Where: z= vertical coordinate (increasing towards

distance in the direction of flow down)

vs= volumetric flow rate (flow volume through ρ= fluid density
of a unit area of the porous medium by dp/ds = pressure gradient in s at the point
unit of time referred
µ= liquid viscosity completely filled transductive with the same
k= permeability of the medium liquid, then:
q= flow rate regime
A= area of the perpendicular cross-section k= C2qµL
to the flow lines C1A∆p (26)
C1, C2and C4they are constants, found in Table 6-
1, that make the units be After achieving the steady state (i.e., the∆p y
consistent. the flow rates are invariant with time), the
inlet valves y exits must be closed
[Link] Special Cases for Regime Flow simultaneously, y it must be allowed that the
Permanent of Incompressible Liquids pressure differential transducer reaches a
equilibrium. The equilibrium reading must be zero. If
Equation 22 can be simplified. a more forms it is not zero, this reading must be subtracted from the reading of
simple under special flow conditions. permanent regime.
Some of the most important are the following.
6.2.3 Decrease in Permeability under Stresses
[Link].1 Horizontal Flow of Liquids Elevated Grandsons

Since there is no vertical flow component, The permeability of the reservoir rock decreases
dz/ds = 0, and the integration of equation 22 results with increasing net efforts. The net effort for
en: permeability is usually defined as the
difference between restrictive effort and mean pressure of
k= C2qµ porous. Figure 6-9 illustrates the typical reduction of
C1Gf(p1-p2) (23) permeability with net hydrostatic stresses
increasing. The percentage reductions are due to
Where Gfit is a geometric factor that has the general seniors with permeability plugs
length dimension. The factors for axial flow, lower. For example, the permeabilities without
transversal, or radial are given in equations 27, 29, effort of plugs 6-2, 8-2 and 11-2 in Figure 6-9
30, respectively, after 6.3.1. they are around 700, 40, y 10 milidarcys,
respectively. The permeability of a sand of
[Link].2 Vertical Flow of Liquids gas compact (e.g., 0.01 millidarcy or less to zero
effort) can be reduced to 10 percent or less of
Two sub-cases arise, depending on whether the flow is its permeability without effort under high stress
descending or ascending, and dz/ds is equal to +1 or -1, net compressives.
respectively:
6.3 APPLICATIONS PRACTICES FOR
a. Downward flow with a driving head h PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS OF
(defined in Figure 6-6): PERMANENT REGIME

k= C2C4qµL Several practical configurations are described for the

C1Aρg(h+L) (24) routine measurement in steady state, first
for gases, then for liquids. Each one can
Where L is the length of the sample and h is the height to have advantages y specific limitations (e.g.,
from the drive head. If the drive head, h, is velocidade
zero, we have a free downward flow, in which the what can be adjusted, levels of effort
flow velocity is independent of the length of the achievable, directional measurements, susceptibility
sample. a mistake, etc.) that are explained in detail. If
certain precautions are presented to avoid dangers
b. Upstream flow with driving head, h, graves.
(defined in Figure 6-7): Although we calculated the permeability of a sample
finally, which is a measure of its conductivity
k= C2C4qµL fluid, it is the conductance of the sample that imposes
C1Aρgh 25 its smooth flow behavior. The conductance
it depends on the length of the routey the area
If an upward flow of regime is achieved available for flow, as well as permeability
permanent with an imposed pressure difference, from the sample. Therefore, the margin of
∆p, which is measured with a differential transducer measurable permeability can be extended in
of pressure with both ports at the same elevation some flow settings with the choice
(in the manner indicated in 6-8) and both lines sensory sample size. For example,
to maintain reasonable flow speeds with
axial flow when the permeabilities are very high, 30,000 milidarcy - a ratio of more than 3x107.
long samples can be prepared from small To accommodate this variation, measuring devices
diameter. Conversely, for low samples and/or control of multiple pressure margins y
permeability, the short plugs of larger diameter flow velocity must be suitable to be
great are convenient. Other conditions being inserted in a permeameter, or to choose between
equal, the maximum permeability that can be measured multiple built-in devices. To simplify, it
with precision with a three-inch plug of illustrates only a set of devices for each
length is three times larger than the one that configuration below.
you can measure with another identical one-inch plug.
The samples presented for measurement often
vary in permeability from less than 0.001 to more

