Research

Impact of Air Pollution Generated by Brick Kilns on the

Pulmonary Health of Workers

Ali Raza,1 Background. Brick kiln workers are often not aware of the health effects of their working
Zulfiqar Ali2 environment and health-related respiratory problems. There have been few studies on
the relationship between brick kiln pollution and its health impact on brick kiln workers.
Environmental Health and Wildlife, Objectives. The present study measured the association of brick kiln contamination with
Department of Zoology, University of the severe respiratory problems and lung function among brick kiln workers in the Kasur district,
Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan Pakistan.
Methods. Air quality variables (PM2.5, PM10, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Corresponding author and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)) were monitored during operations in brick kiln
Dr. Zulfiqar Ali modulation and kiln areas. Workers (n=60) were selected for participation if they were
[Link]@[Link] between the ages of 18 and 60 and had been working in brick kilns for at least one year and
gave consent to participate. Their lung function was measured.
Results. The average concentrations of measured air quality variables for all working sites
were found to exceed the World Health Organization (WHO) and National Ambient Air
Quality Standard (NAAQS) guidelines. These high values of brick kiln pollutants were
associated with a significant decrease in spirometric values (forced vital capacity (FVC),
Introduction forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), peak expiratory flow (PEF), and average
flow between 25% and 75% of the FVC (FEF2575)) among workers and revealed that 78.33%
In Pakistan, workers at brick kilns are of workers had abnormal lung function with 5% obstructive and 95% restrictive impairments.
often not aware of the health effects Occurrences of pulmonary problems like frequent cough (50%), chronic cough (11.67%),
of their working environment and frequent phlegm (21.67%), chronic phlegm (11.67%), frequent wheezing (20%), chronic
occupational respiratory problems. wheezing (15%), shortness of breath grade-I & grade-II (38.33%) and self-reported asthma
Owing to lack of education and (3.33%) were also found among the workers.
illiteracy, workers often do not access Conclusions. Pollution from brick kiln operations was significantly high and associated with
proper health care facilities due to high respiratory problems as well as a decrease in lung function. There was a clear correlation
costs as well as inaccessibility. Brick between pulmonary function in workers with brick kiln contamination.
kiln workers are primarily exposed to Participant Consent. Obtained
heat and air pollution at the worksite Ethics Approval. This study was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Department of
and housing in the vicinity of kilns.1 Zoology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan (Ref.1443-UZ).
Competing Interests. The authors declare no competing financial interests.
In low- and middle-income countries, Keywords. respiratory problems, spirometry, lung function, District Kasur, Pakistan
brick production is an energy- Received January 28, 2021. Accepted April 21, 2021.
intensive process, with fossil fuels and J Health Pollution 31: (210906) 2021
wood burning playing an important © Pure Earth
role in the formation of air pollution.2
The use of low-quality coal and other
fuels during the brick firing process
is the biggest source of harmful
emissions from brick kilns.3 Brick kiln (WHO) and National Ambient Air highest risk of contamination.1,5-9
processes and flue gases are mainly Quality Standard (NAAQS) guidlines.4 Inhalation of these pollutants causes
composed of fly ash, sulfur dioxide skin and eye irritation and can cause
(SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen Excessive amounts of pollutants intestinal infections, diarrhea, asthma,
oxide (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), and gases are dangerous to humans bronchitis, cough, pharyngitis,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and can cause respiratory problems. pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema,
and particulate matter, which is often Among the different types of brick allergic rhinitis and decline in
toxic and found to be above from the kiln workers, modulators, firemen, lung function as well as low birth
existing World Health Organization loaders and unloaders have the weight.10-12

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Research Impact of Brick Kilns on the Pulmonary Health of Workers

