,0e

N d ( t ) = N p,0
p
d − p
(e − p t
)
− e − d t + N d , 0 e − d t

Radioactivity of parent and daughter nuclei at time t

−pt
A p ( t ) = A p,0e

12/12/2024
A d ( t ) = A p,0
d
d − p
(
− t
)
e p − e − d t + A d , 0 e − d t 44
5.5. Radioactive decay equilibrium
❑Time for the number of daughter nuclei to reach a maximum:
Suppose at t = 0, N0d = 0

ln ( p /  d )
t max =
p − d

Case 1: If the daughter is stable then

−pt
N p ( t ) = N p,0e

12/12/2024
(
N d ( t ) = N p,0 1 − e
− p t
) 45
 5.5. Radioactive decay equilibrium
➢ Case 2: If the parent lives longer than the daughter, T1/2(p) > T1/2(d):
Suppose at t = 0, Nd,0 = 0

N d (t) p
=
N p (t)  d −  p

Instantaneous equilibrium in decay.

46
12/12/2024
5.5. Radioactive decay equilibrium
➢ Case 3: If the parent nucleus lives much longer than the daughter nucleus
➢ T1/2(p) >> T1/2(d): x

N p (t) d
=  N p ( t ) p = N d ( t ) d  A p ( t ) = A d ( t )
N d (t)  p

Secular Equilibrium

12/12/2024
Secular Equilibrium in Decay 47
5.5. Radioactive decay equilibrium
Example 5.12: 218Po (T1/2 = 3.1 min) decays into 214Pb (T1/2 = 26.8 min) and 214Pb
decays into 214Bi. Suppose at t = 0, 218Po has 1000 nuclei.
Calculate the number of 214Pb nuclei at time t = 60 min.
Calculate the time when the number of 214Pb nuclei reaches a maximum. Find the
maximum number of 214Pb nuclei.

Answer: a) NPb = 240; b) tmax = 11 mins

Solution:
a) Suppose at t = 0, NPb,0 = 0 N Pb ( t ) = N Po , 0
 Po
 Pb −  Po
(
e − Po t − e − Pb t )
ln ( p /  d )
b) t max =
p − d

N Pb ( t max ) = N Po , 0
 Po
 Pb −  Po
(
e − Po t max − e − Pb t max )
12/12/2024 48
5.6. Types of radioactivity
Alpha decay

❑ When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay it loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

o Conservation of mass number A

o Conservation of atomic number Z
o Conservation of energy and momentum
o When a nucleus spontaneously transforms into another nucleus, it is
called spontaneous decay
12/12/2024 49
5.6. Types of radioactivity
❑The decay energy of the system is:
Q = M X − M Y − M  c 2
Q = M X − M Y − M  .931,5 (MeV)

The decay energy appears as the kinetic

energy of the daughter nucleus and of the
alpha particle..

❖ The kinetic energy of the daughter nucleus and alpha particle is:
MY
K = Q
MY + M
M
KY = Q
MY + M

12/12/2024
Conditions for alpha decay? 50
5.6. Types of radioactivity
236
Example 5.13: Prove that the nucleus is 94 Pu unstable and is a 𝛼 decay
nucleus
Knowing: M(Pu) = 236.046071u; M(U) = 232.037168u, M(He) = 4.002603u

Answer: Because Q = 5,9 MeV so 236Pu unstable

Solution:

Decay energy
Q = M (Pu ) − M ( U) − M () 931,5 = 5,9 (MeV)  0

Because Q > 0, 236Pu is unstable and undergoes alpha decay.