Figure 6-6 - Downward Liquid Flow with Driving Head, h

Figure 6-7 - Upward Liquid Flow with Driving Head, h

Figure 6-8 - Upward Liquid Flow with Imposed Pressure Difference,∆p

Figure 6-9 - Reduction of Permeability with Increasing Net Hydrostatic Stress

6.3.1 Gases Note that∆p, used throughout this document

it is always a positive number. Therefore, it is equal
[Link] Steady State Axial Gas Flow a P1-P2p1-p o 2Ina the indicated manner
Permanent Previously, a capital P indicates pressure.
absolute, and a lowercase p is a difference of
A graphical arrangement is shown for the axial flow of pressure or a manometric pressure.
gases in Figure 6-10. A plug is mounted on The starting line can be ventilated directly to the
clean and dry cylindrical core or a sample of atmospheric pressure (when the current meter
full core of length L and diameter D in a upstream of the sample), connected to a
sample holder. The sample holder contains a sleeve flow rate measuring device, or to a
flexible in order to make a gas-tight joint back pressure regulator for the purpose of creating
on the cylindrical walls of the sample, and to apply high average pore pressures. In the second
radial restrictive efforts. The axial effort can In this case, the current meter may be current.
transfer to the sample by applying force to one or above the sample or downstream of the regulator
both end caps, by mechanical means, back pressure.
tires, or hydraulic. If the magnitudes of The volumetric flow rate, qr, can be measured.
radial effort and axial effort are equal, it is said in the upstream or downstream pressure, or in
that the sample is isostatic or hydrostatic some other pressure, which in all cases is
strenuous. If the magnitudes are unequal, the symbolized as Pr, an absolute pressure. If
the sample is biaxially stressed. When used suppose that the temperature at which it is measured
gases at relatively low pressures (up to about flow velocity is equal to the gas temperature
hundreds psig), the effects of gravity are current. Alternatively, the group (qrPr)/(zrTr), the
insignificant, and the sample holder can be oriented which is proportional to the mass flow velocity,
horizontally or vertically. it can be determined with a current meter of
The two end caps have an axial port for masses. See 6.6.2 for the calibration of meters
transport gas in and out of the mass flow and the application of results in the
sample. Each one must have radial slots and permeability calculation.
circulars or other means to distribute gas to all its
injection surface, and to collect gas from all [Link].1 Devices
parts of its output surface. Each plug
extreme, preferably, also contains a [Link].1.1 Under Restrictive Effort
second port to measure the current pressures
upstream and downstream, P1y P2respectively. The Figure 6-11 shows a flowchart
upstream pressure and the pressure difference,∆p, simplified for low pressure measurements. The
illustrated in Figure 6-10, or the pressure downstream Figure 6-12 shows a core type support
and the pressure difference. However, the lines Low pressure hassler, in which it is applied
to connect the devices that measure pressure you can typically a radial restricting effort of 400 psi and
being derivatives of the flow lines near the an axial effort of unknown magnitude in a
axial ports, as long as they are sufficient core plugs 3 inches (19- a 76-
large enough not to cause pressure drops millimeters) in length with a diameter of 1.0- or 1.5-
significant between each connection and the surface inches (25 or 38 millimeters). These dimensions and
corresponding to the sample. It is essential that the efforts have become virtually standard in the
branching of each connection (not the route) is conventional analysis of low effort cores.
connected to the pressure transducer. Otherwise, transmits a radial force to the cap when applied
the effects of dynamic pressure can influence a pneumatic or hydraulic pressure to the annular space
the pressure measurements. between the rubber sleeve and the core support. The
axial effort is typically transmitted from a axial effort is equal to the hydraulic pressure applied to
screw that restricts the cap at the lowest end. the rubber sleeve, then the core cap is
Normally, this effort is not measured, and it is something hydrostatically stressed. Otherwise, it is
dependent on the operator. bi-axially stressed. In addition to its capacity of
The Fancher type core supports (see page 35) provide unequal efforts, the greatest advantage
from API RP 40, 1960) are not recommended due to the of this type of core support is that it does not
sealed operator-dependent and non-reproducible and requires disassembly to change samples.
the restrictive efforts produced. The restrictive pressure is discharged (and often people)
apply a vacuum to enlarge the sleeve), the plug
[Link].1.2 High Restrictive Effort the lower end is withdrawn, the sample is removed
previous, and the new sample is inserted.
Figure 6-13 illustrates a core support for Strict precautions must be observed.
apply hydrostatic efforts, typically up to a safety both in design and operation of
maximum of 10,000 psi. For safety, it is recommended high pressure equipment. None of the parties
a minimization of gas diffusion through the that contain high pressures may suffer
manga, and to prevent corrosion, it is recommended permanent deformation a pressures at least
hydraulic oil or a heavy mineral oil for equal to 1.5 times the maximum operating pressure, or
generation of effort. The area of the section otherwise, they must comply with local codes.
transversal of the tube that connects the end cap nationals, o internationals that apply for
internal with the external pressure vessel reduces the high-pressure containers.
axial effort in this core support. For piping [Link].2 Calculations
O.D. of 1/8 inch, the reduction is not large, but
with larger diameters, the axial effort can be The gas permeability, k, is calculated.g, with the
significantly less than the radial effort equation 19 (see [Link]). If multiple are made
generated. For operation at room temperature, measurements at different mean pore pressures,
a durometer of 40 to 70 (Shore hardness) is recommended k is obtained∞ and b of a Klinkenberg diagram (see
A), nitrile (Buna-N) rubber in sleeve thicknesses of Figure 6-5), or a linear regression described above. If
0.125 to 0.25 inches. A lower durometer and thickness. b is found with a correlation, then k∞ himself
They can be used for lower pressures. An occurrence happens. calculate with equation 18. These statements
cold flow with greater effort and temperature. In they also apply to all other settings
efforts above 6,500 psi, the durometers of gas flow indicated later. The factor
Above 70 are desirable to extend life. geometric for the axial flow in equations 18 and 19
from the sleeve.
Figure 6-14 illustrates a high core support
pressure that can be used to apply loads Gf = πD2
hydrostatics or biaxials to the core plugs. The 4L (27)
axial effort is generated by a intensifier of
effort. A pneumatic or hydraulic pressure pushes Traditionally, when a core plug or a
about a piston with a larger diameter than that of the entire core is cut so that its axis remains
end cap. The resultant force is transmitted by parallel to the seating surfaces or the direction of
the extreme lower stopper to the sample. The pressure permeability, the measured permeability is called
required is inversely proportional to the relationship "horizontal" permeability, kHIn the same way, a
of areas. For example, if the largest piston has vertical permeability, kv, it is obtained when the axis
an area 10 times that of the extreme stopper, a pressure of of the sample is perpendicular to the surfaces of
600 psig applied to the large piston would transmit a seat.
effort of 6,000 psi at the core plug. If the

Figure 6-10 - Graph of the Permeability Device for Axial Gas Flow

Figure 6-11 - Simplified Flow Diagram for Low Pressure, Axial Gas Flow Permeability Measurements

