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Table of Contents
Tap or click any topic below to view its content.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................................................. 1
DISCLAIMER ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
SECURE IT 6-1: SECURING COMPUTERS AND MOBILE DEVICES .............................................................................. 4
Websites about Securing Computers and Mobile Devices ....................................................................................4
TECHNOLOGY TREND: MEDICAL ROBOTICS ............................................................................................................ 5
SECURE IT 6-2: CHIP IMPLANTS SECURE ANIMALS’ IDENTITY ................................................................................. 6
Websites about Chip Implants Securing Animals’ Identity....................................................................................6
PROCESSOR CHIPS ................................................................................................................................................. 7
PIPELINING AND PARALLEL PROCESSING ............................................................................................................... 8
PIPELINING ...................................................................................................................................................................8
PARALLEL PROCESSING ....................................................................................................................................................8
TECHNOLOGY INNOVATORS: INTEL, GORDON MOORE, AND AMD ...................................................................... 10
INTEL .........................................................................................................................................................................10
GORDON MOORE.........................................................................................................................................................10
AMD ........................................................................................................................................................................10
HOW TO 6-1: SELECTING THE RIGHT PROCESSOR ................................................................................................. 12
Websites about Selecting the Right Processor ....................................................................................................12
PROCESSOR CHIPS ............................................................................................................................................... 13
TECHNOLOGY INNOVATOR: NVIDIA ..................................................................................................................... 14
TECHNOLOGY TREND: SELF-DRIVING CARS .......................................................................................................... 15
MINI FEATURE 6-1: THE INTERNET OF THINGS ..................................................................................................... 16
The Internet of Things Devices ............................................................................................................................16
ETHICS & ISSUES 6-1: DOES THE INTERNET OF THINGS DISCRIMINATE? ............................................................... 17
Websites about the Internet of Things ................................................................................................................17
SECURE IT 6-3: DOES THE INTERNET OF THINGS ENCROACH ON PRIVACY? .......................................................... 18
Websites about Privacy Issues Related to the IoT ...............................................................................................18
TECHNOLOGY INNOVATOR: VMWARE ................................................................................................................. 19
MINI FEATURE 6-2: CLOUD COMPUTING SERVICES .............................................................................................. 20
INFRASTRUCTURE AS A SERVICE .......................................................................................................................................20
Storage as a Service ............................................................................................................................................20
Desktop as a Service............................................................................................................................................20
SOFTWARE AS A SERVICE ...............................................................................................................................................21
DATA AS A SERVICE.......................................................................................................................................................21

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PLATFORM AS A SERVICE................................................................................................................................................21
HIGH-TECH TALK: CODING SCHEMES AND NUMBER SYSTEMS ............................................................................. 23
CODING SCHEMES ........................................................................................................................................................23
ASCII and EBCDIC ................................................................................................................................................23
Unicode ...............................................................................................................................................................23
Parity ...................................................................................................................................................................24
NUMBER SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................................................................25
The Decimal Number System ..............................................................................................................................25
The Binary Number System .................................................................................................................................26
The Hexadecimal Number System ......................................................................................................................27
ADDITIONAL DRAM VARIATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 29
HOW TO 6-2: DETERMINING MEMORY REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................... 30
HIGH-TECH TALK: HOW DATA IS WRITTEN TO RAM ............................................................................................. 31
MEMORY CACHE .................................................................................................................................................. 33
ETHICS & ISSUES 6-2: SHOULD COMPANIES REVEAL WHICH PRODUCTS THEY MANUFACTURE USING FAIR TRADE
PRACTICES?.......................................................................................................................................................... 34
Websites about Fair Trade Manufacturing .........................................................................................................34
SECURE IT 6-4: WIPING MOBILE PHONE MEMORY ............................................................................................... 35
Websites about Wiping Mobile Phone Memory .................................................................................................35
SECURE IT 6-5: PLUG AND PLAY SECURITY FLAWS ................................................................................................ 36
Websites about Plug and Play Security Flaws .....................................................................................................36
ETHICS & ISSUES 6-3: SHOULD MANUFACTURERS ELIMINATE PROPRIETARY CONNECTORS? .............................. 37
Websites about Proprietary Connectors .............................................................................................................37
ETHICS & ISSUES 6-4: SHOULD BUSINESSES BE ALLOWED TO MAKE POLICIES REGARDING CUSTOMER MOBILE
PHONE USE? ........................................................................................................................................................ 38
Websites about Businesses Regulating Mobile Phone Use .................................................................................38
MINI FEATURE 6-3: PROPER CARE FOR COMPUTERS AND MOBILE DEVICES ........................................................ 39
Websites about Caring for Computers and Mobile Devices ................................................................................39
HOW TO 6-5: PROTECT AND REPLACE SCREENS ................................................................................................... 40
Websites about Protecting Mobile Device Screens .............................................................................................40
TECHNOLOGY @ WORK: PUBLISHING .................................................................................................................. 41
Websites about Technology in Publishing ...........................................................................................................41

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Disclaimer
Cengage Learning and the Shelly Cashman authoring team do not support and are not responsible for
the content of material in third-party or external web/Internet sites. Opinions expressed at third-party
or external web/Internet sites do not necessarily reflect that of Cengage Learning or the Shelly Cashman
authoring team.

