Deformation and Strain

Deformation of a body occurs in response to forces

Deformation describes the collective displacements of points in a body;

or
the complete transformation from the initial to the final geometry of a
body.

Deformation is the transformation from an initial to a final geometry by

means of rigid body translation, rigid body rotation, strain (distortion)
and/or volume change.

This change can include

a translation (movement from one place to the other)

a rotation (spin around an axis),

and a distortion
 Deformation relates the
positions of particles before and
after the deformation

The positions of points before and

after deformation can be connected
with vectors.
Distortion

These vectors are called

displacement vectors, and a field of
Translation moves every particle in the rock such vectors is referred to as the
in the same direction and the same distance, displacement field
and its displacement field consists of parallel
The actual path that each particle
vectors of equal length.
follows during the deformation
The rotation and distortion components are
history is referred to as a particle
zero, we have only rotation of the body.
path

Rigid rotation involves a uniform physical

rotation of a rock volume relative to an
external coordinate system. The translation and rotation
The translation and distortion components components are zero, we have
are zero, we have only rotation of the body. only rotation of the body.
Deformation describes the complete displacement field of points in a
body relative to an external reference frame

While

Strain describes the displacement field of points relative to each other.

This requires a reference frame within the body, an internal reference
frame, like the edges of the square.

Strain: Any change in shape, with or without change in volume, is

referred to as strain, and it implies that particles in
a rock have changed positions relative to each other

Changes in lengths of lines

Changes in volume
Changes in angles
Homogeneous strain: Strain is homogeneous when any two portions of
the body that were similar in form and orientation before are similar in form
and orientation after strain.

Straight lines remain straight

Parallel lines remain parallel,
Identically shaped and oriented objects will also be identically shaped
and oriented after the deformation
(Circles become ellipses; in three dimensions,
spheres become ellipsoids)

Homogeneous strain describes the

transformation of a square to a rectangle or a
circle to an ellipse.
Two material lines that remain perpendicular
before and after strain are the principal axes of
the strain ellipse (solid lines).
The dashed lines are material lines that do not
remain perpendicular after strain; they rotate
toward the long axis of the strain ellipse.
If not homogeneous, then the deformation is heterogeneous
(inhomogeneous).

Discrete or discontinuous deformation

can be approximated as continuous and
even homogeneous in some cases.

In this sense the concept of strain can

also be applied to brittle deformation
(brittle strain). The success of doing so
depends on the scale of observation
Longitudinal strain is defined as a change in length divided by the original
length. Longitudinal strain is expressed by the elongation, e, which is defined
as
e = (l - lo)/lo or e = δl/lo

where l is the final length, lo is the original length, and δl is the length change

Quadratic elongation, λ, which is

defined as
λ = (l/lo)2 = (1 + e)2

where l is the final length, lo is the

original length, and e is the elongation.
The quadratic elongation, λ, and
The root of the quadratic elongation is especially the stretch, s, are convenient
called the stretch, s, which is a measures because they describe the
convenient strain parameter that lengths of the principal axes (X, Y, and
directly relates to the dimensions of Z) of the strain ellipsoid:
the strain ellipsoid:
X = s1, Y = s2, Z = s3
s = λ1/2 = l/lo = 1 + e with X ≥Y ≥ Z, and
X2 = λ1, Y2 = λ2, Z2 = λ3
For volumetric strain, Δ, the relationship is Δ = (V – Vo)/Vo or Δ =
δV/Vo
where V is the final volume, Vo is the original volume, and δV is
the volume change.

The change in angle is called the angular shear, ψ, but more

commonly we use the tangent of this angle, called the shear strain, γ

γ = tan ψ
In homogeneous strain, two orientations of material lines remain
perpendicular before and after strain. These two material lines form the axes
of an ellipse that is called the strain ellipse.

lengths of these two material lines change from the initial to the final stage.

In three dimensions we have three material lines that remain perpendicular

after strain and they define the axes of an ellipsoid, the strain ellipsoid.