Figure 6-12 - Low Pressure Core Support Type Hassler

Figure 6-13 - High Pressure Core Support for Hydrostatic Tension

Figure 6-14 - High Pressure Core Support for Hydrostatically or Biaxially Loaded

consequently, there is a large database

[Link].3 Advantages historical for direct comparison.
b. The gas does not react with rock, and the samples are
The advantages of this method include: clean at the end of the measurements.
c. The technique lends itself to a wide variety of
a. The experimental method is simple and equipment.
has been a With a low core support
industry model for many years. By Hassler type pressure, manometers, devices of
volumetric flow of orifice type, and the acquisition
 data manual, capital costs are low. produce an effective permeability in some
However, a device is recommended Oil and water saturation unknown. You are
improved to include a core support measurements can be made to nearby spaces to
high-pressure hydrostatic or biaxial systems determine the variation of permeability in a
automated control and acquisition of heterogeneous training. The instruments to take
data. these measures are generally called
d. The current meters and transducers exploring permeameters, or mini-permeameters.
pressure can be easily exchanged A true geometry of hemispherical flow
to extend the permeability margin. I would require a large isotropic sample. y
homogeneous with a flat upper surface, (b) a
[Link].4 Precautions and Limitations hemispherical cavity beneath this surface,
immediately below the probe, with a radius, ri,
The precautions and limitations of this method equal to the inner radius of the probe occluder, (c) a
include: very large (infinite) extension of the sample in all
the directions beneath the contact surface, and
a. The practical lower limit of permeability with an occluder everywhere on this surface
this technique is around 0.1 millidarcy. In except for above the hemispherical cavity. As
low permeability rocks the required time these conditions are not practical at all, Goggin, et
to achieve a permanent regime it becomes al.19made numerous calculations to produce factors
long, and flow measurements can become of dimensionless geometric flow that compensates the
somewhat inaccurate. lack of a hemispherical cavity on the surface of
b. The main disadvantage of low measurements a small finite sample, and a sound probe occluder of
effort without slip correction a small finite inner and outer radius.
typically, radial restrictive effort of 400 These dimensionless factors are illustrated in the
psi y unknown axial effort) is that Figure 6-16 as a function of the radius ratio
they overestimate the permeability of reservoirs in exterior, ro, of the probe's occluder with its radius
the site, especially in compact samples. interior, ri. For the true semi-hemispheric flow
The Klinkenberg slip correction infinity, G0 would be equal to 2π. The relationship shown in
it can be done with measurements in different Figure 6-16 is for samples with a surface.
average pore pressures, but the measurements superior plane and the lateral extension and depth
routines are usually done in one go sufficient for the outer limits to have none
pressure, and this pressure is rarely reported. If influence on permeability measurements.
this pressure is not reported, it is difficult to normalize it For practical purposes, the factors shown
permeability y no is specified can be used with little error on samples that
completely. The gas used must be reported they have a depth of at least four times
and the average pore pressure. If a the inner radius of the probe occluder, and where the
gas slip correction with a the nearest lateral limit is at least 4ri from the axis of the
correlation, this fact must be reported. probe. In addition, there is little error if it is placed
c. The achievement of the Stokes flow, especially the probe on a cylindrical surface of the sample,
with high permeability samples, they can be whenever a gas tight joint is made
difficult to ascertain with measurements of a single one positive, the sample radius is at least 12ri, and
point. The measurements must be reviewed according to the the indicated limit restrictions are observed for
section [Link] to ensure that it has not the sample. See Goggin, et al.19 for the factors
maximum past∆p/L permitted. dimensionless geometric shapes related to the
It is critical to cut ends perfectly. closest limits.
squares in the core plugs,
especially with high restrictive efforts. [Link].1 Devices
A point high will receivea effort
disproportionately high, which could For gas permeability measurements (see
crush this portion of the cork. This, by Figure 6-15), the probe must have an occluder of
assumed, applies to all techniques that soft rubber that has riyou areodimensionally
they involve cylindrical core plugs. stable (or reproducible) when pressure is applied
About the sample, and means to produce a force
[Link] Permeability Measurements of Probes of constant and reproducible sealing. This force of
of Permanent Regime with Gases Sealing must be suitable to prevent leaks of
gas in some part of the contact surface between
When the gas flows from the end of a tube the occluder and the rock. The inner radius of the occluder is
small diameter (or "probe") sealed against the typically from 2 to 3 millimeters, and the relation of its
surface of a core sample sliced or The interior to exterior radio typically ranges from 1.5 to 2.5.
without cutting, or an outcrop of permeable rock, the The smaller radios and relationships produce
flow pattern is something similar to the hemispherical flow more resolution concerning the heterogeneity to
(see Figure 6-15). This configuration is used small scale, and the larger values are used
a lot to do permeability measurements of to obtain more permeability averaging.
inexpensive, non-destructive gas without effort These dimensions must also have a scale.
within reduced radii of influence. If the common with the roughness of the texture of the rock.
the cores are not clean and dry, a measurement
The probe is positioned above a desired point.
a sample, which must be related to the The precautions and limitations of this method
depth and relative position to the axis of the core or include:
some other reference point. The probe is lowered to the
surface of the rock, and it becomes occlusion against it. a. Minimum flow path lengths in
Gas is sent at pressure P1 from the probe to the sample. a sample (from ri to ro) varies from 0.2 to 0.4
This comes out of the sample at atmospheric pressure. cm. for typical tip occluders of
you must take measures to regulate the pressure inside probe. Most of the total fall of
the sample, and to measure the pressure and the speed pressure occurs within this distance, the
volumetric gas flow at this pressure. If what is one order of magnitude shorter than
select the margin of the current meters the length of the path for the axial flow a
based on the researched permeability. It is recorded through most of the plugs of
the pressure and flow rate when both are core. The injection pressure, p1, must
constants. to be reduced accordingly for
avoid an inertial resistance of flow
[Link].2 Calculations significant. Although Goggin, et al.19
proposed a "high flow correction"
From these measurements, plus the dimensions of the speed" using a correlation to
occluders, atmospheric pressure, and viscosity of obtainβthis correction can only
gas,kgIt can be calculated from Equation 19, where, if approach with a single measurement
p1it is the gauge pressure upstream: speed, becauseβ varies by at least + one
order of magnitude in permeability
P1= p1+ Pa, given for most of the margins of
permeability. However, this
P2= Pa, correction is smaller the lower it is
it is the injection pressure.
Pr= P1, b. Almost zero effort is applied to the rock
during a measurement. Therefore, the
Y permeabilities tend a be very
Gf= GorI (28) optimistic, especially in samples
compact. If the corrections are not made
The obtained permeability is loaded more. Klinkenberg (with a correlation), the
strongly (in non-homogeneous samples) within permeability is even more overestimated,
y
a radius equal to the radius of the inner occluder, especially in rock of low
progressively less with increasing radii. permeability.
Due to the small volume of rock investigated, the c. A less than the tip of the probe is
macro scale permeability must be obtained with the restricted laterally, y sea
appropriate averaging techniques. essentially flat at the bottom (in the
condition without effort) its geometric factor
[Link].3 Advantages it can be very sensitive to effort.
applied seal. This effort, for the
The advantages of this method include: therefore, it must be highly reproducible.
d. Although the technique can be used on
a. The method is not destructive in the sense whole core segments, it is recommended
that there is no need to cut the stoppers the roof to remove the solid invasion
of core. It is fast and has low costs, of clay and other surface contamination,
thus allowing high sampling and to have a flat and smooth surface for
density. the sealing of the probe tip, which is
b. The probe investigates only a small difficult to guarantee otherwise.
rock volume. The measurement is appropriate e. If the surface of the core is not dry, the
for the research of the variation of permeability measure can to be
spatial permeability in cores that erroneously low due to the effects
they contain laminations thin y severities of relative permeability. The
heterogeneity a small scale. It permeability can be increased with the
You can measure the variation of permeability time, and then stabilize when the
directional around the circumference of mobile liquids evaporate or move away from
a whole nucleus. the tip of the probe.
c. The device can be designed for service. f. The probe tip occluders must
portable well y for use on check regularly to verify that
outcroppings, as long as it can be achieved no wear, deterioration, and grains of
an adequate occlusion. embedded arenas. In addition, they must
d. With multiple current meters, one change when necessary. It's useful
can measure a permeability margin conduct periodic leak tests
from 1 to 10,000 milidarcys. on a smooth waterproof surface and
plan to detect defects or inclusions.
[Link].4 Precautions and Limitations
g. Due to the small volume of rock A whole core sample can be placed in a
investigated by this technique, the large core support for measurements of
permeabilities at the macro scale must longitudinal 'vertical' permeability, before or after
obtain using the appropriate techniques from the cross-sectional measurements. The calculations are
of averaging. those for axial flow (see [Link].2).

