Introduction to Mechanical Engineering

Course Code BESC14D/24D Semester I/II

Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) 3:0:0 CIE Marks 50
Total Number of Contact Hours 40 SEE Marks 50
Examination Nature (SEE) Theory Exam Hours 3
Module 2
Internal Combustion Engines
Internal Combustion Engines: Parts, terminology, working of 4 stroke petrol and diesel engine, comparison
between petrol and diesel engine
Electric vehicles (EV) and Hybrid Electric vehicles (HEV): Basic principles of EV and HEV. Components of EV
and HEV. Power transmission in EV and HEV.
Self- Study: Autonomous vehicles.

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 Classification of IC engines
a. Nature of thermodynamic cycle as
1. Otto Cycle engine. 2. Diesel engine. 3. Dual combustion cycle engine.
b. Type of Fuel used as
1. Petrol Engine 2. Diesel engine. 3. Gas engine. 4. Bi-fuel engine.
c. Number of strokes as
1. Four stroke engine. 2. Two stroke engine.
d. Method of ignition as
1. Spark ignition engine, known as S.I engine.
2. Compression ignition engine, known as C.I. Engine.
e. Number of cylinders as
1. Single cylinder engine. 2. Multi cylinder engine.
f. Position of cylinder as
1. Horizontal engine. 2. Vertical engine. 3. V- engine. 4. Opposed cylinder
engine. 5. Radial engine.
g. Method of cooling as
1. Air cooled engine. 2. Water cooled engine.
 Introduction
• The internal combustion (IC) engine is a heat engine that
converts chemical energy stored in a fuel into heat energy.
• That energy is then converted to mechanical energy, usually
made available on a rotating output shaft.

1. Cylinder.
2. Piston and Piston ring.
3. Connecting rod.
4. Crank.
TDC 5. Crankshaft.
6. Valves.
7. Flywheel.
8. Fuel injector.
9. Spark plug
BDC

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 Engine Terminology
• Top Dead Centre (TDC): This refers to the position of the piston
closest to the cylinder head.
• Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): This refers to the position of the piston
farthest from the cylinder head.
• Bore: Diameter of the engine cylinder is referred to as the bore.
• Stroke: Distance travelled by the piston from TDC to BDC is called
stroke.
• Clearance volume: The volume of cylinder above the piston when it
is in TDC position is referred to as clearance volume.
• Piston displacement: This is the volume swept by the piston in
moving from BDC to TDC. This is also called swept volume.

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 Engine Terminology
• Engine capacity: This is a total piston displacement or the swept volume
of all the cylinders.
• Compression ratio: This indicates the extent to which the charge (Air-Fuel
Mixture) in the engine is compressed. This is calculated as the ratio of the
volume above the piston at BDC to the volume above the piston at TDC.
• Power: It is the work done in a given period of time.
• Indicated Power: The power developed inside the engine cylinder is
known as indicated horse power.
• Brake Power: This is the actual power delivered at the crank shaft. It is
obtained by deducting various power loses in the engine from the indicated
horse power.
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 Four Stroke Spark Ignition Engine
The four stroke cycle requires four piston strokes to complete one
cycle. Every four strokes, the engine produces one power stroke.
Almost all automobiles use four stroke cycle engines
Following Four strokes are part of one complete cycle of engine.
• Stroke 1 (Induction): Air-fuel mixture is introduced into cylinder
through intake valve. Piston moves from TDC to BDC.
• Stroke 2 (Compression): Air-fuel mixture is compressed while
piston moves from BDC to TDC.
• Stroke 3 (Power): After spark ignites the air-fuel mixture,
combustion occurs producing enormous heat and pressure,
product gases expand the piston by pushing from TDC to BDC.
• Stroke 4 (Exhaust): Product gases (Exhaust) is pushed out of
the cylinder through the exhaust valve by moving piston from
BDC to TDC
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 Four Stroke Compression Ignition Engine