There are an estimated 300 000 brick Abbreviations

kilns worldwide, 75% of which
are in Pakistan, India, China and FEF25 25% flow of FVC FEV1% Percentage of forced
Bangladesh.13 Pakistan is the third expiratory volume
largest producer of bricks,14 with about FEF2575 Average flow between
7000 brick making units in operation, 25% and 75% of the FVC FEV1 Forced expiratory volume
employing about 100 000 permanent in one second
workers.15 Of the thousands of brick- FEF59 50% flow of FVC
making units in the country, about FVC Forced vital capacity
5000 are located in cities and towns FEF75 75% flow of FVC
in the Punjab province.16 The Kasur PEF Peak expiratory flow
district has the highest number of
brick kilns (352), according to data
compiled by the Labor and Human
Resource Department, Government of
Punjab, Pakistan.17
Methods around 5 km of study area except for
Keeping in view the limited available the brick kilns (Figure 1).
data, the current study aimed to The current study was conducted
determine the levels of pollution from January to April 2018 among The selected brick kilns (n=3) were
generated by brick kilns and the effect brick kilns located at Dholan chak 27 chosen according to the following
on kiln worker pulmonary health. The (situated at an altitude of 189 m, 73oE criteria: rural location, ≥ 50 employees
main objectives were to determine the longitude and 31oN latitude), Pattoki at each brick kiln, production ≥ 10
concentration of workplace brick kiln (district Kasur), Pakistan. Three brick million bricks per annum, and coal
air pollution, to assess the signs and kilns in the study area were selected consumption ≥ 200 000 kg. The brick
symptoms of respiratory problems and identified as BK-1, BK-2 and kilns in the study area were continuous
among brick kiln workers, and to BK-3. There were no other pollution- fire kilns in which a fire burns and
evaluate pulmonary function variables. emitting industrial units present in/ moves in a closed circuit through

Figure 1 — Location of study area within Pakistan indicating brick kiln locations

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Raza, Ali Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 11, No. 31 — September 2021
 Research

compounds (VOCs), temperature and

humidity were monitored during 8
hours of operation from 8:00 am to
4:00 pm and data were collected after
each hour. A portable dust particle
counter (Dylos DC-1700), factory
calibrated, was used for measuring
PM2.5 and PM10 particles. The number
of particles was later converted to mass
concentration (µgm-3) using a Dylos
conversion sheet (Microsoft Excel)
following Equation 1:

Equation 1

PM Concentration µgm-3 = Number

Figure 2 — Sketch of a fixed chimney bull trench kiln of Particles × 3531.5 × Particle Mass
×H×C

Where H is the relative humidity

percentage, C is the correction factor,
the mass of a particle in the PM2.5
channel is 5.89 x 10-7μg, the mass of a
particle in the PM10 channel is 1.21 x
10-4 μg and the constant in formula
(3531.5) is used for the conversion of
particles in ft3 to particles in m3.18

A portable gaseous pollution

sampler (Aeroqual-500), with factory
calibrated sensors was used to
monitor concentrations of NO2, SO2,
VOCs, temperature and humidity.
Air quality measurements were
performed in regular intervals by
placing the equipment in working sites
Figure 3 — Arrangement of bricks at brick kiln loading site (left) (modulation area and near burning
and unloading site (right). sites of kiln area) of brick kilns. The
monitoring point was selected by
determining the working situation of
each brick kiln site.

bricks stacked in a trench (Figure 2). low grade coal (anthracite) (Figure 4). Participant selection and grouping

The bricks were arranged in the kiln Air quality monitoring First, the brick kilns were visited
in the order of “column blade” bricks and approval was sought from their
in which bricks were laid in vertical Real-time monitoring of particulate owners to collect worker data. The
columns along the width of the trench. matter less than 2.5 microns in study was approved by the Bioethics
Rows of brick columns were arranged diameter (PM2.5), particulate matter Committee of the Department of
in the direction of the air flow, one in less than 10 microns in diameter Zoology, University of the Punjab,
front of the other (Figure 3). The main (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Lahore, Pakistan (Ref.1443-UZ).
fuel used in selected brick kilns was sulfur dioxide (SO2), volatile organic Workers at selected brick kilns were