[Link] Transversal Gas Flow in Regime [Link].2 Advantages

Permanent
The advantages of this method include:
This technique is mainly used to measure the
horizontal directional permeability in (but not a. Measurements on core samples
limited to a) full core samples. The gas flows entirely involve large volumes of rock,
from an input mesh that covers an angle like thisallowing a considerable
implicitθ and the entire length L of a sample of permeability averaging. This
whole core (or core plug), through the minimize the effect of heterogeneity to
sample, and even a similar output mesh placed small scale.
diametrically across the input mesh (see b. In targeted samples of full core, there
Figure 6-17). The flow pattern is complex, and the area they can take orthogonal measurements for
normal to the streamlines for gas flow determine the directional permeability.
it is variable throughout the flow path. Collins20,
using a representation transformation [Link].3 Precautions and Limitations
as agreed, calculated a geometric factor without
dimensions, GθThis is shown in Figure 6-18, The precautions and limitations of this method
and it is a function of the angle subtended by the meshes. The include:
permeability is usually measured in two
directions - one giving the maximum value (usually a. A whole core sample is very rarely
in the main breaking direction or the direction of cut precisely normal or parallel to the
permeability), and the other at 90 degrees to the maximum. surface of the rock. Therefore, the
vertical permeabilities y horizontal
[Link].1 Devices and Calculations defined in a conventional manner will not be able to
obtain oneselfexactly with measurements
The system and the flow measurements required for the longitudinal y transversals, in these
calculation of the transverse flow permeabilities are samples.
similar to those for axial flow in regime b. The larger samples take a long time
permanent. Figure 6-19 shows a support of but to clean, dry and reach regulation
Hassler type cores for measurements of permanent. Therefore, the experiments are
transverse permeability. The gas is allowed to enter and more time-consuming and more expensive than those
exit the sample a through openings about core plugs.
diametrically opposed across the sleeve. These c. The same precautions must be observed
they connect to two woven meshes that cover the entire related to gas slipping and the
sample length y a subtended angle inertial resistance, indicated in [Link].4 for the
known about its circumference. If the angle axial flow.
the subtended angle of each mesh is 90 degrees, then
the dimensionless geometric factor, Gθ, is equal to [Link] Radial Gas Flow in Steady State
1.0. Sealing materials must not penetrate into Permanent
the fabric nor restrict the flow. Both ends of the
Samples are sealed with soft rubber discs. Figure 6-20 shows the flow configuration for
the radial flow in steady state. The surface
Figure 6-17 - Cross Flow Configuration for the upper and lower of a clean cylindrical sample
Gases or Liquids length L and outer radius rein which it
cut an inner axial diameter of radius rw, they are sealed
Figure 6-18 - Dimensionless Geometric Factor everywhere except above the diameter
for central interior. The gas at pressure P1flows from the
The Transversal Flow cylindrical surface not sealed radially until the
central inner diameter, and exits at a pressure P2. From
Figure 6-19 - Hassler Type Core Holder for the opposite, the system and the flow measurements are
Transverse Permeability Measurements equal to those of the axial flow. In principle, it can be
invert the flow direction so that the gas is
The dimensional geometric factor a use in the injected into the central inner diameter at pressure P,
Equations 18 or 19 for transverse flow are: and exit through the outer cylindrical surface to the
pressure P. However, generally it is not
Gf = L recommend an injection to the well because its area of
Gθ (29) reduced flow is more prone to damage due to
particle traces in injected fluids.

[Link].1 Devices and Procedure

 easily to the application of high stress
The full diameter radial permeameter, for the measurement of a realistic permeability
shown in Figure 21, consists of three parts; the of in situ deposits.
cell, which is large enough to A large part of the core material is altered
maintain a uniform inlet pressure; a piston through the central opening required for this technique,
to apply the sealing force; and the plate equipment and the sample usually cannot be used for
floating consisting of a fixed lower plate, a ball other tests.
of the pivot, three springs at 120 degrees each, and the
upper floating plate. Figure 6-20 - Schematic for the Radial Inlet Flow
The core is placed on a rubber packing.
1 inch thick solid attached to the plate 6.3.2 Liquids
lower float. Then the core is raised against the
closed lid, the central hole of the core aligned with The permeability devices for liquids in
the superior packaging. While it increases the permanent regime has many characteristics in
piston pressure, the lower floating plate is adjusted common with those for gas. The differences between
automatically if the ends are not parallel. liquids and gases that may require modifications
To check if there is an air leak between the of teams are: the viscosity and density of liquids
ends of the core and the rubber gaskets, are they are considerably greater and the compressibility
increase the pressure of the piston. A decrease in it a lot minor what the properties
the flow velocity indicates that there has been a leak. corresponding for gas. In addition, liquids
This test is repeated until no difference is noted. (especially aqueous solutions that contain
change in flow rate. sales) can be corrosive, support the activity
microbial, and react with the components of
[Link].2 Calculations clay and minerals in the rock.
It is often observed that the permeability to the
The flow velocities and pressure drops are liquids is less than the gas permeability with
measures and used in the same way as the measurements slip correction. This may be due to
of axial flow. The steady state is achieved when partly due to the liquid-clay interaction (especially
both become invariable over time. The with aqueous solutions), migration of fines with high
permeability, kg, is calculated with Equation 19, in liquid flow rates, or liquid saturation
where the geometric factor for radial flow is: incomplete.