The Free Resources include links to web addresses at [Link]. Web addresses with this domain will
redirect to the actual websites or resources listed and are provided as abbreviated links for students
who wish to type them into a browser.

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Secure IT 6-1: Securing Computers and Mobile Devices

The resources listed in the table below contain more information about protecting your computers and
mobile devices from theft. As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can
find desired information by entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Securing Computers and Mobile Devices

Website Name Description Web Address
BullGuard Article titled “How to protect you and your [Link]/16/06s1a
mobile against loss or theft”
[Link] Article titled “Tips for Preventing Theft of [Link]/16/06s1b
Laptops and Personal Electronics”
Federal Communications Article titled “Tips for Protecting Your [Link]/16/06s1c
Commission Mobile Device from Theft”

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Technology Trend: Medical Robotics

Medical professionals are using robotics in virtually all aspects of their practices. In the operating room,
for example, robots can make precise incisions, which increases the availability of minimally invasive
surgeries and, consequently, reduces recovery time, hospital stays, and medication needs. The surgeon
places the robotic arm in the patient’s body and then sits at a workstation and controls the surgical tools
attached to the arm. The robot mirrors the surgeon’s hand movements. Common surgical uses of robots
include scraping plaque from arteries, suturing wounds, transplanting kidneys, and removing
gallbladders. In rural and underserved areas, surgeons can control a robot’s movements remotely.

Surgeons rely on a steady hand when performing intricate procedures. Every hand trembles, however,
and even the most stable hand tremors 50 to 100 microns (the thickness of a sheet of paper) several
times each second. A new tool developed at Johns Hopkins University attaches to surgical instruments,
such as a scalpel and forceps, and uses a fiber-optic sensor to steady the surgeons’ shaky hands. The
SMART (Smart Micromanipulation Aided Robotic-surgical Tool) makes hundreds of corrections every
second, allowing fine motion control.

Each day, 1 in every 25 patients acquires a health care-associated infection (HAI) while receiving medical
treatments at a hospital, according the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Radiating robots are
helping to decrease the risk of these infections by eliminating surface bacteria and spores. The germ-
fighting robots scan rooms, particularly the operating room, and then emit ultraviolet rays that disinfect
an area.

Service robots also are used to perform repetitive tasks, such as delivering medications from a hospital
pharmacy to the appropriate nurse station and then dispensing these drugs. They also help infirm
people perform strenuous and repetitive rehabilitation exercises. Medical personnel can monitor the
robots’ movements in real time to ensure the patient is receiving appropriate care. Researchers have
found that patients interact with the robots well and have increased their quality of life.

When might a robot be useful in medical procedures? Would you be comfortable having a robot
perform medical procedures or therapies?

Indicate whether the following statement is true or false by tapping or clicking your response, which
will open a browser window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the
window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

Robots have helped medical personnel perform less invasive surgeries, which has reduced the patients’
recovery times and hospital stays.
True
False

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Secure IT 6-2: Chip Implants Secure Animals’ Identity

The resources listed in the table below contain more information about how chips can help to identify
and secure animals. As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find
desired information by entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Chip Implants Securing Animals’ Identity

Website Name Description Web Address
HomeAgain Article titled “For the Love of Safety” [Link]/16/06s2a
Pet-ID Microchips Information about pet microchips [Link]/16/06s2b
The Advertiser Article titled “Fish and implant tracking [Link]/16/06s2c
chips”

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Processor Chips
The following list identifies popular processor chip manufacturers. You can find additional
information by entering the list items as search text.

 AMD
 IBM
 Intel
 NEC
 NVIDIA
 Oracle SPARC
 Qualcomm
 Samsung
 TI (Texas Instruments)

Most processor chip manufacturers offer multi-core processors. Many simply state the number of
processor cores using a numeral, such as 8-core processor, 12-core processor, 15-core processor, or 36-
core processor. Some multi-core processors, however, use terms to represent their multi-core
processors, for example, dual-core, quad-core, hexa-core, octa-core, and deca-core for 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10
processor cores, respectively.

Indicate whether the following statement is true or false by tapping or clicking your response, which
will open a browser window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the
window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

A quad-core processor contains four processor cores.

True
False

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Pipelining and Parallel Processing

To increase processing times, some processors use pipelining and/or parallel processing.

Pipelining
Today’s personal computers often support pipelining. With pipelining, the processor begins fetching a
second instruction before it completes the machine cycle for the first instruction. Processors that use
pipelining are faster because they do not have to wait for one instruction to complete the machine cycle
before fetching the next (Figure 1). Think of a pipeline as an assembly line. By the time the first
instruction is in the last stage of the machine cycle, three other instructions could have been fetched
and started through the machine cycle.

Figure 1: With pipelining, the processor fetches a second instruction before the first instruction is completed. The result is faster
processing.

Parallel Processing
Some processors use parallel processing to increase processing times. Parallel processing is a method
that uses multiple processors simultaneously to execute a single program or task (Figure 2).

Figure 2: In this illustration, the control processor is managing the operations of four other processors.

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Parallel processing divides a single problem into portions so that multiple processors work on their
assigned portion of the problem at the same time. Parallel processing requires special software that
recognizes how to divide the problem and then bring the results back together again.

Some personal computers implement parallel processing with multi-core processors. Others, called
multiprocessor computers, have two or more separate processor chips.