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 Four Stroke Compression Ignition Engine
The four stroke Diesel Engine works similar to that of Petrol Engines, however, instead
of spark ignition a compression ignition is used to ignite the air-fuel mixture.
Following Four Strokes are required to complete one cycle of engine operation
• Stroke 1 (Induction): Only Air is introduced into cylinder through intake valve. Piston
moves from TDC to BDC.
• Stroke 2 (Compression): Air is compressed while piston moves from BDC to TDC
with compression ratio much higher than the spark ignition engines.
• Stroke 3 (Power): Once the fuel is injected to highly compressed air, natural
combustion occurs producing enormous heat and pressure, product gases expand
the piston by pushing from TDC to BDC.
• Stroke 4 (Exhaust): Product gases (Exhaust) is pushed out of the cylinder through
the exhaust valve by moving piston from BDC to TDC.

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 Pressure Volume Diagrams
Otto Cycle (Petrol Engine) Diesel Cycle (Diesel Engine)

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 Difference
Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
The petrol engine works on Otto cycle i.e. The diesel engine works on Diesel cycle i.e. on
on constant volume. constant pressure.
The fuel is fed into the cylinder by a fuel
The air and fuel are pre-mixed before they
injector and is mixed with hot compressed air
enter into the cylinder.
inside the cylinder.
The petrol engine compresses a mixture of The diesel engine compresses only a charge of
air and petrol which is ignited by an electric air and ignition is done by the heat of
spark. compression.
The compression ratio is higher in a diesel
The compression ratio is low. 10:1 to 14:1.
engine. 18:1 to 23:1.
Less power is produced due to the lower Due to higher compression ratio more power is
compression ratio. produced.
The petrol engine is fitted with a spark plug It is fitted with a fuel injector.
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 Cont…..
Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
Burns fuel that has high volatility. Burns fuel that has low volatility.
They are used in light vehicles which They are used in heavy vehicles which require
requires less power. high power.
Eg: car, jeep, motorcycle, scooters etc. Eg: bushes, trucks, locomotive etc.
Fuel consumption in a petrol engine is high. Fuel consumption in a diesel engine is less.
Lighter in weight. Heavier in weight.
Overhauling of a diesel engine is done after a
Petrol engine requires frequent overhauling.
long time.
Lesser starting problem. Greater starting problem.
Lower initial cost. Higher initial cost.
Lower maintenance cost. Higher maintenance cost.

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 Thank You

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Line diagram - Four Stroke Spark Ignition Engine

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Line diagram - Four Stroke Compression Ignition Engine

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 Line diagram – Parts

Four-stroke terminology
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 Line diagram – PV diagram

PV diagram of petrol/otto and diesel cycle

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 Formulae
1. Mean effective pressure (Pm)

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 Formulae
2. Indicated Power (IP)

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 Formulae
3. Brake Power (BP)

4. Friction Power (FP)

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 Formulae
5. Torque (T)

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 Formulae
6. Mechanical Efficiency (ηmech):

7. Thermal Efficiency (ηThe):

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 Formulae
8. Specific fuel consumption (SFC):

9. NOTE:
1. For finding Specific fuel consumptions, mf must be in kg/hr
2. If specific gravity of oil and volume of fuel is in lt/min or m3/min is given, than
SG = density of fuel / density of water
mf = volume of fuel * density of fuel