Gf = 2πL [Link] Measurements of Permeability of

le/rw] (30) Liquids in Steady State with a
∆Tax
The average permeability of the samples is not
homogeneous is loaded more heavily by the [Link].1 Devices
permeability in the inner radius of the well, rw (where
the pressure gradient is greater), and progressively This type of permeability apparatus does not depend on
less in larger radios. the liquid heads for fluid delivery. It is
composed of three separate units: a
[Link].3 Advantages sample holder, a pressure measurement system, and
a fluid distribution system. Except for the
The measured permeability was averaged over the whole corrosion resistance and compatibility of the sleeve
length of the sample and in all directions made of rubber with a specific liquid, the sample holder,
radials. the distribution lines, and the measuring equipment
of pressure for permeability measurements of
[Link].4 Precautions and Limitations Liquids are not different from systems for gases.
The greater density of liquids requires more
The precautions and limitations of this method attention to the liquid heads. These normally
include: they cancel out with the horizontal flow, as long as
both openings of the differential transducer
a. Permeability is critically dependent pressure used should be at the same elevation, and that
from the internal radius of the inner diameter of the well. all pressure measurement lines are
Small errors in its value, especially with completely filled with the same fluid as the fluid
small diameter openings will cause current, and that they are at the same temperature. In
big permeability errors. In a way this case, when the flow ends through the
similar, the induced breaks or the damages of sample, the reading∆p should reach zero. Down
the surface wax of this hole will affect the these circumstances, Equation 23 (see [Link].1), the
enormously apparent permeability. which applies to horizontal flow, it is also valid
b. The preparation of samples for this measurement for ascending and descending vertical flow (see
It is not easy. Therefore, the test tends to be comments after Equation 26 in [Link].2).
something more expensive than the settings Due to the viscosity multiplied by 50 (or more) of
alternatives. most of the liquids compared to that of
c. Axial efforts are not balanced by the gases, the flow velocities of liquids are
radial efforts. The method does not adapt correspondingly smaller in the same gradient
of pressure. The fluid distribution system is
normally a primary source flow rate The liquid to be used must be filtered well through a
constant or a source of constant pressure that can fine filter just before use. A 0.2 filter
regulate to result in a flow rate micrones will remove bacteria as well as particles
constant. The bombs volumetric of solids. A completely test sample
positive displacement of a time they offer saturated must be loaded carefully into a
more precise means to distribute a liquid to a appropriate sample holder, ensuring that nothing remains
controlled constant speed. The use of these air trapped during the process. Then they are applied
bombs eliminate the need to collect the restrictive efforts. In the absence of other data
fluids produced from a nucleus to determine the of permeability, a must apply a∆p low or a
flow rate. However, the contained volume low flow rate initially to allow for
in a time bomb can be insufficient the operator makes an initial approximation of
to achieve the steady state. To eliminate the permeability, and thus set the speed conditions
pressure disorders y the discontinuities of of flow and pressure drop, and select the equipment
fully flow velocity, it is recommended two appropriate for these measurements. See A.6.8.1 for
bombs and a sophisticated control system for a determine the maximum∆p/L to avoid a resistance
single-step flow system y three are significant inertia. However, this generally
suitable for a recirculatory flow system. it's not a serious problem with liquids. It should be taken into account
A slow achievement of permanent regime, as long as care to avoid the mobilization of rock fines.
I did not change the permeability of the sample due to a The current that comes out must be collected and observed.
progressive plugging, interaction of clay o to check for contamination. The efforts
minerals, etc., is due to the high storage restrictions must be adjusted to obtain the effort
comprehensive in the system. Storage desired net.
compressive is the product of the volume in the Strict control must be maintained over the
effective compressibility of each component in the temperature to ensure a constant viscosity,
system. The effective compressibility is the sum of y to avoid changes in the flow rate
the compressibilities of the fluid and the vessel. volumetric with the expansion or contraction of liquid.
compressibility fluid can to be reduced This is especially critical when it comes to
notably (if gas is present) applying a high large containers, accompanied by lows
back pressure in the system, thus dissolving the movement speeds of a pump
gas bubbles. Care must be taken to remove them. positive displacement volumetric, with plugs
the gas trapped in the system, and to degasify the of low permeability. Large variations in the
liquids applying a vacuum cleaner. The compressibility flow velocity can occur in this situation with
the container is reduced by making the containers smaller small changes in temperature over short periods
rigid. The system volumes must time intervals. The critical factor is speed
minimize where possible. The use of containers thermally induced volumetric expansion,∆q:
of transfer (where, for example, the oil of a
pump displaces a saline solution injected into a ∆q =β TV(dT/dt)
core plug) at least doubles the volume, in
comparison with direct displacement of relative a the speed of movement of the
saline solution of the pump. However, the bomb
corrosion considerations can prevent pumping
direct. When the compressive storage is Where:
almost zero and the permeability remains constant, the βTvolumetric thermal expansion coefficient of
achievement of a permanent regime is virtually liquids, °C-1o ºF-1.
instantaneous. V = volume of liquid being displaced.
When a chromatography-type pump is used, the dT/dt = rate of change of temperature
the operator must ensure that its distribution is
tested in the entire scope to employ. To calculate To illustrate, suppose a volumetric pump of
the permeability, the flow velocities must positive displacement contains 1,000 c3of the dean
to measure independently. This can be achieved What is being injected a a low plug
collecting and weighing the liquid produced in a permeability at a displacement speed
weighing container on an electronic scale at nominal of 1,000 cm3and that the temperature of
timed frequent intervals. It is calculated the the decano increases to 0.002ºF/minute, due to
flow velocity by dividing the speed changes in the ambient temperature. The coefficient
of mass accumulation by the density of the liquid. The thermal expansion of decane is around 5.5.
Constant pressure systems use a source x 10-4volumes per volume per degree F. For the
from gas or liquid to displace the degassed liquid Thus, the thermal expansion of decane is 5.5 x 10-4
from a container and through the sample. The liquid to x 1000, 0.002 = 0.011 cm3/min. With the speed of
displacing is content in a piston accumulator or pump displacement of 0.0166 cm3/min, this
a foldable rubber bag. The fluid that displaces causes a flow rate error of 66%
it passes through a pressure regulator. In the case hundred percent of the nominal speed! If it were to increase the
of chromatographic type pumps, the speed of speed of movement by a factor of 10,
flow must be determined independently. the error would be reduced to 6.6 percent. Additionally, if
reduce the pump volume to 10 cm3, the error
[Link].2 Procedures and Calculations
it would only be 0.066 percent. Another way to reduce the b. The resilient teams a corrosion, of
volumetric expansion is increase the mass high pressure pumping and control are
thermal of the pump, and improve its insulation. costly.
With a distribution system with constant pressure c. Care must be taken to avoid fluids that
(in which the flow rate must be determined they affect the components of the rock.
independently), the thermal expansion of liquids d. The measurements of liquids in regime
in its displacement vessel it is not a permanent with low permeability plugs
problem, whenever the pressure regulator they can be difficult to carry out accurately, and
upstream current is to have automatic discharge. In this They require long periods to achieve the regime.
in case the pressure remains constant despite the permanent. Small ones are recommended
thermal expansion. volumes, short lengths of plugs,
After the flow rate and the difference of low compressive storages, y one
pressures have stabilized, these must be read very strict temperature control.
and registered, and then the flow must be terminated. The
transductive lines must be completely filled [Link] Measurements of Permeability of
with the test liquid and both openings must Liquids in Regime Permanent
to be at the same elevation. After the Using Liquid Heads
pressure difference has stabilized with the flow
at zero, this is read. If it is not zero, the reading must Figures 6-6 and 6-7 (Section [Link].2) show
step back from the∆stabilizedcurrent. The two configurations for axial flow measurements in
liquid permeability is calculated with the Equation in which the liquid is supplied at a speed and
23, using the dimensional geometric factor constant pressure through liquid heads
appropriate, Gf. These factors for axial flow, flow constants. The configuration of Figure 6-7 is
transversal and radial flow are given in the equations. especially useful for low precision measurements
27, 29 and 30, respectively. With the previous ones cost with permeability core plugs
restrictions for transducer lines, Equation 23 moderate to high. No pump or any required.
applies to the vertical upward axial flow o pressure transducer. The input reservoir with
descending as well as to the horizontal flow for adjustable height and the fixed output tank both
all three geometric configurations. they have overflow drains. The liquid is allowed to
After the measurement has been completed and I entered the receiving depot from another container of
go and remove the sample for further analysis, it will supply to a higher elevation through a
he must be careful to ensure that, like the measurement valve at a slightly
the sample expands while the effort decreases greater than that which accepts the rock sample. The excess
restrictive, becomes saturated with liquid and prevents the entry of liquid flows through the drain and is collected for
air. future recycling in the supply container. The
liquid that spills from the output tank falls into a
[Link].3 Advantages weighing container on an electronic scale. The
volumetric flow rate, q, is calculated by dividing
The advantages of this method include: the rate of mass accumulation (from measurements
of weight and intervals) by the density of the liquid, the
a. Pressure differences for Stokes flow with which must be determined. The permeability is calculated
liquids are larger and easier to measure than with Equation 25, whereρ it is the density of the liquid
those with gas, especially for at the measurement temperature, g is the local value of
high permeability samples. gravitational acceleration, and h is the difference in
b. No sliding correction is required. elevation between the free surfaces of the two
gas. liquid heads. How very little is used
c. The measurements of liquid permeability counterpressure, you must be very careful to
taken carefully can be more remove air from all portions of the system,
representative of the permeabilities of the including the core plug.
deposit. For samples of very high permeability (10 to 40
d. Sample drying is not required, a darcys), the configuration of Figure 6-7 is useful