The lines that are perpendicular before and after strain are called the
principal strain axes. Their lengths define the strain magnitude and we will
use the symbols X, Y, and Z to specify them, with the convention that X ≥ Y ≥
Z.

Homogeneous strain describes the transformation of a square to a

rectangle or a circle to an ellipse. Two material lines that remain
perpendicular before and after strain are the principal axes of the strain
ellipse (solid lines).
The measure of strain that compares the initial and final configuration is
called the finite strain, which is independent of the details of the steps
toward the final configuration.

When these intermediate strain steps are determined they are called
incremental strains.

The summation of all incremental strains (that is, product), therefore, is the
finite strain
The principal incremental strain axes rotate relative to the finite strain axes, a
scenario that is called non-coaxial strain accumulation.

The case in which the same material lines remain the principal strain axes at
each increment is called coaxial strain accumulation.
The finite spatial change in shape that is connected with deformation is
completely described by the strain ellipsoid.

The strain ellipsoid is the deformed shape of an imaginary sphere with unit
radius that is deformed along with the rock volume under consideration.

The strain ellipsoid has three mutually orthogonal planes of symmetry, the
principal planes of strain, which intersect along three orthogonal axes that
are referred to as the principal strain axes.

Their lengths (values) are called the principal stretches. These axes are
commonly designated X, Y and Z, but the designations √l1, √l2 and √l3,
S1, S2 and S3 as well as e1, e2 and e3 are also used.

X>Y>Z

When the ellipsoid is fixed in space, the axes may be considered vectors of
given lengths and orientations. Knowledge of these vectors thus means
knowledge of both the shape and orientation of the ellipsoid. The vectors
are named e1, e2 and e3, where e1 is the longest and e3 the shortest
Uniform extension, also referred to as axially symmetric extension, is a
state of strain where stretching in X is compensated for by equal
shortening in the plane orthogonal to X.
Uniform flattening (axially symmetric flattening) is the opposite, with
shortening in a direction Z compensated for by identical stretching in
all directions perpendicular to Z.

These two reference states are end-members in a continuous

spectrum of
deformation types.
Between uniform flattening and extension lies plane strain, where stretching in
one direction is perfectly compensated by shortening in a single perpendicular
direction.

The strain is “plane” or two-dimensional because there is no stretching or

shortening in the third principal direction, i.e. along the Y-axis.

Within any body that has undergone a plane strain, there are always two lines of
no finite stretch along which there has been neither lengthening or shortening;
lines: oriented in these directions are characterized by stretch values of 1.0.

Strain is said to be plane (two-

dimensional) where there is no length
change along the Y-axis, while three-
dimensional strain implies a length
change along X and Z.

A plane strain deformation produces two

planes in which the rock appears
unstrained.
Uniaxial extension implies expansion in one direction. This may
occur by the formation of tensile fractures or veins or during
metamorphic reactions.

Uniaxial contraction: X=Y>Z, X=1

Uniaxial extension: X>Y=Z, Z=1
The component describing the rotation of material lines with respect to
the principal strain axes is measure of the degree of non-coaxiality.

If there it is zero, the strain history is coaxial, which is sometimes called

pure shear.

The non-coaxial strain history describes the case in which the distance
perpendicular to the shear plane (or the thickness of our stack of cards)
remains constant; this is also known as simple shear.
In reality, a combination of simple shear and pure shear occurs,
which we call general shear or general non-coaxial strain
accumulation;
 A strain sphere lies at the origin of
this plot (coordinates 1,1),
representing a = b = 1 or X = Y = Z =
1.

Ellipsoid shapes are increasingly

oblate for values of k approaching 0
and increasingly prolate for values of
k approaching α.
If k = 0, the strain is uniaxially oblate
(a = X/Y = 1), and if k = αα, the strain
is uniaxially prolate (b = Y/Z = 1). The
value
k = 1 represents the special case for
which a equals b, which is called
plane strain (X ≥ Y = 1 ≥ Z). The line
represented by k = 1 states
separates the field of constriction (∞
> k > 1) from the field of flattening (1
> k > 0) in the Flinn diagram.
The shape of the strain ellipsoid is represented by the parameter, k