Massively parallel processing is large-scale parallel processing that involves hundreds or thousands of
processors. Supercomputers use massively parallel processing for applications such as artificial
intelligence and weather forecasting.

Indicate whether the following statement is true or false by tapping or clicking your response, which
will open a browser window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the
window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

Pipelining divides a single problem into portions so that multiple processors work on their assigned
portion of the problem at the same time.
True
False

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Technology Innovators: Intel, Gordon Moore, and AMD

When Gordon Moore was laying the foundation with his business partners for a company that became
Intel, he had the conviction that silicon chips would change the world. He was correct, for Intel and its
competitor, AMD, are the leading manufacturers of processor chips for personal computers and mobile
devices.

Intel
Intel’s chips have set the standard for personal computers since 1980 when IBM chose the Intel 8080
chip for its new product. Today, Intel employs over 107,000 workers worldwide, and its yearly revenues
exceed $50 billion. Intel’s dominance in the microprocessor market continues, although the personal
computer market is in decline due to an increase in mobile device purchases.

As the microprocessor market has changed, so has Intel’s product line. Intel’s influence reaches beyond
microprocessor chips for computers, and includes manufacturing of microprocessors for mobile phones
and other mobile devices, production of solid-state drives, the True Key App for security, and RealSense
technology that reacts to facial expressions and gestures.

Gordon Moore
Along with being noted as one of Intel’s cofounders, Gordon Moore is known for the 1965 technology
prediction known as Moore’s Law. Moore’s Law states that the number of transistors and resistors
placed on a computer chip would double every year. This doubling would have a proportional increase
in computing power and decrease in cost. This forecast proved amazingly accurate for 10 years, and
then Moore revised the estimate to doubling every two years. Technology experts use Moore’s Law to
plan for and predict technological advancements, and it is expected to remain accurate until sometime
between now and 2020.

Moore’s lifelong interest in technology continues with his contributions to the Large Binocular
Telescope, the world’s most technologically advanced optical telescope, in southeastern Arizona. Moore
donated his DNA to scientists who used the Personal Genome Machine platform to sequence the first
complete human genome, his own.

AMD
If you have a gaming console, it most likely is powered by an AMD processor. Advanced Micro Devices
(AMD) creates chips for every major gaming console and home entertainment system. Its products also
power data center servers and simulators, and its technology is found in the world’s most powerful
supercomputer at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee.

AMD is noted for producing the first chip to break the 1 GHz speed barrier, one of the first 64-bit
processors, and the first chip integrated with both a CPU and a graphics processor. It also helped
increase computer sales dramatically in 1997 when its K6 processor decreased personal computer prices
to less than $1,000 for the first time. The company is based in Sunnyvale, California, and has facilities in
more than 50 locations worldwide.

Do you have devices that use an Intel or AMD processor? Why would some individuals or companies
buy a computer or mobile device equipped with a particular company’s processor?

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Answer the following question by tapping or clicking the best response, which will open a browser
window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the window or tab when
you are finished viewing it.

Gordon Moore was the cofounder of which company?

a. AMD
b. IBM
c. Intel
d. Samsung

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How To 6-1: Selecting the Right Processor

The websites in the table below contain more information about selecting the right processor. As an
alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired information by
entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Selecting the Right Processor

Website Name Description Web Address
Computer Shopper Article titled “How to Buy the Best New [Link]/16/06h1a
CPU”
Newegg Article titled “CPU: A Buyer’s Guide” [Link]/16/06h1b
Tom’s Hardware Best gaming CPUs for the money [Link]/16/06h1c

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Processor Chips
The table below lists popular processor chips series and the types of computers and mobile devices for
which they are designed. You can find additional information by entering search text from the table’s
Name or Description column.

Name
(Manufacturer and Series) Description
AMD A-Series Desktops, laptops, tablets
AMD Athlon Desktops
AMD E-Series Laptops, tablets
AMD FX Desktops, laptops
AMD Opteron Servers
AMD Phenom Desktops
AMD Sempron Desktops
IBM POWER Servers
Intel Atom Tablets, smartphones, digital devices
Intel Celeron Desktops, laptops, tablets
Intel Core Desktops, laptops, tablets
Intel Itanium Servers
Intel Pentium Desktops, laptops
Intel Xeon Servers
NVIDIA Tegra Tablets, smartphones, mobile devices
Oracle SPARC Servers
QUALCOMM Snapdragon Laptops, tablets, smartphones, Smart TVs

Discover More: To display search results about processor chips in a new browser window or tab, tap or
click this link: [Link]/16/06r3. Close the window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

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Technology Innovator: Nvidia

Serious gamers relish software with ultrarealistic graphics, while film producers need high-definition
graphics. Both of these creative types of people likely have used a system unit equipped with an Nvidia
processor. Nvidia’s technological specialty is developing high-performance processors, known as GPUs
(graphics processing units), that help generate graphics for personal computers, game consoles, mobile
devices, and car entertainment systems. Nvidia’s Tegra processors are examples of SoC (system-on-a-
chip) technology. They consume little power and enable high-performance audio and video. In 2014,
Nvidia released the Tegra K1 processor, which is said to be the fastest processor available for mobile
computing, and the SHIELD gaming tablet.

