PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category – B1.1

MODULE 6: MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

Sub Module 6.1 - AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS METALS
Sub Module 6.2 - AIRCRAFT MATERIALS – NON-FERROUS METALS
Sub Module 6.3 - AIRCRAFT MATERIALS – COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC
Sub Module 6.4 - CORROSION
Sub Module 6.5 - FASTENERS
Sub Module 6.6 – PIPES AND UNIONS
Sub Module 6.7 - SPRINGS
Sub Module 6.8 - BEARINGS
Sub Module 6.9 - TRANSMISSION
Sub Module 6.10 – CONTROL CABLES
Sub Module 6.11 – ELECTRICAL CABLES AND CONNECTORS

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Category – B1.1

List of Amendments

Issue Revision Revision

Sub-Module Reason of Change
no. no. Date

Issue 01 Rev 00 MARCH 2014 NEW BOOK ----

Issue 02 Rev 00 SEPTEMBER 2015 ALL SUB-MODULES Course material up-gradation

Issue 03 Rev 00 NOVEMBER 2017 ALL SUB-MODULES Due to change in PCAA Legislation

Issue 04 Rev 00 JULY 2022 ALL SUB-MODULES Correction of mistakes (formatting/grammatical)

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MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.1

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS METALS

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Contents

(a) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPERTIES AND

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON ALLOY STEELS USED IN
AIRCRAFT ------------------------------------------------------------------1
HEAT-TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF ALLOY
STEELS ----------------------------------------------------------------------5
(b) TESTING OF FERROUS MATERIALS FOR
HARDNESS, TENSILE STRENGTH, FATIGUE STRENGT
AND INPACT RESISTANCE----------------------------------------- 12

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Apart from the basic requirement of more and more strength

(a) CHARACTERISTICS,PROPERTIES from metals, other, less obvious characteristics can also be
ANDIDENTIFICATION OF COMMON ALLOY STEELS USED added or improved upon, when such features as
IN AIRCRAFT permanentmagnetism, corrosion resistance and high-strength
whilst operating at elevated temperatures, are desired.
MATERIALS INTRODUCTION Composites make up a large part of the construction of modern
aircraft. In the early days, composites and plastics were limited
The variety of materials and hardware used in aircraft to non-structural, internal cosmetic panels, small fairings and
engineering is vast, and this module will only deal with a broad other minor parts. Today there are many large aircraft, which
group of materials, their main characteristics, identification and have major structural and load-carrying parts manufactured
uses. These materials can be classed into the three main from composites. Composite materials, in addition to
categories of Ferrous Metals, Non-Ferrous Metals and Non- maintaining or increasing component strength, contribute to the
Metallic materials. important factor of weight saving. There are also many modern
light aircraft that are almost totally manufactured from
Additionally, combinations (Composites) of many of these composites and contain little metal at all.
materials will be found, in use, in the aerospace industry.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
The usefulness of any materials may be enhanced as a result of
the addition of other materials that alter the basic characteristics The various properties of metals can be assessed, by accurate
to suit the specific requirements of the aircraft designer. laboratory tests on sample pieces. The terminology, associated
with these properties, is outlined in the following paragraphs.
A metal’s usefulness is governed principally by the physical
properties it possesses. Those properties depend upon the Brittleness
composition of the metal, which can be changed considerably
The tendencyof the metal to shatterwithout significant
by alloying it with other metals and byheat-treatment. The
deformation. It will shatter under a sudden, low stress but will
strength and hardness of steel, for example, can be intensified
resist a slowly-applied, higher load.
by increasing its carbon content, adding alloying metals such as
Nickel and Tungsten, or by heating the steel until red-hot and
then cooling it rapidly.

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Malleability
Conductivity
The ease, with which the metal can be forged, rolled and
The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity) and extruded without fracture. Stresses, induced into the metal, by
electricity. Silver and copper are excellent thermal and electrical the forming processes, have to be subsequently relieved by
conductors. heat-treatment. Hot metal is more malleable than cool metal.