potentially harmful operation. because the overflow drain in the current container
e. The measurements of liquid permeability below minimizes the variation in the liquid head
they can be beneficial if the analyses due to capillary adhesive forces. These forces
additional ones require that the plug is saturated with they can be significant at the tip of nozzles or
the same liquid. small diameter outlet openings, creating
a great relative variation in the∆p.
[Link].4 Precautions and Limitations
6.4 THEORY Y APPLICATION DE
The precautions and limitations of this method DETERMINATIONS DE
include: PERMEABILITY EN REGIME
VARIABLE
a. The saturation and preparation of the sample of
rock, and the preparation and handling of liquids is The arrival of high data acquisition systems
generally more difficult and time-consuming than the speed, precise pressure transducers, y
preparations for gas measurements. digital computers have made it not only
feasible, but not convenient to measure permeabilities under the pressure in the upstream reservoir, typically
transitory flow conditions or variable regime. by 2 to 3 percent of the initial pressure, causing a
Transient measurements use deposits of pressure drive to flow through the sample.
fixed volume for gas or liquid. These can This technique is suitable for low samples.
located upstream of the sample - of which permeability, 0.1 millidarcy a 0.01 microdarcy.
the gas or liquid flows to the sample to be measured, or Small differences of low ypressure
downstream - to which flows from the sample, or permeabilities virtually eliminate resistance
in both parts. When the fluid flows from a flow inertia. Only techniques will be discussed
upstream reservoir, its pressure in that reservoir "retard" in this document. These produce
decreases over time. Similarly, when general permeabilities that are comparable to
the fluid flows to a downstream reservoir, the pressure the values of steady state. The variations
there increases over time. Flow speeds Early 'transients' provide information
Snapshots can be calculated from the volume of related to heterogeneity in the samples,
deposit and the instantaneous rate of change of what is beyond the proposed scope for this
pressure, overlooking the need for a device of document.
flow velocity measurement. The other technique is called the 'drop method.'
When the fluid expands, it does work on pressure". This is characterized by the use of only
flow at the expense of the loss of internal energy. This upstream deposits. The current end
observe how a decrease in its temperature. under the sample opens to atmospheric pressure.
In a similar way, when the fluid is compressed, it The maximum upstream pressure used is
do work about him, y its temperature quite low, 10 to 250 psig (varying inversely
increases. Like the flow rates with the permeability to measure). A single drop of
snapshots are calculated from the speeds of transient pressure produces data for 6 to 30 calculations
pressure changes, it is mandatory to maintain separated by permeability, each one in a
isothermal conditions, o measure temperatures flow velocity and an average pore pressure
snapshots and use mathematical formulations different. An appropriate variation of the
appropriate. The equations presented in this flow conditions during a transient test
The document assumes isothermal conditions. makes it possible to calculate permeability with
slip correction (Klinkenberg) (k ∞) the
6.4.1 Transient Pressure Techniques for Klinkenberg sliding factor (b), y the
Gases inertial resistivityβ) of the porous medium. This
technique, which has a useful range of permeability
Fortunately, the gas has a low capacity. from 0.001 to 30,000 millidarcies (through the use of
thermal, and the temperature changes related multiple upstream gas deposits y
with work they can be virtually eliminated pressure transducers), complements the method of
manufacturing high conductivity material deposits impulse drop. For high samples
thermal and packing them with parallel copper tubes permeability (>1.000 md), where b is small, is
to the flow axis. Also, where high anticipations are expected. difficult to determine b accurately when a sample
flow rates (with high samples is open to atmospheric pressure. This is more
permeability), helium is the best choice. Its reliably approximated with a correlation.
the diffusion coefficient is much higher than that of In addition to the physical differences between the systems
air or nitrogen. of flow, the approaches for derivation of
Other potential thermal issues may arise flow equations are quite different for the
of changes in ambient temperature in momentum drop techniques and pressure drop techniques.
long-term measurements of low samples In the first, the Darcy equation and the equation of
permeability, and the Joule-Thomson expansion continuity (which is a manifestation of the
while the gas flows through a sample. The conservation of the masa) if they solve
first it is minimized with excellent insulation simultaneously. In the pressure drop method,
thermal, an improved control of temperature the steady state solution of the equation
environment, and reducing the measurement time. The Forchheimer with slip correction is
Joule-Thomson expansion is ideally managed uses as a starting point. This solution is derived,
using helium, which increases in temperature (to which does not account for the increase in mass flow
environmental conditions) when expanding, unlike with distance in the length of a sample in some
all other gases except hydrogen. This specific instant (with variable regime flow).
warming tends to neutralize cooling Then this is inserted into the equation of
related to work. continuity, which is integrated to provide
Two main categories of techniques have emerged a correction (and improvement) in the equation
transient pressure to measure permeability in the end of flow. This process is repeated iteratively
laboratory. One is called the method of 'falling' until both the equation can be satisfied
impulse." This is characterized by the use of deposits Forchheimer like that of continuity.
both upstream and downstream, which The deviation between the steady-state solutions
are relatively small in volume. These and the permanent and pressure drop obtained like this
samples are filled with gas at a fairly high pressure, it depends on the relationship of the porosity volume of the
1,000 to 2,000 psig, which reduces the slip and the show with the volume of the regular gas tank
compressibility of gas. After achieving a above. When this relationship is small, the solution
pressure equilibrium throughout the system increases the permanent regime is almost exact. While it
increase the relationship (larger PV or volume of measurements can be controlled for a wide
smaller deposit), the correction that must range of permeabilities providing various
to apply to the solution of steady state is deposit volumes - small for lows
increases progressively. permeabilities y but big for
higher permeabilities.
[Link] Pressure Drop, Axial Gas Flow e. The practical permeability margin is 0.001
a 30,000 milidarcys if multiple are used
[Link].1 Devices and Procedure volumes of deposit y margins
transducers.
The pressure drop device (see Figure 6-22) f. A deviation from Stokes flow does not have
uses a gas distributor upstream which is importance. This is compensated in the
connected a a sample holder capable of applying data analysis framework.
hydrostatic efforts on a cylindrical sample of g. Permeability measurements with correction
diameter D and length L. A gas reservoir of sliding in high restrictive stresses
above calibrated volume can be connected, or they reflect the conditions of deposits with more
isolate from, the calibrated volume of the distributor by precision, especially for low samples
through a valve. (Multiple are used permeability.
volumes in the warehouse to accommodate a wide
range of permeabilities). The outlet opening of the Figure 6-22 - Diagram for Gas Permeameter
sample holder opens to the atmosphere. This opening Pressure Drop
it has a valve that can be closed for purposes
At startup. An exact transducer is connected. [Link].4 Precautions and Limitations
pressure that measures the gauge pressure at
distributor immediately upstream of the The precautions and limitations of this method
sample holder. include:
The tank, the distributor, and the sample are filled - in the
outlet valve - with gas. After a few a. To minimize thermal effects with the
seconds to thermal equilibrium, the valve opens high permeability plugs should be used
output to start the transient pressure variation. low filling pressures (<25 psig), diameters
When the upstream pressure has dropped a small (1 inch), and long lengths (>2
around 85 percent of the filling pressure, inches).
time during which a flat profile is established b. To minimize the measurement time with
pressure along the entire length of the sample, it begins low permeability samples, the diameter of the
the data collection. They read and record the the stopper should be large (1.5 inches) and its
pressures in selected intervals and the times short length (> 1.5 inches)
corresponding elapsed. c. The technique requires pressure transducers of
high quality, fast acquisition equipment of
[Link].2 Calculations data, and a high demand for computing. For the
thus, as a practical matter, a
The procedures for calculating k are indicated.∞, b yβ digital computer.
from the axial pressure drop data in B.6.8.2. d. Gas deposits must have a mass
considerable thermal effect and a high capacity of
[Link].3 Advantages heat transfer to avoid changes in
temperature related to work during
The advantages of this method include: the expansion of gas, especially with the
high permeability samples. The changes of
a. Permeability can be determined with temperatures are further minimized using
corrected slip, k∞, the factor of hello, and reducing the starting pressure to
Klinkenberg gas slip, b (up to these drop tests. The high samples
1.000 md), and the Forchheimer coefficient of permeability also requires openings of
inertial resistivityβ, with only one test of large diameter in the distribution system of
pressure drop. gas to minimize pressure differences
b. The permeability withoutcorrection of internal.
sliding, kg, can be calculated (see Low permeability samples require a
[Link].5) with these results for any free escape system (for this or any
desired gas at any average pressure of another technique), and there can be no deviations in the
pores for comparison purposes with sample holder (after the rubber sleeve).
conventional measurements. Thermal insulation must be provided for
c. Current meters are not required for the minimize the induced temperature changes
method. The flow velocities are calculated due to changes in the environment.
with pressure-time measurements. f. Low permeability samples often
d. For a core plug of a permeability they show an extreme sensitivity to effort.
dad, the time required for the pressure When the average pore pressure decreases,
the drop from one pressure to another is direct the net effort increases (with an effort
proportional to the volume of the gas tank constant restrictive) y permeability
upstream. Therefore, the times of decreases. In the calculations, it is assumed that the
 permeability remains constant throughout indicated correction, the valuesairancient about
the drop in pressure. This assumption may a comparable rock can be taller if the
result in the calculation of aβ low or negative in new measurements were taken in efforts
very sensitive samples to stress. Like the significantly higher. Additionally, it is possible that
the biggest changes in permeability occur the old databases do not include pressure
in low net efforts, the sensitivity to average and the temperature required to perform these
effort is minimized by taking measurements at calculations.
net efforts higher (>2000 psi), y
decreasing the variation in pore pressure [Link] Pressure Drop, Measurements of
during a test. Gas Permeability with Probe