In the film and entertainment worlds, Sony Pictures, Sportvision, and Weather Central rely on Nvidia’s
processor chips to produce imagery and animation. In medicine, the company’s processors helped
researchers to design a device that stabilizes the heart during bypass surgery and also to develop virtual
reality simulations that help burn victims undergoing therapy. Nvidia’s CUDA (Compute Unified Device
Architecture) technology was used to enhance the historic Apollo 11 video of Neil Armstrong walking on
the moon.

Do you own or use any technology using Nvidia processors? Why does Nvidia need to continue
developing faster processors?

Answer the following question by tapping or clicking the best response, which will open a browser
window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the window or tab when
you are finished viewing it.

Which statement regarding Nvidia’s GPU processors is correct?

a. They require high power to produce high-performance graphics.
b. They are examples of system-on-a-chip technology.
c. They are not practical for mobile devices with small screens.
d. Their first use in aerospace was to track the International Space Station.

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Technology Trend: Self-Driving Cars

Fully automatic driving has become a prime area of interest among major technology and automotive
companies. Apple, Google, Sony, Tesla Motors, Daimler, and Volkswagen have revealed prototypes that
drive several hundred miles autonomously. Most of these vehicles are electric, rather than gasoline
powered, and they may include car recharging and mapping services. Experts do not expect to see these
cars integrated on roadways until at least 2025 due to regulatory and driver assistance software issues.

Would you consider owning a self-driving car? Who would be liable if an automatic car causes an
accident?

Indicate whether the following statement is true or false by tapping or clicking your response, which
will open a browser window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the
window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

Automotive industry experts predict the earliest year self-driving cars will become available for
consumers’ use is 2025.
True
False

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Mini Feature 6-1: The Internet of Things

The table below lists manufacturers of products and devices that are part of the Internet of Things. You
can find additional information by entering search text from the table’s Name or Description column.

The Internet of Things Devices

Name (Manufacturer(s)) Description
Apple, Sony Smartwatches that sync with mobile devices
Fitbit, Jawbone, Nike, Misfit Wearables Wearable fitness devices
Lockitron Bolt Locks that can be opened or closed remotely
Mr. Coffee Wi-Fi enabled coffeemaker
Nest, Honeywell Smart thermostats

Discover More: To display search results about devices that are part of the Internet of Things in a new
browser window or tab, tap or click this link: [Link]/16/06m1a. Close the window or tab when you
are finished viewing it.

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Ethics & Issues 6-1: Does the Internet of Things Discriminate?

The resources listed in the table below contain more information about the Internet of Things. As an
alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired information by
entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about the Internet of Things

Website Name Description Web Address
CMS Wire Article titled “7 Big Problems with the [Link]/16/06e1a
Internet of Things”
Pew Research Center Article titled “The Internet of Things Will [Link]/16/06e1b
Thrive by 2025”

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Secure IT 6-3: Does the Internet of Things Encroach on Privacy?

The resources listed in the table below contain more information about privacy issues related to the IoT.
As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired information by
entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Privacy Issues Related to the IoT

Website Name Description Web Address
eWEEK Article titled “Microsoft Puts Focus on IoT [Link]/16/06s3a
Privacy and Security”
Help Net Security Article titled “IoT security and privacy best [Link]/16/06s3b
practices”
Network World Article titled “The security implications of [Link]/16/06s3c
IoT: A roundtable discussion with four
experts”

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Technology Innovator: VMware

Practically every Fortune 500 company is using a VMware product to optimize computing power,
increase efficiency, simplify software upgrades, and reduce hardware, energy, and maintenance costs.
“VM” in the company’s name stands for “Virtual Machine,” which is software that enables several
applications and operating systems to run simultaneously on one physical server. Each operating system
runs as if it were installed on a stand-alone computer with its own set of programs and hardware.

VMware’s customers also use the cloud management services VMware provides. Their many products
include the VMware vCloud Air and vSphere families, which provide IaaS cloud services and other
technologies. Companies, including Google, have partnered with VMware to migrate their virtual
environments on the cloud.

In which situations might virtualization software be useful for a company?

Indicate whether the following statement is true or false by tapping or clicking your response, which
will open a browser window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the
window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

VMware allows multiple applications and operating systems to run simultaneously on one server.
True
False

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Mini Feature 6-2: Cloud Computing Services

Infrastructure as a Service
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) providers allow companies to focus on their software capabilities rather
than purchasing, maintaining, and configuring computer hardware in-house. When selecting an IaaS
provider, it is important to compare them based on several criteria, including pricing plans (what does it
cost), subscription type available (many are “pay as you go”), service level agreement (how much “up
time” do they guarantee), number of data centers available, ease of scalability, and customer support
available.

The following list identifies popular IaaS providers. You can find additional information by entering the
list items as search text.

 Amazon Web Services

 IBM Smart Cloud
 Microsoft Azure
 OpenStack
 Rackspace

Storage as a Service
Storage as a service providers offer online storage and backup services to the servers on the cloud.
Subscribers pay for these services based on the amount of storage they require.

The following list identifies popular storage as a service providers. You can find additional information
by entering the list items as search text.

 Amazon Cloud Drive

 Box
 Dropbox
 Carbonite
 Google Cloud Platform
 Microsoft Windows Azure Blob Storage
 OneDrive

Desktop as a Service
Desktop as a service providers offer virtual computing environments in which a user’s applications and
data are available through a desktop environment accessible through a browser. The desktop as a
service provider manages all issues related to storage, backup, security, and software updates to
applications on the virtual desktop.