Ductility Plasticity

The property of being able to be permanently extended by a The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has
tensile force. It is measured during a tensile, or stretching, test, been removed. Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity.
when the amount of stretch (elongation), for a given applied
load, provides an indication of a metal’s ductility. Tenacity

Elasticity The property of a metal to resist deformation when subjected to

a tensile load. It is proportional to the maximum stress required
The ability of a metal to return to its original shape and size after to cause the metal to fracture.
the removal of any distorting force. The ‘Elastic Limit’ is the
greatest force that can be applied without permanent distortion. Toughness

Hardness The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metal’s

toughness is tested by impact with a swinging pendulum of
The ability of a metal to resist wear and penetration. It is known mass.
measured by pressing a hardened steel ball or diamond point
into the metal’s surface. The diameter or depth of the resulting Strength
indentation provides an indication of the metal’s hardness.
There are several different measurements of the strength of a
metal, as may be seen from the following sub-paragraphs.

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Tensile Strength IRON

The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal. Iron is one of the most common elements in the Earth's crust. It
comprises approximately 5% compared with aluminum at 8%.
Yield Strength
Iron is never found naturally in its metallic state, but as iron ores
which only contain in the range of 25% to 60% iron.
The ability of a material to resist deformation. After the metal
yields, it is said to have passed its yield point. Iron has a great affinity for oxygen.

Shear Strength Iron is a chemical element that is fairly soft, malleable and
ductile in its pure form. It is silvery-white in color and quite
The ability to resist side-cutting loads - such as those, imposed heavy, having a density of 7870 kgm-3. Unfortunately, it
on the shank of a rivet, when the materials it is joining attempt combines well with oxygen, producing iron oxide, which is more
to move apart in a direction normal to the longitudinal axis of the commonly known as rust. Iron usually has other materials
rivet. added to improve its properties.

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS The first smelt from the raw ore is poured into troughs (which
are said to resemble piglets suckling on a sow) and the iron is
Any alloy containing iron as its main constituent is called a referred to as ‘pig iron’. The pig iron is then re-melted to give
ferrous metal. The most common ferrous metal, in aircraft cast irons.
construction is steel, which is an alloy of iron with a controlled CAST IRON
amount of carbon added.
Cast Iron normally contains over two percent carbon and some
silicon. It has few aircraft applications, excepting where its
hardness and porosity are required, such as in piston rings and
valve guides.

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STEEL
CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
Steel is essentially an alloy of iron and less than 2.5% carbon,
usually with a few impurities. (In practice most, steels do not When carbon is alloyed with iron, the hardness and strength of
have more than 1.5% carbon). the metal increases. The effect of varying amounts of carbon is
truly dramatic. If carbon is progressively added to pure iron the
Steel is produced by refining pig iron (removing excess carbon following occurs:
and other unwanted impurities). The excess carbon is extracted
by blowing oxygen or air through the molten metal, and/or  Initially, the strength and hardness increases - (Steel
adding iron oxide. Slag, containing other impurities, is skimmed containing 0.4% carbon has twice the strength of pure
off. The most common furnace used for this process was the iron.
‘Bessemer Converter’, developed in 1856. It reduced the cost of
 When 1% of carbon is added, the strength and hardness
steel to one fifth of its original cost. Bessemer converters
show a further increase but ductility is reduced.
wereloaded with 20 - 50 tons of pig iron and air was blown from  If 1% to 1.5% of carbon is added, the hardness continues
the bottom for approximately 15 minutes. to increase, but there is no further increase in strength
and there is even less ductility. Steels containing such
The high-quality steels, used in aircraft construction, are usually high amounts of carbon are seldom used for anything
produced in electric furnaces, which allow better control, than except cutting implements e.g. razor blades and scissors.
do gas furnaces, when alloying. The carbon electrodes produce
an intense arc and the steel, when molten, can have impurities The (American) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has
removed and measured amounts of alloying materials added. classified steel alloys with a four-digit numerical index system.
Asmall extract from the SAE classification system is shown in
Table 01, where it can be seen, for example, that one common
steel alloy is identified by the designation SAE 1030. The first
digit identifies it as a Carbon-Steel, while the second digit shows
that it is a Plain Carbon-Steel. The last two digits denote the
percentage of carbon in the steel (0.30%).