[Link].5 Calculation of Gas Permeability with The pressure drop technique adapts easily.
Klinkenberg Permeability for measurements with exploratory permeameter for
provide fast and non-gas permeabilities
Due to the historical frequency of the measurements of corrected destructive ones for the sliding of
axial gas permeability in steady state gas for the inertial resistance. Like in the
carried out without the Klinkenberg correction, large in the case of steady-state devices, the
databases have been developed with these measurements are typically taken at high
measurements. Often there is a desire to compare new sampling densities and almost zero effort on
data with previous measurements in the same whole core samples sliced or uncut.
deposit. To do this, k∞ it must be "without
"correction" for the gas sliding. The [Link].1 Device and Procedure
permeability without slip correction, kg,
for any gas at any temperature and pressure Figure 6-23 schematically shows the
The mean porosity can be calculated with k.∞ and measured instrument described by Jones22. To operate it, the
in the following way: upstream volumes are filled with gas
(usually dry nitrogen) to a pressure
a. Calculate the "gas slip radius" of the around 10 psig. The probe is placed on top of
sample, rb(with Equation 13 in [Link]) a sample, and then it is lowered and sealed against its
using the appropriate weight values surface with a fixed pneumatic pressure on the piston
molecular, viscosity, and the b obtained for the gas sonda operator. Pressure drop begins
used in temperature measurement opening the closest internal valve to the probe.
absolute measurement. The appropriate volume of the tank is selected.
b. With this rb, find b from Equation 12 for gas for the determined measurement of permeability
the new gas, using its molecular weight and the through the internal valves in the distributor.
viscosity at the desired temperature. This selection is made based on speed.
c. With the new b, the k∞ measured, and the mean pressurepressure drop when all internal volumes
desired pore, calculate kgfor the new gas be connected to the probe. If the speed is
with Equation 21. less than a predetermined value, the closing of the
appropriate valves for the larger tanks.
These steps can be combined into one. Pressures are read and recorded at intervals
equation: pre selected and the corresponding times for
the calculation of∞.
31
[Link].2 Calculations
Where the sub-index refers to gas measurement.
or condition, refers to the desired gas or condition The calculation procedures are discussed in C.6.8.3.
for the cualkgwill be calculated. To illustrate the use of
Equation 31, suppose that for a rock [Link].3 Advantages
specific, the k∞ and measured are 10.62 millidarcy and
6.57 psi, respectively, using helium at 72ºF. The advantages of this method include:
For the purposes of comparing this measurement with the
old data taken on the same formation, it a. The practical permeability margin of this
The technique ranges from 0.001 to 30,000 millidarcys.
wants to calculateairat an average pore pressure of
18.0 psia and a temperature of 75ºF. The weight b. The measurement times in this margin vary
The molecular weight of helium is 4.0026, and its viscosity at 72ºF from 35 to 2 seconds.
It is 0.01967 cp. The average molecular weight of air. c. Current meters are not required. Only the
is 29.0, and its viscosity at 75ºF is 0.01837 cp. Therefore they make time-pressure measurements.
so, from Equation 31,kairat 75ºF and 18.0 psia is: d. Permeabilities with slip are obtained
corrected (k∞) and without slip correction
(equation) (kgwith a single pressure drop test.
e. The effects of inertial flow resistance,
A warning note: many of the measurements they can be severe even with small ones
Previous ones were taken at low levels of pressure differences y low samples
effort, typically at 250 or 400 psi. Even with the permeability, are eliminated from the calculation of
permeability with this technique.
f. The method is not destructive in the sense that it does not Figure 6-24 - Impulse Drop Device for the
there is a need to cut the core plugs. Axial Flow of Gases
This allows for high-density sampling in
sections that display a variation of [Link].4 Advantages
frequent and severe permeability.
g. The volume of the rock sample investigated The
by advantages of this method include:
a single test can vary slightly by varying
the size of the sealing dimensions of the a. The impulse drop technique is applicable to the
probe tip. However, in general this measurement of very low permeabilities, 0.1
the volume is quite small (the permeability milidarcy a about 0.01 microdarcy, y
measure is localized). This statement also It might be possible to extend in any
applies to measurements in regime address with careful selection of
permanent (see [Link].3). gas deposit volumes and margins
of the pressure transducer.
[Link].4 Precautions and Limitations b. Current meters are not required. Only it
they make time-pressure measurements.
Except for the problems of inertial resistance and c. These measurements are well suited for the
gas slips that are handled by the application of deposit effort-condition
calculation procedures, the precautions y for provide permeabilities
limitations that apply to the measurements of representative.
permeability with probe in steady state (see d. Porosity can be measured simultaneously or
[Link].4) also applies to the measurements of separately in the same device.
pressure drop.
[Link].5 Precautions and Limitations
[Link] Impulse Drop, Axial Gas Flow
The precautions and limitations of this method
[Link].1 Device include:

The impulse drop device, shown in Figure a. Due to the very low permeabilities that
6-24, consists of a gas deposit upstream they can be measured with this technique, it is of
of volume V1a sample holder capable of applying It is of utmost importance that the device is free of
high restrictive efforts (usually isostatic), the escapes. The control of variations in the
which contains the sample of the nominal volume of ambient temperature is also critical.
Poros Vp, and a current deposit below volume b. Although high counterpressures are used, the
V2A differential pressure transducer measures the the obtained permeabilities have no correction
pressure difference between the tanks, y a of gas sliding and can be somewhat high.
the second transducer measures the absolute pressure in the For example, if the nitrogen pressure were 100 psi.
current deposit down. for a certain plug, and the average pressure of
pressure outside 1,000 psia, the gas permeability
[Link].2 Procedure obtained would be 10 percent higher than∞.

With valves 1 and 2 open, both are filled. 6.4.2 Transient Pressure Techniques for
deposits and the sample with gas (usually nitrogen Liquids
dry) up to a pressure typically between 1,000 and
2,000 psig. The filling period must allow for the [Link] Impulse Drop, Axial Flow of Liquids
suitable time for the gas to diffuse in the
sample (typically) of low permeability. Unless large gradients are imposed
After the filling period, the valve is closed and pressure (100 a 1.000 psi/cm o more), the
the pressure is monitored until it is no longer observed. liquid permeabilities of compact rocks (k<0.1
no additional change, indicating a balance milidarcys) are difficult to measure at o least
thermal and pressure. This stabilized pressure is delayed with steady-state methods. Without
P2All valves must be of the type that do not embargo, permeabilities up to 0.1 microdarcy
it has changes in internal volume when opened or can be measured using falling techniques
they close. pressure.
After equilibrium, valves 1 and 2 are closed, and Very low flow velocities are calculated with the
the pressure in the current tank increases pressure change speeds in the tanks of
up by∆p1which is 2 or 3 percent of P2[O]. known compressive storage liquid
After stabilizing the pressure in V1, i.e., when while the liquid expands from a reservoir
∆p1it becomes constant, valve 1 opens, starting upstream or is compressed in one current
the transient pressure portion of the measurement. below the sample. Therefore, the parameters
important in you are measurements son
[Link].3 Calculations effective compressive storage of the
upstream and downstream deposits and of the
See D.6.8.4. for details. rock sample. Compressed storage
The cash from each deposit is its internal volume.
multiplied by the sum of the compressibility of
liquid y the compressibility of the container. The compressive storage of the sample is almost as
compressive storage of the sample is the big, or bigger than those in the warehouses
product of its pore volume and the sum of the upstream y downstream (deposits
liquid compressibilities and PV. The apparatus of small), the average pore pressure will continue
liquid impulse drop must have the possibility decreasing even after∆p[t]haya
to measure compressive storage of the reached zero, and the linearity of the pressure drop
upstream and downstream volumes (see semi-logarithmic may have been distorted. In
E.[Link]). this∆the case is quickly dispersed by the
fracture system, but the liquid continues
[Link].1 Procedure slowly spreading in the compact matrix. If
the storage units of the deposit are large in
For a measurement of liquid permeability of comparison with those in the matrix, the decrease in the
pressure drop (see Figure 6-25), a is loaded mean pore pressure, due to movement of
completely saturated rock sample with liquid liquid to the matrix, is barely perceptible. For a
in the sample holder, which is pressurized, more comprehensive discussion of the measurement of
preferably to a quite high restrictive effort heterogeneity in core samples, see Kamath,
29
(usually hydrostatic). The high effort minimizes the and others
variation of permeability due to changes in
net effort due to pore pressure variant. [Link].4 Calculations
The system is filled with fluid, as indicated.
in E.6.8.5., and is pressurized to the pore pressure See E.[Link] for the details of the calculations for
initial. The filling valve is left open for the time measurements of axial pressure drop of liquids.
enough to allow the high-pressure liquid to
spread in the sample. With valves 1 and 2 still [Link].5 Advantages
open, the filling valve is closed, and it is monitored
the transducer downstream until it is no longer observed The advantages of this method include:
no additional change in pressure. Then it
close valves 1 and 2 and the pressure pump, a. No slip corrections are required
∆p1 is generated by pressing the needle valve. for liquid measurements.
All valves, except for the needle valve, b. The permeability measurements of liquids
They must be of the type that does not change in volume. high effort can be more representative of
internal when they are opened or closed. the deposit conditions that the measurements
The momentum drop begins by opening valve 1. The of gas.
initial pressure difference throughout the sample,∆p[O] c. This technique is useful for the measurement of rocks
will be slightly less than∆p1, which was generated low permeability (around 0.01 microdarcy
through the needle valve with valve 1 closed, thus a 0.1 milidarcy).
excluding the dead volume upstream, Vd, of d. The expansion work o compression in
total upstream volume, V1Therefore,∆p[O] liquid systems is small. Therefore the
it must be calculated in the manner indicated in E.6.8.5. temperature changes related to the
work is correspondingly small.
[Link].2 Indicators of a Sufficient Sample
Homogeneous [Link].6 Precautions and Limitations

The upstream pressure decreases as the The precautions and limitations of this method
pressure impulse travels the length of the sample, include:
but the pressure downstream remains constant
until the impulse "surges". From then on, the a. Maintenance of isothermal conditions is
upstream pressure continues to decrease, and the sum importance. Small changes in the
downstream pressure rises. If the sample is ambient temperatures can cause great
reasonably homogeneous and the storages pressure changes in high liquid systems
compressive upstream and downstream are pressure.
equal, then shortly after the period of b. Pressure transducers and systems are required
propagation of impulse the decrease in pressure of high-quality data acquisition.
upstream is offset by an equal increase c. A hermetic system is essential for the
downstream, y the average pore pressure high pressure measurements of low plugs
will remain constant while the∆p[t]follows permeability.
decreasing linearly - in a semi-fall d. Usual precautions must be observed.
logarithmic. corrosion resistance, fluid compatibility
a careful filtration of liquids, y the
[Link].3 Indicators of a Heterogeneous Sample exclusion of gas from the system.

However, if the sample is not homogeneous, but it

characterized by a fracture system of
relatively high fluid conductivity y one
low conductivity matrix porosity y if the