12/12/2024 51
 5.6. Types of radioactivity
Example 5.14: Find the kinetic energy of the α particle emitted during
the nuclear decay process 226Ra → 222Rn + 
Knowing: M(Ra) = 226,025410u, M(Rn) = 222,017578u,
M = 4,002603u
Answer: K = 4,78 MeV
Solution:
According to the law of conservation of momentum
 
p Rn + p  = 0  p Rn = p 
M ( )
 M (Rn )K Rn = M ()K   K Rn = K
M (Rn )

M (Rn )
On the other hand Q = K Rn + K  K = Q
M (Rn ) + M 
12/12/2024 52
5.6. Types of radioactivity
84 Po is unstable and emits an α
Example 5.15: The isotope polonium 210
with a kinetic energy of 5.3 MeV. Given: M(Po) = 209.9829u, Mα =
4.0026u
Identify the daughter nucleus and find its atomic mass.
Consider atomic mass as mass number
Answer: MY = 205,9747u
Solution:
210
84 Po→ AZY + 42 He

 M + M   206 + 4 
Q =  Y K  =  K  = M (Po) − M Y − M   931,5
 MY   206 
12/12/2024 53
 5.6. Types of radioactivity
Beta decay
It is the process of the nucleus emitting beta
rays, the daughter nucleus has the same A
number as the parent nucleus but the Z
number changes by 1 unit.

❖ There are two types of beta decay:

−
❑- decay (electron: e-)
A
Z X → A
Z+1Y + e + n → p + e− + 
Example: neutrino: 

❑+decay(positron: e+ )
A
Z X → A
Z−1Y + e +
+ p → n + e+ + 

Example:
54
12/12/2024
 5.6. Types of radioactivity
❖ Electron capture: is the process by which the nucleus captures one of the electron
orbits and emits a neutrino.
Example: 7 Be+ 0 e→7 Li + 
Z X + −1 e→ Z−1Y + 
A 0 A
4 −1 3

❖ Energy released during the process:

o - decay : Q = M nt (X) − M nt (Y)c 2 = K e − + E  + K Y  K e − + E 

o +decay: Q = M nt (X) − M nt (Y) − 2m e c 2 = K e + + E  + K Y  K e + + E 

o Electron capture -: Q = M nt (X) − M nt (Y)c 2 = E  + K Y − K e  E 

Note: Mnt is the atomic mass of the element.

M ( X) = M ( X) + Zme
A
nt Z
A
hn Z
12/12/2024 55
 5.6. Types of radioactivity
Example 5.16: 40K is an unusual nucleus, it decays -, + and electron
capture. Find the value of Q in each of these decay processes.
Knowing : Mnt(K) = 39,963998u, Mnt(Ca) = 39,962591u,
Mnt(Ar) = 39,962383u và me = 0,00055u

Answer: Q(𝛽-) = 1,311 MeV, Q(𝛽+) = 0,482 MeV, Q(EC) = 1,504 MeV

Solution
a) - decay 40
19 K → Ca +  + 
40
20
−

Q(β− ) = Mnt (K) − Mnt (Ca) × 931,5 = 1,31 (MeV)

+
b) + decay 40
19 K → 40
18 Ar +  +

Q(β+ ) = Mnt (K) − Mnt (Ar) – 2me × 931,5 =

12/12/2024 0,48 (MeV) 56
5.6. Types of radioactivity
Example 5.17: Calculate the energy and momentum of the neutrino
produced when a stationary 7Be nucleus captures an electron.

Solution
7
4 Be + e − →73 Li + 

 
Q = M ( 7 Be) − M ( 7 Li)  931,5 = E  + K Li − K e  E 

E
E  = pc  p =
c

12/12/2024 57
5.6. Types of radioactivity
Gamma decay
When a nucleus undergoes radioactive decay, it remains in an excited state.
It then decays to a lower state by emitting a high-energy photon (gamma
ray).

A *
Z X → ZX + 
A

Energy of emitted gamma rays:

E = Ei - Ef = [M(X*) - M(X)]x931,5 MeV

12/12/2024 58
Summary

In this chapter we have learned:

➢ Historical milestones in the development of nuclear physics
➢ Nuclear structure
➢ Nuclear binding energy
➢ Nuclear structure models
➢ Radioactive decay
➢ Radioactive decay equilibrium
➢ Radioactive decay process

12/12/2024 59
12/12/2024 60
Sự khác nhau cấu hình electron và hạt nhân

12/12/2024 61