The following list identifies popular desktop as a service providers. You can find additional information
by entering the list items as search text.

 AT&T Virtual Desktop service

 Citrix
 Desktone
 dInCloud

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Software as a Service
Software as a service (SaaS) providers offer software applications on demand over the web. These
applications are hosted in the provider’s data center, delivered over the web, and usually accessed in a
browser. They often include business applications, customer relationship management (CRM) tools,
enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, and server virtualization tools.

The table below lists popular SaaS providers. You can find additional information by entering search text
from the table’s Name or Description column.

Name(s) Description
Microsoft, Google Office productivity apps
Oracle Database development tools
Salesforce Customer relationship management (CRM) software
SAP Enterprise resource planning (ERP) apps
Workday Financial management

Data as a Service
Data as a service (DaaS) providers offer data on demand over the web for use in applications that
combine data from multiple sources. Data often originates from industry, government agencies, and
public sources. DaaS provides a central location from which data can be shared. Many DaaS providers
offer application programming interfaces in order for developers to create apps that incorporate their
data.

The table below lists popular DaaS providers. You can find additional information by entering search text
from the table’s Name or Description column.

Name Description
Datamarket Provides data services from global providers and tools for analyzing and
visualizing data
Factual Offers data sets, including products, places, geography, and health care
providers
Google Public Data Explorer Provides access to and tools to visualize data from open and public data sets
InfoChimps Provides access to large-scale data sets
Microsoft Offers data sets from Windows Azure Data Marketplace
The World Bank Provides access to over 8,000 social and economic indicators from
World Bank Open Data data sets

Platform as a Service
Platform as a service (PaaS) providers offer computing platforms and development tools to create and
deploy applications on the cloud. Subscribers pay for these services based on the amount of resources
they use.

The following list identifies popular PaaS providers. You can find additional information by entering the
list items as search text.

 AWS (Amazon Web Services) Elastic Beanstalk

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 Google App Engine

 Heroku
 Microsoft Windows Azure
 Salesforce

Discover More: To display search results about cloud computing service providers in a new browser
window or tab, tap or click this link: [Link]/16/06m2a. Close the window or tab when you are
finished viewing it.

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High-Tech Talk: Coding Schemes and Number Systems

Coding schemes and number systems make it possible for humans to interact with a digital computer
that processes only bits.

Coding Schemes
Standards definitions, such as ASCII and Unicode, make it possible for components in computers to
communicate with one another successfully. By following these and other standards, manufacturers can
produce a component that will operate correctly in a computer.

ASCII and EBCDIC

Two coding schemes that represent characters in a computer are ASCII and EBCDIC. The American
Standard Code for Information Interchange, or ASCII (pronounced ASK-ee), coding scheme is the most
widely used coding scheme to represent data. High-end servers sometimes use the Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code, or EBCDIC (pronounced EB-see-dik), coding scheme. The EBCDIC first
was used on the IBM System/360 mainframe computer in the 1960’s and still is in use with some IBM
servers. The combination of bits (0s and 1s) is unique for each character in the ASCII and EBCDIC coding
schemes (Figure 3: ASCII and EBCDIC coding [Link] 3).

Figure 3: ASCII and EBCDIC coding schemes.

When a computer uses the ASCII or EBCDIC coding scheme, it stores each represented character in one
byte of memory. Other binary formats exist, however, that the computer sometimes uses to represent
numeric data. For example, a computer may store, or pack, two numeric characters in one byte of
memory. The computer uses these binary formats to increase storage and processing efficiency.

Unicode
ASCII and EBCDIC codes use 256 characters and symbols that are sufficient for English and western
European languages. These codes are not large enough for Asian and other languages that use different
alphabets. Many of these languages also use symbols, called ideograms, to represent multiple words
and ideas. One solution to this situation is Unicode. Unicode is a 16-bit coding scheme that uses more
than 65,000 characters and symbols. Unicode has the capacity of representing all the world’s current
languages, as well as classic and historical languages.

Several operating systems, including Windows, Mac OS, and Linux use Unicode. Unicode-enabled
programming languages and software include Java, XML, Microsoft Office, and Oracle. Some experts
believe that Unicode eventually will replace all other coding schemes.

To obtain the Unicode code for a symbol (Figure 4), add the symbol’s corresponding digit in the left-
most column to the end of the symbol’s corresponding three-digit code in the right-most column
heading. For example, the Unicode for the capital letter C is 0043. Unicode reserves 30,000 codes for

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future use, such as ancient languages, and 6,000 codes for private use. Existing ASCII-coded data is fully
compatible with Unicode because the first 256 codes are the same.

Figure 4: Unicode coding scheme.

Parity
Regardless of the coding scheme used to represent characters in memory, it is important that the
computer store characters accurately. For each byte of memory, most computers have at least one extra
bit, called a parity bit, that the computer uses for error checking. A parity bit can detect if one of the bits
in a byte changes. While such errors are extremely rare (most computers never have a parity error
during their lifetime), they can occur because of voltage fluctuations, static electricity, or a memory
failure.