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the crystalline structure of the steel in between the two critical

points.
1xxx Carbon Steels
10xx Plain Carbon Steels If carbon steel is heated to just above its Upper Critical Point the
2xxx Nickel Steels structure is called ‘Austenitic’. This structure is a solid solution
3xxx Nickel Chromium Steels of carbon in iron (i.e. all the carbon is uniformly distributed
40xx Molybdenum Steels throughout the iron). If the steel contains above 0.3% carbon,
41xx Chromium Molybdenum Steels and it is rapidly cooled (i.e. quenched) from above the Upper
5xxx Chromium Steels Critical Point it becomes hardened.
6xxx Chromium Vanadium
The more carbon present, the harder the steel will be after
Table 01 quenching. This rapid cooling causes a change in the
metallurgical structure and is called ‘Martensite’. Martensite is
HEAT-TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF ALLOY STEELS extremely hard but is not suitable for most engineering
purposes due to it being very brittle.

If a ‘straight’ carbon steel is progressively heated from cold, a

For most applications it is necessary to carry out a further heat-
steady rise in temperature occurs. However, at approximately
treatment to reduce the brittleness of the steel, and this is called
700˚C, there is a reduction in the rate of temperature rise (a
‘tempering’. To temper hardened carbon steel, it is necessary to
‘hesitation’), even though the heating is continued. This
heat it to a suitable temperature below its Lower Critical Point
hesitation starts at 700˚C and finishes at up to 200˚C higher
followed by cooling (usually quenching).
(depending on the percentage of carbon present) and,
eventually, the temperature rises speeds up and the rate of rise
The effect of this heat-treatment is to slightly reduce the
is similar to that which occurred before the hesitation.
hardness whilst at the same time greatly increasing the
toughness. The actual tempering temperature used depends on
The start of the hesitation is known as the ‘lower critical point’
the requirements of strength, hardness and toughness.
and the end is called the ‘upper critical point’, and the
phenomenon of the temperature response is due to a change in
The higher the tempering temperature, the lower will be strength
and hardness, but the toughness will be greater. The maximum
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tensile strength of hardened carbon steel is achievable when

0.83% carbon is present. If an even greater amount of carbon is
present, the hardness continues to increase but strength will
decrease. ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS - HARDENING PROCESS

The effective hardening of carbon steels depends not only on

the amount of carbon present but also on very rapid cooling
from high temperature. The cooling rate mainly depends on the
cooling medium, the size of tank, and the mass of the object to
be cooled.

Carbon steels require an extremely rapid cooling phase, so

brine or water is normally used, whereas oil or air-cooling is
used on certain alloy steels. The rapid cooling rates, involved in
the hardening of carbon steel, cause enormous thermal
stresses in the component and distortion is commonplace.
Cracking may also occur in some cases.

Fig. 01 Temperature/Time Graph for Steel Heat-Treatments

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TEMPERING ANNEALING

As already stated, tempering is carried out to improve the The annealing of steel may be for one of the following purposes:
toughness of hardened steel whilst suffering only a modest drop
in strength.  To soften the steel for forming or to improve machinability.
 To relieve internal stresses induced by a previous process
Table 02, however shows that, when carbon steel is polished to (rolling, forging, or unequal cooling).
a bright, clean surface, and then slowly heated, a range of  To remove coarseness of grain.
colors appears, due to a thin oxide film forming during the
heating process. These colors are related fairly closely to Annealing is normally achieved on carbon steel by heating to
temperatures. The higher temperature achieved during the just above the Upper Critical Limit followed by very slow cooling.
tempering process, the softer (and tougher) the material will In practice the slow cooling rates are achieved by cooling in the
become and vice-versa. furnace or by immersing in a poor thermal conductor such as
ashes. The end result is a stress-free, fully softened material,
COLOUR TEMPERATURE
suitable for major forming operations such as deep pressing,
Straw 230/240°C drawing, extruding etc.