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Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 11, No. 31 — September 2021 Raza, Ali
Research Impact of Brick Kilns on the Pulmonary Health of Workers

verbally informed about the research

and written consent for participation
was taken. A greater number of male
workers agreed to participate in the
study compared to female workers.
Study participants were placed into
two groups on the basis of their
working sites: modulation area and
kiln area. Modulation area workers
were mainly exposed to dust, but
sometimes were also exposed to
pollutants from the kiln chimney,
whereas workers in the kiln area were
exposed to kiln chimney pollutants as
well as dust and high temperatures.
The main activities of the workers in
the modulation area were digging, Figure 4 — Coal used for firing bricks at brick kilns
wetting and mixing clay to form
mud, lifting mud, molding bricks and
arranging bricks for drying under the
sun. Workers in the kiln area carried,
loaded and arranged the clay bricks, Spirometery FEV1 and FEV1/FVC ratio <0.7 were
added coal to the kiln for firing the considered to indicate abnormal lung
clay bricks, unloaded and sorted the A portable electronic handheld function.20 In addition, predicted
fired bricks. spirometer (SP 10 Spiroton MDX values of FEV1 <80% and FEV1/FVC
Instruments USA) with a disposable <70% indicated obstructive lung
Ethics approval mouthpiece was used for spirometery. function, while the predicted values
Gender, age, height, weight, smoking of FEV1 <80% and FEV1/FVC >70%
The study was approved by the and drug use habits of participants indicated restrictive lung function.21
Bioethics Committee of the was recorded. The spirometry was
Department of Zoology, University repeated two to three times with each Descriptive statistics
of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan worker to get accurate data. The forced
(Ref.1443-UZ). vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory Quantitative variables like age,
volume in one second (FEV1), FEV1/ body mass index, nature of the job,
Questionnaire FVC ratio, peak expiratory flow (PEF), job experience, working duration
25% flow of FVC (FEF25), 75% flow of (hours), smoking habit, intensity of
A questionnaire was designed for FVC (FEF75) and average flow between smoking habit and respiratory disease
collecting information about worker 25% and 75% of the FVC (FEF2575) symptoms, spirometric values and
occupational history and pulmonary were recorded in liters and percentages air quality variables were presented
health (Supplemental Material). Data and interpreted with the help of in frequency tables and interpreted
were collected from 60 male brick kiln respiratory experts. directly using the Statistical Package
workers between 18 and 60 years of for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version
age. No females agreed to participate. An international method of measuring 20.
The questionnaire consisted of five lung function was used that helps
sections collecting information on to detect the presence or absence of Results
name, gender, age, weight, height, abnormalities related to restrictive
job categories, working experience, or obstructive impairments.19 The Among workers who consented to
working duration, smoking habit predicted percentages of FVC ≥80% participate (n=60), 78.33% of workers
information and pulmonary health as well as FEV1 and the FEV1/FVC had abnormal lung function, with
problems. ratio ≥0.7 were interpreted as normal 5% obstructive and 95% restrictive
lung function, while the predicted impairments. Smoking was reported
percentage of FVC <80% as well as by 41.6% of the workers in the present

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Raza, Ali Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 11, No. 31 — September 2021
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Table 1 — Percentages of socioeconomic parameters of brick kiln workers

Table 2 — Air Quality Variables at Brick Kiln Areas

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Research Impact of Brick Kilns on the Pulmonary Health of Workers

Table 3 — Frequency and Percentage of Self-reported Pulmonary Health Problems among Brick Kiln Workers

Table 4 — Descriptive Statistics of Spirometric Pulmonary Function with Reference to Smoking Habit

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 Research

of 20 μg/m3 and a maximum 24-hour

mean exposure of 50 µgm-3 for PM10
were suggested by the World Health
Organization (WHO) in order to
reduce harmful health outcomes linked
with particulate matter air pollution.23
In comparison with these levels, kiln
emissions were many times higher.