Computers are either odd- or even-parity machines. In computers with odd parity, the total number of
on bits in the byte (including the parity bit) must be an odd number (Figure 5). In computers with even
parity, the total number of on bits must be an even number. The computer checks parity each time it

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uses a memory location. When the computer moves data from one location to another in memory, it
compares the parity bits of both the sending and receiving locations to see if they are the same. If the
computer detects a difference or if the wrong number of bits is on (e.g., an odd number in a computer
with even parity), it displays an error message. Many computers use multiple parity bits that enable
them to detect and correct a single-bit error and detect multiple-bit errors.

Figure 5: Computer parity.

Number Systems
A computer uses the binary (base 2) number system to represent the electronic status of the bits in
memory. The binary system also has other purposes, including addressing the memory locations.
Another number system commonly used with computers is hexadecimal (base 16). The computer uses
the hexadecimal number system to communicate with a programmer when a problem with a program
exists, because it would be difficult for the programmer to understand the 0s and 1s of binary code.
Figure 6 shows how the binary and hexadecimal number systems represent decimal values 0 through 15.
The mathematical principles that apply to the binary and hexadecimal number systems are the same as
those that apply to the decimal number system.

Figure 6: Binary and hexadecimal number systems.

The Decimal Number System

The decimal number system is a base 10 number system (deci means ten). The base of a number system
indicates how many symbols it uses. The decimal number system uses 10 symbols: 0 through 9. Each of

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the symbols in the number system has an associated value. For example, 3 represents a quantity of 3
and 5 represents a quantity of 5.

The decimal number system also is a positional number system. This means that in a number such as
143, each position in the number has a value associated with it. When you look at the decimal number
143, the 3 is in the ones, or units, position and represents three ones (3 × 1); the 4 is in the tens position
and represents four tens (4 × 10); and the 1 is in the hundreds position and represents one hundred (1 ×
100). The number 143 is the sum of the values in each position of the number (100 + 40 + 3 = 143). The
chart in Figure 7 shows how you can calculate the positional values (hundreds, tens, and ones) for a
number system. Starting on the right and working to the left, the base of the number system, in this
case 10, is raised to consecutive powers (100, 101, 102). These calculations are a mathematical way of
determining the place values in a number system.

Figure 7: Calculating positional values using the decimal number system.

When you use number systems other than decimal, the same principles apply. The base of the number
system indicates the number of symbols that it uses, and each position in a number system has a value
associated with it. By raising the base of the number system to consecutive powers beginning with zero,
you can calculate the positional value.

The Binary Number System

As previously discussed, binary is a base 2 number system (bi means two), and the symbols it uses are 0
and 1. Just as each position in a decimal number has a place value associated with it, so does each
position in a binary number. In binary, the place values, moving from right to left, are successive powers
of two (20, 21, 22, 23 or 1, 2, 4, 8). To construct a binary number, place ones in the positions where the
corresponding values add up to the quantity you want to represent and place zeros in the other
positions. For example, in a four-digit binary number, the binary place values are (from right to left) 1, 2,
4, and 8. The binary number 1001 has ones in the positions for the values 1 and 8 and zeros in the
positions for 2 and 4. As shown in Figure 8, the quantity represented by binary 1001 is 9 (8 + 0 + 0 + 1).

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Figure 8: Using the binary number system.

The Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal number system uses 16 symbols to represent values (hex means six). These include the
symbols 0 through 9 and A through F (Figure 9). The primary reasons computers use the hexadecimal
number system are (1) it can represent binary values in a more compact and readable form, and (2) the
conversion between the binary and the hexadecimal number systems is very efficient. You may
encounter hex values when editing images or specifying RBG colors in a photo editing program or for the
web. RGB notation uses two hexadecimal digits for red, two for green, and two for blue. So #FF0000 is
red (full red, no green, no blue), #FF00FF (full red, no green, full blue) is purple, #000000 is the absence
of all color (black), and #FFFFFF is the totality of all color (white).

Figure 9: Using the hexadecimal number system.

An eight-digit binary number (a byte) can be represented by a two-digit hexadecimal number. For
example, the ASCII code represents the character M as 01001101. The hexadecimal number system
represents this value as 4D. One way to convert this binary number (4D) to a hexadecimal number is to
divide the binary number (from right to left) into groups of four digits, calculate the value of each group,
and then change any two-digit values (10 through 15) to the symbols A through F from the hexadecimal
number system (Figure 10).

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Figure 10: Converting binary numbers to hexadecimal numbers.

What is the purpose of a coding scheme? How do computers and users interact with coding schemes?
What are the differences among the decimal, binary, and hexadecimal number systems?

Answer the following question by tapping or clicking the best response, which will open a browser
window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the window or tab when
you are finished viewing it.

For each byte of memory, most computers have at least one extra bit, called a ____ bit, that the
computer uses for error checking.
a. binary
b. parity
c. hexa
d. verification

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Additional DRAM Variations

The table below expands on the list of DRAM variations presented Table 6-1 in the chapter. You can find
additional information by entering search text from the table’s Name or Description column.