Purple 270°C NORMALISING

Blue 300°C This process is similar to annealing, except that the cooling is
done in still air. The end result, again, is a stress-free, soft
Dark red 500°C material with uniform fine grain structure. Normalizing is
commonly used on actual components after heavy machining
operations (or welding), prior to the final hardening and
Table 02
tempering processes.

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SURFACE HARDENING OF STEELS  Pack Carburising. The object is sealed in a container

containing a carbon- rich (charcoal based) powder and
It is sometimes desirable to retain a relatively tough (relatively heated in a furnace. The metal is next quenched in oil
less brittle) inner core, coupled with a very hard surface. This (not water-which would cause the hard case to peel off).
would, typically, be required of a component, which is subjected The depth of the hard skin depends on the length of time
to high dynamic stresses, yet also has to resist surface wear that the metal is heated.
and would include:
 Gas Carburising. The object is placed in a basket in a
 gears (where the teeth need to be hardened) furnace, through which is passed a suitable, carbon-rich
gas (e.g. methane, propane).
 camshafts and crankshafts (bearing surfaces)
 Liquid Carburising. The object is heated to a suitable
 Cylinder barrels of piston engines (or landing gear legs). temperature and then immersed in a hot, salt bath at
9000C. The salts are usually based on sodium cyanide
CARBURISING and the process is often called ‘cyanide hardening’. The
metal is quenched in water (not oil-which would react
This is the most common method of case-hardening low-carbon unfavourably with the salts).
steels and, basically, consists of heating the metal to
approximately 9000C, while the component is in contact with a NITRIDING
carbon-rich medium followed by a suitable heat-treatment.
This process involves the absorption of nitrogen (instead of
Carbon is generally absorbed into the surface of the heated carbon) into the surface of the steel.
steel and the rate of penetration is approximately 1mm in 5-6
hours. Low-carbon steels are particularly suited to this type of A special furnace is used and ammonia gas is circulated
treatment, as it increases the carbon content and hence the through it. The furnace temperature of 500 0C converts the
hardness locally. Various methods of carburizing are used, the ammonia into a nitrogen-rich gas and forms hard iron nitride in
most common ones being: the surface of the steel.

The case depth, achievable by this process, is less than that by

pack carburizing, but the major advantage of nitriding is that no

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hardening or tempering is necessary to achieve the final becomes to heat-treatment and, while its strength and hardness
hardness, and no finish machining is required after nitriding. increases, its malleability and weld ability decreases.
This, relatively low-temperature process results in negligible
Low-Carbon Steel
distortion and is much cleaner than the carbon methods.
Low-carbon steels contain between 0.1% and 0.3 % carbon and
Nitride surfaces must be protected against pitting corrosion, are classified as SAE 1010 to SAE 1030 steels. They are used
usually (as with engine gears and shafts) by keeping the in such items as locking wire and cable bushings and, in sheet
surface oiled. form, they are used for low-load applications. Low-carbon steels
weld easily but do not accept heat-treatment very well.
Note: If certain surfaces of a component are not to be case-
hardened, it is necessary to protect them during the carburizing
or nitriding processes, to locally prevent the hardening agent Medium-Carbon Steel
from being absorbed. Copper plating, nickel plating or a
proprietary paste are generally used in such areas. These steels contain between 0.3% and 0.7 % carbon. The
increased carbon assists in heat-treatment while still
retainingreasonable ductility. Medium-carbon steels are used for
ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL machining or forging and where surface hardness is required.

As discussed earlier, iron has few practical uses in its pure High-Carbon Steel
state. Adding small amounts of other materials to molten iron,
however, dramatically changes its properties. Some of the more The carbon content of these steels, ranges between 0.5% and
common alloying elements include carbon, sulphur, silicon, 1.5 % and this makes them very hard. High-carbon steels are
phosphorus, nickel and chromium (also referred to as chrome). primarily used in springs, files and in most cutting tools.

Carbon Sulphur

Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. Sulphur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and so it
When mixed with iron, compounds of iron carbide form and it is must be removed during the refining process. If it proves
the carbon in steel that allows it to be heat-treated to obtain impossible to remove all of the sulphur, then manganese, which
varying degrees of hardness, strength and toughness. The is harmless to the steel can be added to the metal (to form
greater the carbon content, then the more receptive the steel manganese sulphide), The manganese also improves forging
by making the steel less brittle during the forming processes.