Similar results were found in a

previous study where average
concentrations of PM2.5 in the
modulation, burning and unloading
sections were 301 µgm-3, 307 µgm-3
and 628 µgm-3, respectively, whereas
the average concentrations of PM10 in
modulation, burning and unloading
sections were 888 µgm-3, 1830 µgm-3
and 861 µgm-3, respectively.9 Likewise,
another study observed the average
level of PM10 in an area of kiln
Table 5 — Descriptive Statistics of Pulmonary Function of Workers operations to be 415 µgm-3, which is
in Kiln and Modulation Areas less than the current recorded value
(1327.55 µgm-3).24 In another study,
mean concentrations of 480 µgm-3 and
172 µgm-3 were determined for PM10
and PM2.5, respectively.25 Very high
study, while 58.4% were non-smokers. reference to smoking habits and Table concentrations of respirable dust (19
The majority of the workers were aged 5 indicates the pulmonary function of 510 µgm-3 in the kiln section and 10
between 25-30 years with varying workers in the kiln and modulation 080 µgm-3 in the modulation section)
years of experience at the brick areas. were observed as well.26
kilns. Twenty-five percent (25%) of
the selected workers worked in the Discussion In addition, an average PM10
modulation area, while 75% were concentration of 29 µgm-3 was
involved in loading, burning and The aim of the current study was to recorded prior to brick kiln operations
unloading of the bricks at kiln area. estimate the levels of PM2.5, PM10, SO2, and increased up to 50 µgm-3 during
Moreover, 73% of these workers NO2 and VOCs generated by brick the period of operations, which were
worked eight hours daily, while 27% of kilns in selected sites of Tehsil Pattoki very low values for PM10 compared to
workers spent 10 hours on average at and their effect on the pulmonary current studies.2 Similarly, in another
their worksite. Around 80% of workers health of brick kiln workers. The study, the concentration of PM10 for
were observed to have a normal results of the current research the pre-operation period was reported
body mass index, while obesity was indicated levels of selected pollutants to be 29 µgm-3, but increased up to 50
uncommon 3.3% (Table 1). measured from kiln and modulation µgm-3 for the period of brick industry
areas of brick kilns to be many times operations.3
Table 2 presents the representative higher than the prescribed limits.
values of different pollutants According to National Ambient Air Other than particulate matter,
monitored at the selected brick kilns, Quality Standard (NAAQS) guidelines, levels of gaseous pollutants have
while Table 3 presents data on the the average concentrations for PM2.5, also been reported to vary across
frequency and percentage of self- PM10, SO2 and NO2 should not exceed different studies. In a recent study, the
reported pulmonary health problems 35 µgm-3, 150 µgm-3, 0.5 ppm and respective SO2 levels at three different
among brick kiln workers. Table 4 0.053 ppm, respectively.22 Likewise, a sites of brickfield of district Budgam,
describes pulmonary function with maximum annual daily mean exposure Jammu and Kashmir, were reported

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Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 11, No. 31 — September 2021 Raza, Ali
Research Impact of Brick Kilns on the Pulmonary Health of Workers

