ENG 351 MODULE 1

MODULE 1

Unit 1 What is Applied Linguistics?

Unit 2 Language Learning-Theories
Unit 3 The Native Speaker and Applied Linguistics
Unit 4 First and Second Language Acquisition
Unit 5 Social Influences in Language learning
Unit 6 Individual Differences in Language Learning
Unit 7 Psycholinguistics and Applied Linguistics

UNIT 1 WHAT IS APPLIED LINGUISTICS?

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Applied Linguistics (AL)?
3.2 History of Applied Linguistics
3.3 Some Subfields of Applied Linguistics
3.4 On the Interdisciplinary Nature of Applied Linguistics (AL)
and Relevance to Language Teaching
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through a brief history of applied

linguistics, its development over the years and the work of a few people
who have contributed a lot to the development of applied linguistics
(AL). Many people have defined or described applied linguistics and
some of their definitions will also be presented. These definitions will
give you an idea of what applied linguistics entails and the various areas
of language endeavour it covers.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

This course cuts across various disciplines and different areas of human
endeavour. As a language student, you need to know all these areas so
that you can be exposed to how language can be applied to these areas.
Remember that the title of the course is Introduction to Applied
Linguistics. It means that every part of this course is introductory and
for you to do an in depth study, you need to go through the references at
the end of every unit and some other related materials.

1
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Scholars who have worked in applied linguistics have noted that it often
deals with solving or at least ameliorating social problems involving
language. Applied Linguistics (AL) answers questions such as; how can
we teach language better? What type of individual differences do we
have in language learning? What are the social influences that affect
language learning? How can we write a valid language examination?
How can we best advise Ministry of Education officials, curriculum
planners and other stake holders in the Education Ministry on the
content of a language curriculum for various groups of people and
communities? In short, applied linguistics is interested mainly in
language problems. All the areas mentioned above and some other
relevant issues will be discussed in this course.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 give various definitions of applied linguistics

 describe how applied linguistics became a discipline.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Applied Linguistics (AL)?

You have probably taken some courses in psycholinguistics,

sociolinguistics, multilingualism and some others where the word
„linguistics‟ or „applied‟ has been mentioned. In this course, you will get
to know how some of these courses are related to language. Some of the
questions that people ask are:
 What kind of language should be the language of instruction in
schools?
 What are the procedures for the choice of a language where there
are many languages?
 How can we have valid language tests?

These and many more are questions that arise frequently and have to be
answered by language specialists. Our knowledge of applied linguistics
will help us to answer some of these questions. Many people have tried
to define or describe what applied linguistic is, below are some of them.

Brumfit (1977:93) opines that:

AL is the theoretical and empirical investigation of real world

problems in which language is a central issue.

2
ENG 351 MODULE 1

Grabe (2000:9) proposes that:

The focus of AL is on trying to resolve language-based
problems that people encounter in the real world, whether
they are learners, teachers, supervisors, academics,
lawyers, and service providers, those who need social
services, test makers, policy developers, dictionary
makers, translators, or a whole range of clients.

Grabe notes that distinguishing between what linguistics and AL are

concerned with is to distinguish between theory and practice.

According to Schmitt and Celce-Murcia (2002:1):

AL uses what we know about (a) language (b) how it is learnt

and (c) how it is used in order to achieve some purpose or
solve some problems in the real world.

Schmitt and Celce-Murcia note that traditionally, the primary concerns

of AL have been second language acquisition theory, second language
pedagogy and the interface between the two.

Davis and Elder (2006:11) note the following about AL:

AL is, in our view, a coherent activity which theorises

through speculative and empirical investigations real world
problems in which language is a central issue.

3.2 History of Applied Linguistics

The term applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistics to the

study and improvement of language teaching, language learning,
language planning, management of language defects, communication
between groups, lexicography, translation etc. It owes its origin to US
language–teaching programmes during and after the Second World War.
According to Grabe (2002), (please see complete on-line reference at the
end of the unit) it was largely based on Leonard Bloomfield‟s outline
guide for the practical study of Foreign Languages (1942), which was
said to be influenced by the early European advocates of the direct
method, in particular, Henry Sweet.

The history of applied linguistics can be discussed in different countries

as noted by Grabe (2002) in the next paragraph.
The history of Applied Linguistics can be summarised thus:

1. AL in North America does have identifiable roots in linguistics.

2. While North American AL has evolved over time in its
orientation and scope, so has North American linguistics.
3
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

3. A significant amount of work directed to real world issues

involving language can be attributed to leading North American
linguists.
4. Much of what can now be seen as ground breaking applied
linguistics type activity was carried out prior to the formal
appearance of applied linguistics.

There was a gradual move away from the central focus on linguistics.
Angelis notes that until the 1990s, there were a lot of language activities
without much reference to linguistics. It was much later that scholars
saw the need to link all these language activities to linguistics in terms
of their applications.