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Silicon
NICKEL ALLOYS
When silicon is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener and,
used in small quantities, it also improves ductility. When the amount of nickel present is predominant, then the
material becomes known as a Nickel Alloy, many of which are
Phosphorus
widely used in industry.
Phosphorus raises the yield strength of steel and improves a
One of the most important nickel-based alloy groups is the
low-carbon steel’s resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The
steel tends to be brittle when cold, so no more than 0.05 % nimonics. These are a family of alloys, containing 50% - 80%
phosphorus is normally used in steel production. nickel, with the balance being mainly chromium (chrome) with
some titanium and aluminum.
Nickel
Nimonic alloys are used in hot air control ducting, for gas
turbine engine combustion chambers and turbine blades
Nickel is used extensively for alloying with steel as follows: because of their extremely low coefficient of expansion at
elevated temperatures.
In the range of 1% - 5% there is a marked improvement in
strength (and hardness) without lowering ductility. This high Other ranges of nickel-based alloys come under the trade
strength, tough steel is widely used for highly stressed parts.
names of Inconel and Hastelloy, which are also temperature-
At about 25% nickel, the steel becomes highly corrosion- resistant and corrosion-resistant.
resistant, heat-resistant and non-magnetic.
At 36% nickel, a unique steel (known under its trade name as Another common nickel alloy is Monel. This metal (68% nickel
‘Invar’) is created. This has the lowest coefficient of expansion and 29% copper, with iron, manganese, silicon and carbon) has
of any metal (1/20th that of steel) and is excellent for master excellent resistance to both corrosion and chemical attack, is
gauges and instruments. tough, ductile, reasonably strong (equivalent to mild steel) and
Because of the effect of such amounts of nickel on the is non-magnetic. It is used in many marine applications, for
expansion properties of steel, a range of nickel-steels can be surgical apparatus and for aircraft rivets. Normally Monel does
purpose-made, to trim the coefficient of expansion to specific not respond to heat treatment but, when alloyed with a small
needs. These alloys are used in thermostats, spark plug amount of aluminum (2% - 4%), it can be hardened to double its
electrodes etc. strength. This version is known as ‘K-Monel’.

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Chromium (Chrome) High nickel-chrome alloys (65%-85% nickel, 15%-20% chrome)

have a high electrical resistance and are often used as heater
When small amounts of chrome are added to steel, the strength elements.
and hardness increases, but there is some loss of ductility. Low
chrome (1.5%-3%) steels are used for high tensile fasteners
and are suitable for nitriding. Chromium can also be electrolytic
ally deposited onto metals, to provide hard-wearing surfaces,
such as those required in cylinder bores.

Steels containing 12% or more chrome, are very corrosion-

resistant. Stainless (SS) Steels or Corrosion Resistant Steels
(CRS) come into this category. One particular stainless steel is
designated ‘18/8 Stainless’, which contains approximately 18%
chrome and 8% nickel. These stainless steels are used
extensively in engine parts, particularly for hot applications and
for exhaust areas where their corrosion resistance is vital.

Nickel-Chrome Steel and its Alloys

This term is used when the amount of nickel present is greater

than the chrome content.

A wide range of such steels exists, but the low nickel-chrome

alloys are suitable for through-hardening or case-hardening.
The nickel content is around 3%-5% and the chrome ranges
from 0.5%-1.5%. Crankshafts and connecting rods are often
made from this group.

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(b) TESTING OF FERROUS MATERIALS FOR

HARDNESS, TENSILE STRENGTH, FATIGUESTRENGTH
AND IMPACT RESISTANCE

The mechanical properties of a material must be known before

that material can be incorporated into any design. Mechanical
property data is compiled from extensive material testing.
Various tests are used to determine the actual values of
material properties under different loading applications and test
conditions.

HARDNESS TESTING

The hardness of materials is found by measuring their

resistance to indentation. Various methods are used, but the
most common are those of the Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell
Hardness Tests.