to be 0.047 ppm, 0.044 ppm and 0.037

ppm.3 Another study revealed that pulmonary problems among brick findings were reported in other studies
SO2 values were in the range 0.003- kiln workers were chronic cough where increasing working hours were
0.01 ppm during the pre-production (34.70%), dyspnea/shortness of breath associated with reduced lung capacity
period and 0.010-0.032 ppm during or breathlessness (21.4 %), chest of brick kiln workers.9,37 Similar to the
the period of brick production at kiln wheeze (20.2%), chronic bronchitis current study, several studies indicated
areas of brick kilns cluster in Tripura, (19.7%), and asthma (15.63%).30 that the mean values of FVC, FEV1
India and these values were relatively A survey reported 32%, 24%, 15%, and FEV1/FVC ratio were significantly
lower27 compared to the kiln areas of 28%, and 11% occurrence for chronic decreased in brick kiln workers.9,32,33,37
present study. Similar to the results of cough, chronic phlegm, chest wheeze,
the current study, the concentration of dyspnea and asthma, respectively,26 In the present study, brick kiln workers
NO2 was 0.058, 0.052 and 0.041 ppm while another study reported the were found to be at risk of obstructive
at kiln areas of three different brick major respiratory symptom among as well as restrictive impairments,
kilns located at district Budgam of brick kiln workers to be 19% phlegm, which has been confirmed by previous
Jammu and Kashmir.24 In contrast to 17.5% cough, 14% wheeze, 10.5% studies.31,34 The current results were
the present study, much lower values breathlessness, 9.5% self-reported also confirmed by a study on female
of NO ranging from 0.005-0.009 ppm asthma and 5.5% physician diagnosed brick kiln molders that suffered
during2 the pre-production period and asthma.31 The existence of pulmonary from chronic obstructive pulmonary
0.008-0.018 ppm were reported during problems was associated with disease.8 Another study found that the
brick production at kiln areas of brick obstructive lung function and high prevalence of COPD among brick kiln
kilns cluster in Tripura, India.27 occurrences of pulmonary problems workers was 18.9%.38 Various other
(31.8% chronic cough, 26.2% chronic studies supported the current results
Apart from particulate and gaseous phlegm and 24% chest tightness) of significantly reduced FVC and FEV1
pollutants, humidity and temperature were observed in brick kiln workers.32 among brick kiln workers, indicating
were also important factors affecting The present study found that mean restrictive lung function.9,32,39
the health and comfort level of spirometric values were significantly
workers. The temperature of the kiln decreased and decreased levels of the Workers from various brick kiln
area was higher than the temperature measured pulmonary variables have workplaces were not aware of the
in the modulation area whereas the been reported in previous studies as health risks in the current study, as
relative humidity was higher in the well.28,32-33 confirmed by previous research in
modulation area than the kiln area. Okara, Pakistan.40 In the present study,
Similar results were also reported The mean spirometric values of workers did not wear masks or any
during the study of brick kilns of west FVC, FEV1, PEF, FEF2575 and FEF25 other personal protective equipment
Bengal, India.28 were decreased among smokers as (PPE). Previous studies have reported
compared to non-smoker workers of that brick kiln workers often do not
In light of the health impact of the present study. Similarly, the results use safety precautions.41-42
exposure to elevated levels of of related studies showed significant
pollutants, it was hypothesized that decreases in PEFR, FEV1, FVC, FEF Limitations
brick kiln workers would be at risk (25-75%) in workers who were also
of respiratory disorders as reported smokers.34-35 In parallel to current In the present study, air quality
by previous studies. Similar to the findings, lung function values were monitoring was limited to areas
current study, increased incidence significantly reduced among smokers where work was in progress and
of pulmonary problems, ie. phlegm, compared to non-smokers.28,36 wind speed data were not measured.
cough, asthma, wheezing and To overcome this limitation, future
breathlessness among brick kiln In the present study, there were research should select different sites
employees was reported in a cross- considerable differences among the to monitor air quality as well as wind
sectional study conducted at India.26 spirometric values of FVC, FEV1, PEF, speed around the brick kilns. Also,
Another study reported a significant FEV1% and FEF2575 of workers who some workers were exposed to smoke
occurrence of 31.8% chronic cough, reported working shifts of ≥8 hours from wood burning for cooking at
24% chest tightness and 26.2% chronic and ≥10 hours, indicating that worker their residences. All study participants
phlegm in brick kiln employees.29 lung function was decreased with were male.
The most commonly reported increasing working hours. Similar

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Raza, Ali Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 11, No. 31 — September 2021