McNamara (2001) points to a different tradition for Australian applied

linguistics in contrast to the ones for UK and US. To McNamara,
Australian applied linguistics made AL of modern languages its target of
immigrants rather than English. The application of linguistics to the
development of teaching materials and writing systems for aboriginal
languages was also focused on.
The Australian tradition of AL shows a strong influence of continental
Europe and of USA rather than of Britain. English came in the context
of mother tongue teaching and teaching of English to immigrants-
English as a Second Language (ESL). The English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) British tradition got to Australia in the 1980‟s. Scholars
have noted that the important thing about AL in Australia is its concern
for language in education, both with regard to new migrant languages
and literacy in English.

The British Association of Applied Linguistics (BAAL) was formally

established in 1967 with the aim of advancing education, fostering and
promoting the study of language use, language acquisition and language
teaching. It is also to foster interdisciplinary collaboration in this study
(BAAL,1994). Davies (2001) notes that the British tradition represented
a deliberate attempt to establish a distinctive applied linguistics.
Davies (2001) notes that, it was taken for granted in the 1960s and 70s
that AL was about language teaching. Over the last 30 years, it became
clear that those studying English language teaching had already studied
aspects of linguistics. Lewis (2001:19) notes that AL is trying to resolve
language–based problems that people encounter in the real world; to
Davis and Elder (2006:9), AL has grown quickly and it is flourishing
with academic positions, academic departments, international journals
and an international association.

4
ENG 351 MODULE 1

Davis and Elder (2006:9) commented on Widdowson‟s distinction

between Linguistics Applied (LA) and Applied Linguistics (AL) thus:
The differences between these modes of intervention is that in the case
of linguistics applied, the assumption is that the problem can be
reformulated by the direct and unilateral application of concepts and
terms deriving from linguistic enquiry itself. That is to say, language
problems are amenable to linguistic solutions. In the case of applied
linguistics, intervention is crucially a matter of mediation…applied
linguistics…has to relate and reconcile different representations of
reality, including that of linguistics without excluding others.
(Widdowson, 2000, p.5)

Davis and Elder (2006:9) note that the „linguistic applied‟ is derived
from the coming together of two traditions. First, the European tradition
which was exported to the USA through scholars such as Roman
Jacobson and the North American tradition of linguistic anthropological
field work which required the intensive use of non-literate informants.
Second is the linguistic description of indigenous languages for cultural
analysis.

Scholars such as Bloomfield (1933) and Robins thought that if you as a

teacher understand the use of linguistics as a scientific method in
language presentation, your work will be easy. AL looks outward
beyond language in an attempt to explain and solve social problems.
Linguistics applied looks inward not to solve language problems in the
real world, but to explicate and test theories about language itself. To
them, this means that LA uses language data to develop our linguistic
knowledge about language while AL studies a language problem with
the intention of correcting them (2006:09).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

i. What is applied linguistics?

3.3 Some Subfields of Applied Linguistics

Below are the commonly regarded subfields of applied linguistics as
noted Grabe (2002):

 Second Language Acquisition

Second language Acquisition theory deals with the range of variables- in

particular, age of immersion, quantity of input etc. It may interactively
determine the level of ultimate attainment.

5
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

 Language Assessment and Testing

Language Assessment plays a gate-keeping role in terms of the

functions they serve for institutions and the corresponding preparedness
of institutions to invest in their development and validation. It has
always involved the development and implementation of frameworks for
describing student‟s progress in language learning over time.

 Language Policy and Planning

The practical nature of language planning deals with the analysis of

policy making in contexts where language is a part. Language problems
always arise, which could involve rival interest reflecting relations
among ethnic, political, social, bureaucratic and class groupings.
Language policy and planning research then draws on knowledge far
beyond linguistics to solve such problems where necessary.

 Lexicography

Lexicography is important and an integral part of applied linguistics in

second/foreign language learning and teaching at all ages and levels of
education. It is concerned with the writing and study of dictionaries for
first/second/foreign language education. It also involves mono- bi- and
multilingual works and general children‟s school, college, and
specialised technical dictionaries.

 Multilingualism

This is the use of more than two languages within a speech community.
Applied linguistics deals with the sociological, psychological, attending
problems etc and the implications of these languages on the speech
community.

 Corpus Linguistics

This is aimed at improving language description and theory and Stubbs

(2006) notes that the task of applied linguistics is to assess the relevance
of the language description to practical applications. Corpus data are
essentially for accuracy in the description of language use and have
shown how lexis, grammar and semantics interact.
Corpus is a body of oral and written language collected in the field for
analytical purposes.