Name Description
BEDO DRAM (Burst EDO DRAM)  50 percent faster than EDO DRAM
 Processes four addresses in one ‘burst’
EDO DRAM (Extended Data Out DRAM)  Similar to FPM DRAM but also allows overlap in
operation, making it slightly faster
 Not commonly used today because it supports bus speeds
only up to 66 MHz
FPM DRAM (Fast Page Mode DRAM)  Allows a row of DRAM to be open while separate pulses
perform multiple reads or writes
 Not commonly used today because it supports bus speeds
only up to 66 MHz
MDRAM (Multibank DRAM)  Less expensive and faster alternative to SRAM
 Type of video RAM
PSRAM (Pseudostatic RAM)  Combination of DRAM and SRAM features
 Consumes low power with fast read-write operations
RLDRAM (Reduced Latency DRAM)  High-performance DDR SDRAM
 Fast, random access combined with high bandwidth
SGRAM (Synchronous Graphics RAM)  Specialized form of DRAM used for graphics adapters
VRAM (Video DRAM)  Previously used in graphic adapters
WRAM (Window DRAM)  High-performance video RAM
 Previously used in graphics adapters

Answer the following question by tapping or clicking the best response, which will open a browser
window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the window or tab when
you are finished viewing it.

Which of the following is not a type of video RAM?

a. BEDO DRAM
b. MDRAM
c. VRAM
d. WRAM

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How To 6-2: Determining Memory Requirements

If your computer has insufficient memory, you can determine the amount it requires by checking the
system requirements of the operating system and software you intend to use. The following steps
describe how to determine the amount of memory your computer requires:

1. View and record the operating system’s memory requirements.

2. View and record the memory requirements for the programs and apps you intend to use.

3. Determine the programs and apps you might use simultaneously.

4. Add the operating system’s memory requirements to the memory requirements of all the programs
and apps you intend to use at the same time.

5. The sum of the values from Step 4 is the minimum amount of memory you should consider for your
computer, but you should consider purchasing more so that your computer can support additional
programs and apps you might use in the future, or newer versions of existing software that might have
increased memory requirements. Be careful not to exceed the amount of memory your computer can
support.

Indicate whether the following statement is true or false by tapping or clicking your response, which
will open a browser window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the
window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

When determining memory requirements, you should not consider the programs and apps you might
use simultaneously.
True
False

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High-Tech Talk: How Data is Written to RAM

Inside your computer, RAM takes the form of separate microchip modules that plug in slots on the
computer’s motherboard. These slots connect through a line (bus) or set of electrical paths to the
computer’s processor. Before you turn on a computer, its RAM is a blank slate. As you start and use your
computer, the operating system files, programs and apps, and any data currently being used by the
processor are written to and stored in RAM so that the processor can access them quickly.

How is this data written to and stored in RAM? In the most common form of RAM, dynamic random
access memory (DRAM), transistors (in this case, acting as switches), and a capacitor (as a data storage
element) create a memory cell, which represents a single bit of data.

Memory cells are etched onto a silicon wafer in a series of columns (bitlines) and rows (wordlines)
known as an array. The intersection of a column and row constitutes the address of the memory cell
(Figure 11). Each memory cell has a unique address that can be found by counting across columns and
then counting down by row. The address of a character consists of a series of memory cell addresses put
together.

Figure 11: An illustration of one type of DRAM. When writing data, switches 1 and 2 in the circuit are closed and switches 3 and
4 are open. When reading data, switches 2, 3, and 4 in the circuit are closed and switch 1 is open.

To write data to RAM, the processor sends the memory controller the address of a memory cell in which
to store data. The memory controller organizes the request and sends the column and row address in an
electrical charge along the appropriate address lines, which are very thin electrical lines etched into the
RAM chip. This causes the transistors along those address lines to close.

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These transistors act as a switch to control the flow of electrical current in either a closed or an open
circuit. While the transistors are closed, the software sends bursts of electricity along selected data
lines. When the electrical charge traveling down the data line reaches an address line where a transistor
is closed, the charge flows through the closed transistor and charges the capacitor.

A capacitor works as electronic storage that holds an electrical charge. Each charged capacitor along the
address line represents a 1 bit. An uncharged capacitor represents a 0 bit. The combination of 1s and 0s
from eight data lines forms a single byte of data.

The capacitors used in dynamic RAM, however, lose their electrical charge. The processor or memory
controller continuously has to recharge all of the capacitors holding a charge (a 1 bit) before the
capacitor discharges. During this refresh operation, which happens automatically thousands of times per
second, the memory controller reads memory and then immediately rewrites it. This refresh operation
is what gives dynamic RAM its name. Dynamic RAM has to be refreshed continually or it loses the
charges that represent bits of data. A specialized circuit called a counter tracks the refresh sequence to
ensure that all of the rows are refreshed.

The process of reading data from RAM uses a similar, but reversed, series of steps. When the processor
gets the next instruction it is to perform, the instruction may contain the address of a memory cell from
which to read data. This address is sent to the memory controller. To locate the memory cell, the
memory controller sends the column and row address in an electrical charge down the appropriate
address lines.

This electrical charge causes the transistors along the address line to close. At every point along the
address line where a capacitor is holding a charge, the capacitor discharges through the circuit created
by the closed transistors, sending electrical charges along the data lines.

A specialized circuit called a sense amplifier determines and amplifies the level of charge in the
capacitor. A capacitor charge over a certain voltage level represents the binary value 1; a capacitor
charge below that level represents a 0. The sensed and amplified value is sent back down the address
line to the processor.