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 Module 2.2
Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
 Major Concern
• Automotive Sector is one of the major contributor to the atmospheric
emission as it burns petroleum fuels.
• In general, all automotive vehicles use Internal Combustion Engines
(ICE) for tractive force. However, electric vehicles (EVs) use an Electric
Motor for traction,
• Major energy storage systems for EVs are Chemical batteries, fuel cells,
ultracapacitors, and high-speed flywheels.
• Special system required by EVs are:
• Regenerative Braking System
• DC-DC Converter and DC-AC Converter
• Charging System to recharge the energy storage systems
• Electric Energy Management System
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 ICE Vehicle vs Electric Vehicles
• The operational and fundamental similarities between ICEVs and EVs are:
• Steering System
• Braking System
• Suspension and Seating System
• Information and Entertainment System (Infotainment System)
• Safety and Security
• However, some differences between ICEVs and EVs, such as:
• the use of gasoline tanks vs. batteries for energy storage
• ICE vs. electric motor for vehicle traction
• Fixed gearbox vs variable gearbox under transmission requirements
• Conversion of Kinetic Energy of Braking to Electricity using Regenerative Braking
system
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 Efficiency of Electrical Propulsion
• For any vehicle, overall efficiency is calculated from the energy storage unit till the power
obtained in the end wheels.
• Energy from one form will be converted to another to get the useful work.
• Thus in ICE vehicles, Chemical Energy stored in fuel will be converted to mechanical
energy at the end wheels.
• Whereas in Electric Vehicles, Electrical Energy stored in the battery will be converted to
mechanical energy at end wheels.
• During above conversions, ICE vehicles have many intermediate conversation stages
and in every stage there will be energy loss due to efficiency factor. Stages involved are:
• Chemical Energy – Thermal Energy – Pressure Energy(Potential) – Reciprocating Mechanical
– Rotary Mechanical – Speed Reduction Gearbox
• Electric vehicles have only resistance losses at energy converters and electric motors,
mechanical energy losses at fixed gearbox and drivelines.
• Electric Vehicles have far lesser losses compared to ICE vehicle, thus they are
considered to be most efficient
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with less energy loss.
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 Efficiency of Electrical Propulsion
ICE Propulsion Electrical Propulsion
Chemical Fuel
Energy from Battery

Thermal Energy
Energy Convertors

Pressure Energy
Control Unit

Reciprocating Energy
Electric Motors

Rotary Energy
Fixed Gear Transmission

Speed Reduction Gear

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Configuration
of
Electric
Vehicle

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 Construction of Electric Vehicle
• EV System has only Accelerator and Brake pedal, similar to that of
Automatic Transmission Vehicles making driving easy and comfort.
• Vehicle Architecture is divided into three sub-systems, viz.
• Energy Source Subsystem: consists of battery pack, charging circuit and
battery and power management system
• Electric Propulsion Subsystem: consists of electric motor, transmission and
motor drive controllers, it also consist of DC-DC and DC-AC convertor
• Auxiliary Subsystem: consists of Power steering, Heating and Air-
conditioning, Airbag, ABS, Infotainment, lighting and other auxiliary system
and its power supply system
• The system is combination of Mechanical Power, Electrical Energy
and Control System Data which are transmitted across the vehicle for
efficient operation.
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 Benefits of EVs
• The electric vehicle has many advantages over the conventional internal
combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), such as
• EVs are considered to be Zero Emission Vehicles. However, they have very low
emissions even after considering Primary Electric energy conversion
• Efficiency of energy conversation is high from Chemical – Electric – Mechanical, thus
no wastage of fuel and cost of fuel also very low.
• EV systems have minimum parts in comparison with ICE Vehicles, thus
maintenance and operation cost is very low.
• As the petroleum resources are depleting and getting expensive day by day, electric
vehicles can achieve independence from petroleum fuels. Electric energy can be
obtained from renewable energy sources.
• EV systems works with simple operation, very low noise and lower vibration, thus
easy to operate, causes no sound pollution and no harsh vibration while driving.
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 Limitations of EVs
• Although, EVs are promising technology for transportation system
with many advantages, they also have following limitations:
• Initial investment is very high due to cost of Lithium Ion battery
• Travel distance range per single charge of battery offered by many EVs is
very low at the moment. Thus restricted for driving within the city limit.
• Lack of charging infrastructure throughout highways and in every city and
town
• Lack of quick charging technology, long hours waiting for full charge of
battery distracts the long journey.
• Life of the battery pack is very low and it costs half of the total cost of
vehicle. Maximum life warranty is only up to 5 years.
• In case every vehicle is replaced with an EV, it would disrupt the total
electrical energy demand and supply.
• Disposal of waste battery would be another environmental issue
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 Vehicle Power Trains
• In a vehicle, power train is required to develop sufficient power for vehicle
performance.
• It also supposed to carry sufficient energy onboard to support the vehicle
driving a longer range,
• It should demonstrate high efficiency, and emit very less environmental
pollutants.
• The power train is defined as the combination of the energy source and the
energy converter or power source, such as
• Gasoline (or Diesel) - Heat engine system (IC Engine),
• Hydrogen Fuel-cell - Electric motor system,
• Chemical battery - Electric motor system,
• Compressed air – Pneumatic Motor and so on.
• A vehicle that has two or more power trains onboard is called a hybrid vehicle. A
hybrid vehicle with an electrical power train is called an Hybrid Electrical Vehicle.
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 Hybrid Electrical Vehicles
• Conventional vehicles with IC engines provide good performance and long operating range by
utilizing the high-energy-density advantage of petroleum fuels.
• However, conventional IC engine vehicles have the disadvantages of poor fuel economy and
environmental pollution. The main reasons for their poor fuel economy are:
• mismatch of engine fuel efficiency characteristics with the real operation requirement
• dissipation of vehicle kinetic energy during braking, especially while operating in urban areas
• low efficiency of hydraulic automatic transmission in current automobiles in stop-and-go driving patterns