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

In the Brinell Hardness Test, a hardened steel ball is forced into

the surface of a prepared specimen, using a calibrated force, for
a specified time. The diameter of the resulting indentation is
then measured accurately, using a graduated microscope and,
thus, the area of the indentation is calculated. The hardness
number is determined by reference to a Brinell Hardness
Number (BHN) chart.

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Fig. 02 (a) Brinell hardness tester Fig. 02(b) Brinell hardness tester

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VICKERS TEST

The Vickers Hardness Test is similar to the Brinell test but uses
a square-based diamond pyramid indenter. The diagonals, of
the indentation, are accurately measured, by a special
microscope, and the Hardness Value (HV) is again determined
by reference to a chart.

Fig. 03 Vickers hardness tester

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ROCKWELLTEST

The Rockwell Hardness Test also uses indentation as its basis,

but two types of indenter are used. A conical diamond indenter
is employed for hard materials and a steel ball is used for soft
materials. The hardness number, when using the steel ball, is
referred to as Rockwell B (e.g. RB 80) and the diamond
hardness number is known as Rockwell C (e.g. RC 65).

Fig. 04 (a) Rockwell hardness tester

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Note: Whereas Brinell and Vickers hardness values are based

upon the area of indentation, the Rockwell values are based
upon the depth of the indentation.

Some comparative values between Brinell Vickers and Rockwell

are shown in Table 02.

COMPARATIVE HARDNESS VALUES

MATERIAL BHN HV ROCKWELL

Aluminum 100 100 B 57

alloy

Mild steel 130 130 B 73

Cutting tools 650 697 C 60

Table 02

Fig. 04 (b) Rockwell hardness tester

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TENSILE TESTING obtained, depending on the material type and condition, but the
example shows a Load/Extension diagram which typifies many
Tensile testing is the most widely-used mechanical test. It metallic materials when stressed in tension.
involves applying a steadily increasing load to a test specimen,
causing it to stretch until it eventually fractures. Accurate The graph can be considered as comprising two major regions.
measurements are taken of the load and extension, and the Between points 0 and A, the material is in the Elastic region (or
results are used to determine the strength of the material. phase), i.e. when the load is removed the material will return to
its original size and shape. In this region, the extension is
TENSILE STRENGTH directly proportional to the applied load.

Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the This relationship is known as ‘Hooke's Law’, which states:
maximum load, which the test piece is able to sustain, and Within the elastic region, elastic strain is directly proportional to
dividing that figure by the original cross-sectional area (c.s.a.) of the stress causing it.
the specimen. The value derived from this simple calculation is Point A is the Elastic Limit. Between this point and point B, the
called STRESS. material continues to extend until the maximum load is reached
(at point B). In this region the material is in the plastic phase.

Load (N)
Stress  When the load is removed, the material does not return to its
Original c.s.a. (mm 2 ) original size and shape, but will retain some extension. After
Note: The units of Stress may be quoted in the old British point B, the cross-sectional area reduces and the material
Imperial (and American) units of lbf/in 2, tonf/in2 (also psi and tsi), begins to ‘neck’. The material continues to extend under
or the European and SI units such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or
reduced load until it eventually fractures at point C.
MPa.

LOAD/EXTENSION DIAGRAMS

If a gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test piece

while the load and extension are continuously measured, the
results can be used to produce a Load/Extension diagram or
graph. Obviously, a number of different forms of graph may be
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FATIGUE TESTING

An experiment, conducted in 1861, found that a wrought iron

girder, which could safely sustain a mass of 12 tons, broke
when a mass of only 3 tons was raised and lowered on the
girder some 3x106 times.

It was also found that there was some mass, below 3 tons,
which could be raised and lowered on to the beam, a colossal
number (infinite) of times, without causing any problem.

Some years later, a German engineer (Wohler), did work in this

LOAD/ EXTENSION DIAGRAM direction and eventually developed a useful fatigue-testing
machine which bears his name and continues to be used in
industry. The machine uses a test piece, which is rotated in a
Fig. 04 Load Extension diagram chuck and a force is applied at the free end, at right angles to
the axis of rotation (refer to Fig. 05). The rotation thus produces
a reversal of stress for every revolution of the test piece.