As long as a computer is running, data continuously is being written to and read from RAM. As soon as
you shut down a computer, RAM loses its data. The next time you turn on a computer, operating system
files and other data are again loaded into RAM and the read/write process starts all over.

Why is it important for computers and mobile devices to access RAM quickly?

Indicate whether the following statement is true or false by tapping or clicking your response, which
will open a browser window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the
window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

Dynamic RAM has to be refreshed continually.

True
False

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Memory Cache
Memory cache in personal computers and servers can range from 32 to 64 KB of L1 cache per processor
core and 256 KB to 16 MB of L2 cache (ATC). If the computer has L3 cache, its capacity can range from 8
to 24 MB.

Indicate whether the following statement is true or false by tapping or clicking your response, which
will open a browser window or tab that reveals whether your selection is correct or incorrect. Close the
window or tab when you are finished viewing it.

In general, the size of L1 cache is larger than the size of L2 cache in a computer.
True
False

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Ethics & Issues 6-2: Should Companies Reveal Which Products They
Manufacture Using Fair Trade Practices?
The resources listed in the table below contain more information about the fair trade manufacturing. As
an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired information by
entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Fair Trade Manufacturing

Website Name Description Web Address
TechCrunch Article titled “The Fair Labor Association [Link]/16/06e2a
Delivers Its Findings On Two Apple Supplier
Facilities”
TechWorld Article titled “Apple makes progress in [Link]/16/06e2b
cutting use of conflict minerals”

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Secure IT 6-4: Wiping Mobile Phone Memory

The resources listed in the table below contain more information about deleting data on a smartphone.
As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired information by
entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Wiping Mobile Phone Memory

Website Name Description Web Address
Computerworld Article titled “How to clear your data off a [Link]/16/06s4a
device”
here’s the thing Blog post titled “How to wipe everything off [Link]/16/06s4b
your iPhone or Android phone (updated)”
wikiHow Article titled “How to Delete Cell Phone [Link]/16/06s4c
Memory”

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Secure IT 6-5: Plug and Play Security Flaws

The resources listed in the table below contain more information about issues related to Plug and Play
technology. As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired
information by entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Plug and Play Security Flaws

Website Name Description Web Address
InformationWeek DARK Article titled “Unplug Universal Plug And [Link]/16/06s5a
Reading Play: Security Warning”
Security Street Rapid7 Article titled “Whitepaper: Security Flaws in [Link]/16/06s5b
Universal Plug and Play: Unplug, Don’t
Play.”
Wired Article titled “Researchers Find Serious [Link]/16/06s5c
Security Flaws in Universal Plug and Play”

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Ethics & Issues 6-3: Should Manufacturers Eliminate Proprietary

Connectors?
The resources listed in the table below contain more information about the proprietary connectors. As
an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired information by
entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Proprietary Connectors

Website Name Description Web Address
TechCrunch Article titled “The Sweet, Sweet Cruelty Of [Link]/16/06e3a
Apple’s New Lightning Connector”
The Telegraph Article titled “Will there ever be universal [Link]/16/06e3b
mobile phone connectors and chargers?”

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Ethics & Issues 6-4: Should Businesses Be Allowed to Make Policies

Regarding Customer Mobile Phone Use?
The resources listed in the table below contain more information about the businesses regulating
mobile phone use. As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find
desired information by entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Businesses Regulating Mobile Phone Use

Website Name Description Web Address
USA Today Article titled “Restaurateurs split on phones [Link]/16/06e4a
at the table”
Wall Street Journal Article titled “When Is It OK to Check a [Link]/16/06e4b
Smartphone at the Dinner Table?”

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Mini Feature 6-3: Proper Care for Computers and Mobile Devices
The resources listed in the table below contain more information about caring for computers and mobile
devices. As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired
information by entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Caring for Computers and Mobile Devices

Website Name Description Web Address
Allgsmtips Article titled “10 Tips To Maintain Mobile [Link]/16/06m3a
Phones For A Long Life”
android advices Article that describes how to maintain an [Link]/16/06m3b
Android phone
PCWorld Article titled “Hardware Tips: Complete PC [Link]/16/06m3c
Preventive Maintenance Guide”
wikiHow Article titled “How to Take Good Care of [Link]/16/06m3d
Your Laptop Computer”

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How To 6-5: Protect and Replace Screens

The resources listed in the table below contain more information about protecting mobile device
screens. As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired
information by entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Protecting Mobile Device Screens

Website Name Description Web Address
Android and Me Article titled “Six ways to protect your [Link]/16/06h5a
phone”
Ebay Article titled “8 Benefits of Using a Screen [Link]/16/06h5b
Protector on Your Cell Phone”
Verizon Article titled “How to Protect Your Phone [Link]/16/06h5c
from Physical Damage in a Hard-Knock
World”

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Technology @ Work: Publishing

The resources listed in the table below contain more information about how the publishing industry
uses technology. As an alternative to tapping, clicking, or entering the web address, you can find desired
information by entering search text from the table’s Website Name or Description column.

Websites about Technology in Publishing

Website Name Description Web Address
Amazon Information about Amazon’s self-publishing [Link]/16/06w1a
services
Digital Thinking Article titled “10 Trends Driving the Future [Link]/16/06w1b
of Book Publishing”
The Makegood Article titled “Digital Publishing Trends to [Link]/16/06w1c
Watch”

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