• Battery-powered EVs, on the other hand, possess some advantages over conventional IC
engine vehicles, such as high-energy efficiency and zero environmental pollution.
• However, the operation range per battery charge, is far less competitive than IC engine vehicles,
due to the much lower energy density of the batteries than that of gasoline.
• Hybrid Electrical Vehicles, which use two power sources(a primary IC Engine power source and a
secondary Electric Motor power source), have the advantages of both IC engine vehicles and EVs
and over-come their disadvantages.
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 Architecture of Hybrid EVs
• Hybrid Electrical Vehicles are mainly classified into four types
• Series hybrid,
• Parallel hybrid,
• Series–parallel hybrid, and
• complex hybrid

• In any HEV, there are two kinds of energy flowing in the drive train: one is mechanical energy and the
other is electrical energy.
• Adding two powers together or splitting one power into two at the power merging point always occurs
with the same power type, that is either electrical or mechanical.
• Alternative way of defining HEV architecture may be by considering the power coupling or decoupling
features such as
• an electrical coupling drive train,
• a mechanical coupling drive train, and
• a mechanical–electrical coupling drive train.
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 Architecture of Series Hybrid EV

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 Architecture of Series Hybrid EV
• The key feature of Series Hybrid configuration is that two electrical
powers are added together in the power converter,
• It functions as an electric power coupler to control the power flows
from the batteries and generator to the electric motor, or in the
reverse direction, from the electric motor to the batteries.
• The fuel tank, the IC engine, and the generator constitute the primary
energy supply and the batteries function as the energy bumper.

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 Architecture of Parallel Hybrid EV

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 Architecture of Parallel Hybrid EV
• The key of Parallel Hybrid EV configuration is that two mechanical
powers are added together in a mechanical coupler.
• The IC engine is the primary power plant, and the batteries and
electric motor drive constitute the energy bumper.
• The power flows can be controlled only by the power plants - the IC
engine and electric motor.

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 Architecture of Series-Parallel Hybrid EV

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 Architecture of Series-Parallel Hybrid EV
• The distinguished feature of series–parallel hybrid drive train
configuration is the employment of two power couplers both
mechanical and electrical.
• Actually, this configuration is the combination of series and parallel
structures, possessing the major features of both
• Possess more operation modes than those of the series or parallel
structure alone.
• On the other hand, it is relatively more complicated and may be of
higher cost.

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 Architecture of Complex Hybrid EV
• Complex hybrid has a similar structure to the series–parallel one.
• The only difference is that the electric coupling function is moved from the power converter to
the batteries and one more power converter is added between the motor/generator and the
batteries.

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 Hybrid Drive Train Operation Modes
Followings are the various operating modes of Hybrid Power Train

1. Pure electric traction mode: The engine is turned off and the vehicle is
propelled only from the batteries.
2. Pure engine traction mode: The vehicle traction power comes only from
the engine–generator, while the batteries neither supply nor accept any
power from the drive train. The electric machines serve as an electric
transmission from the engine to the driven wheels.
3. Hybrid traction mode: The traction powers are drawn from both the
engine–generator and the batteries, merging together in the electrical
coupler.
4. Engine traction with battery charging mode: The engine–generator
supplies power to charge the batteries and to propel the vehicle
simultaneously. The engine–generator power is split in the electric
coupler.
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 Hybrid Drive Train Operation Modes
5. Regenerative braking mode: The engine–generator is turned off
and the traction motor is operated as a generator powered by the
vehicle kinetic or potential energy. The power generated is charged
to the batteries and reused in later propelling.
6. Battery charging mode: The traction motor receives no power and
the engine–generator is operated only to charge the batteries.
7. Hybrid battery charging mode: Both the engine–generator and
the traction motor operate as generators in braking to charge the
batteries.