Various other types of fatigue testing are also used e.g. cyclic-
torsional, tension-compression etc. Exhaustive fatigue testing,
with various materials, has resulted in a better understanding of
the fatigue phenomenon and its implications from an
engineering viewpoint.

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This limiting stress is called the ‘Fatigue Limit’ and, for steels,
the fatigue limit is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the
value of the static, ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.)

Stress

(S)

Fig. 05 Machine used for fatigue testing Fatigue Limit

40 – 60 %
S-N Curves UTS

One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an

S-N curve, which shows, graphically, the relationship between
Number of
the amount of stress (S), applied to a material, and the number
of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before failure of the Cycles (N)
material. Fig. 06 A S-N Curve for a Steel Material

Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material, it can be seen

that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater
number of stress cycles. The graph also shows that a point is
eventually reached where the curve becomes virtually
horizontal, thus indicating that the material will endure an infinite
number of cycles at a particular stress level.
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IMPACT TESTING

The impact test is designed to determine the toughness of a

material and the two most commonly used methods are those
using the ‘Charpy’ and ‘Izod’ impact-testing machines.

Both tests use notched-bar test pieces of standard dimensions,

which are struck by a fast-moving, weighted pendulum. The
energy, which is absorbed by the test piece on impact, will give
a measure of toughness. A brittle material will break easily and
will absorb little energy, so the swing of the pendulum (which is
recorded against a calibrated scale) will not be reduced
significantly. A tough material will, however, absorb
considerably more energy and thus greatly reduce the recorded
pendulum swing.
Test Piece

Most materials show a drop-in toughness with a reduction in

temperature, though some materials (certain steels in particular)
Fig. 07 Impact Test
show a rapid drop in toughness as the temperature is
progressively reduced. This temperature range is called the
Transition Zone, and components, which are designed for use
at low temperature, should be operated above the material’s
Transition Temperature.

Nickel is one of the most effective alloying elements for lowering

the Transition Temperature of steels.

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OTHER FORMS OF MATERIAL TESTING CREEP IN METALS

Although some of the more important forms of material testing When a metallic material is suitably stressed, it undergoes
have already been discussed, there are several other forms of immediate elastic deformation. This is then followed by plastic
material testing to be considered, not least important of which strain, which occurs in three stages.
are those associated with Creep and Fatigue Testing.
 Primary Creep- begins at a relatively rapid rate, but then
CREEP decreases with time as strain-hardening sets in.

 Secondary Creep- the rate of strain is fairly uniform and

Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation, with the
at its lowest value.
passage of time, of materials subjected to prolonged stress.
This deformation is plastic and occurs even though the acting  Tertiary Creep- the rate of strain increases rapidly, finally
stress may be well below the yield stress of the material. leading to rupture. This final stage coincides with gross
necking of the component, prior to failure. The rate of
At temperatures below 0.4T (where T is the melting point of the creep is at a maximum in this phase.
material in Kelvin), the creep rate is very low, but, at higher
temperatures, it becomes more rapid. For this reason, creep is
commonly regarded as being a high-temperature phenomenon,
associated with super-heated steam plant and gas turbine
technology.

However, some of the soft, low-melting point materials will

creep significantly at, or a little above, ambient temperatures
and some aircraft materials may creep when subjected to over-
heat conditions.

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EFFECT OF STRESS AND TEMPERATURE ON CREEP

Both stress and temperature have an effect on creep. At low

temperature or very low stress, primary creep may occur, but
this falls to a negligible value in the secondary stage, due to
strain-hardening of the material. At higher stress and/or
temperature, however, the rate of secondary creep will increase
and lead to tertiary creep and inevitable failure.

THE EFFECT OF GRAIN SIZE ON CREEP

Since the creep mechanism is partly due to microscopic flow

along the grain boundaries, creep resistance is improved by
increased grain size, due to the reduced grain boundary region
per unit volume. It is mainly for this reason that some modern,
high-performance turbine blades are being made from
directionally solidified (and, alternatively, improved single-
Fig. 08 Stages of creep crystal) castings.

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