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 Separate Axel Parallel Hybrid EV

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 Separate Axel Parallel Hybrid EV
• The separated axle architecture offers some of the advantages of a conventional vehicle.
• It keeps the original engine and transmission unaltered and adds an electrical traction
system on the other axle.
• It is also a four-wheel drive, which improves the traction on slippery roads and reduces
the tractive effort on a single tire.
• However, electric machines and the eventual differential gear system occupy a lot of
space and may reduce the available passenger space and luggage space.
• This problem may be solved if the transmission behind the electric motor is single-gear
and the single electric motor is replaced by two small-sized electric motors that can be
placed within the two driven wheels.
• It should be noted that the batteries cannot be charged from the engine when the vehicle
is at a standstill.
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 Evolution of EVs
1 2
Fuel Tank

IC Engine

Clutch
3 4 Variable Speed Gearbox

Electric Motor

Fixed Gearbox

Differential
5 6
In-Wheel Motor

Battery Pack
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 Evolution of EVs
Electric vehicles have been evolved through the time to make them more optimized
in terms of space and weight to make them haul higher range for single charge of
battery.
Evolution from ICE Vehicle to most Modern EV is explained in following stages.
1. Conventional ICE Vehicles
2. EV 1- Engine Replaced with Motor and Fuel tank with Battery Pack and
Charger Unit
3. EV 2- Further, Clutch and Variable Speed Gearbox replace with a fixed gearbox
4. EV 3- Motor, Fixed Gearbox and Differentials are made in a compact design to
reduce space and weight
5. EV 4- Fixed Gearbox and Differentials are removed by fixing independent
motors to both the drive wheels
6. EV 5- In-wheel motors are introduced which could reduce the weight and
space, also reduce sprung mass and vibration
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 Thank You

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 Line diagram

Architecture of Series Hybrid EV

Configuration of Electric Vehicle

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 Line diagram

Architecture of Parallel Hybrid EV

Architecture of Series-Parallel Hybrid EV

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Architecture of Complex Hybrid EV Separate Axel Parallel Hybrid EV 51
Department of Mechanical Engineering | Dr. Nagamadhu M
 "Beyond the syllabus"- Autonomous Vehicles
History of Autonomous Vehicles

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 "Beyond the syllabus"- Conti….
Basic Physical Ecosystem of an Autonomous Vehicle

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR)
Cameras (Video)
Ultrasonic Sensors
Central Computer
Radar Sensors
Dedicated Short-Range Communications-
Based Receiver (not pictured)

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 "Beyond the syllabus"- Cont…
Key Physical Components of Autonomous Vehicles
• Cameras – Provide real-time obstacle detection to facilitate lane departure and track roadway information
(like road signs).
• Radar – Radio waves detect short & long-range depth.
• LIDAR – Measures distance by illuminating target with pulsed laser light and measuring reflected pulses with
sensors to create 3-D map of area.
• GPS – Triangulates position of car using satellites. Current GPS technology is limited to a certain distance.
Advanced GPS is in development.
• Ultrasonic Sensors – Uses high-frequency sound waves and bounce-back to calculate distance. Best in close
range.
• Central Computer – “Brain” of the vehicle. Receives information from various components and helps direct
vehicle overall.
• DRSC - Based Receiver – Communications device permitting vehicle to communicate with other vehicles
(V2V) using DSRC, a wireless communication standard that enables reliable data transmission in active
safety applications. NHTSA has promoted the use of DSRC.

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 "Beyond the syllabus"- Cont..
Companies Investing in Autonomous Vehicles

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 Thank You

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