Some of the supporting disciplines which you must have been

introduced to are:

6
ENG 351 MODULE 1

 Psycholinguistics
 Education
 Sociolinguistics
 English studies
 Discourse studies

Some other newly introduced ones are in the area of forensic linguistics
(language and the law) and Computer Assisted Language Learning
(CALL). You do not have to be scared about all these disciplines. It only
shows that AL is a growing discipline and has a lot of other supporting
disciplines. We will go through some of these while some other courses
will take care of some of the other disciplines. In going through them,
we will explain how each of the ones discussed relate to applied
linguistics.

3.4 On the Interdisciplinary Nature of AL and Relevance to

Language Teaching

A scholar on the site written below made some comments about AL

[Link] language.

He/she noted that AL is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with

practical applications of language studies with particular emphasis on
the communicative function of the language. Such functions include:
professional practices as lexicography, terminology, general or technical
translation, language teaching (general, specialised language, mother
tongue or second language), writing, interpretation, and computer
processing of language. This shows the interdisciplinary nature of AL
and the fact that it can be applied to any area of language study. Douglas
L. Rideout in his comment on the book Applied Linguistics by Cook
(2003), notes that:

„at its inception in the late 1950s, AL was principally

concerned with language teaching especially second/foreign
language teaching which became almost synonymous but
over time the field grew and expanded to include other fields
unrelated to second /foreign language teaching such as
language policy and planning, forensic linguistics, clinical
linguistics, critical discourse analysis, translation and
interpretation and lexicography‟.
Douglas noted that despite all these latest inclusion, the close
association with second/foreign language still stands. That is why most
introductory books about AL still devote a large amount of space to
second/foreign language teaching. This shows that many other new
disciplines may still be added as time goes on. AL is rich and therefore
needs to be given a lot of attention.

7
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

i. Highlight the differences between the Australian tradition of AL

and the British tradition.
ii. LA believes that language problems are amenable to linguistic
solutions. True or False?
iii. AL believes that intervention is important and that different
representations of reality are important in language description.
True or False?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we have been able to discuss what applied linguistics is in

this unit and have also given a brief history on how it came to be. We
noted that the focus of AL is on resolving language-based problems that
people encounter in the real world. We also dwelt a bit on the
differences between AL and LA.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 The focus of AL is on trying to resolve language based problems

that people encounter in the real world
 The term Applied linguistics refers to the application of
linguistics to the study and improvement of language teaching,
language learning, language planning, management of language
handicap etc
 In 1948, Language Learning- a quarterly journal of Applied
linguistics was started at the University of Michigan by Charles
C. Fries, supported among others by Kenneth L. Pike and W.
Freeman Twaddell, to disseminate information about work at
Fries English Language Institute (founded 1941).
 In Britain, a school of Applied Linguistics was established by
J.C Cartford at the University of Edinburgh in 1956 and the
centre for AL was set up in Washington, DC, under Charles
Ferguson in1959 etc.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Give two descriptions of applied linguistics.

2. Which was the first academic journal to have applied linguistics
in its title?
3. Which is the international association of applied linguistics which
gathers most national associations? When was it born and how
often does it meet?

8
ENG 351 MODULE 1

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Applied Linguistics is solving real world problem of language applying

linguistics to language learning, language teaching, language testing,
social problems, etc.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Angelis, P. (2001). “The Roots of Applied Linguistics in North
America.” Colloquium on the Roots of Applied Linguistics in
Different Contexts. St Louis: AAAL.
Bloomfield, L. (1933). Language. London: Allen and Unwin

Brumfit, C. (1977). “How Applied Linguistics is the Same as any other

Science.” International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 7(1),
pp.86-94.
Davies, A. & Elder, C. (2006). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Davies, A. (2001). “British Applied Linguistics. Colloquium on the
Roots of Applied Linguistics in Different Contexts.” St Louis:
AAAL.
Grabe, W. (2002). “Applied Linguistics: An Emerging Discipline for
the Twenty-First Century.” In: B, Kapla (Ed). Oxford Handbook
of Applied Linguistics. Oxford University Press.
Grabe, W. (Ed). (2000). “Applied Linguistics as an Emerging
Discipline.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 2.
Lewis, M. (2001). Looking Ahead in Applied Linguistics. Applied
Linguistics Association of Australia Newsletter, New Series 44,
pp.18-19.
McNamara, T. (2001). The Roots of Applied Linguistics in Australia.
Colloquium on the Roots of Applied Linguistics in Different
Contexts. St Louis: AAAL.

Schmitt, N. & Celce- Murcia, M. (2002). An Overview of Applied

Linguistics. In : N. Schmitt. (Ed.). An Introduction to Applied
Linguistics. London: Arnold, pp. 1-16.
Widdowson, H. (2000). “On the Limitations of Linguistics Applied.”
Applied Linguistics, 21(1), pp.3-25.

9
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

UNIT 2 LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Language and How Does it Work?
3.2 Language and the Individual
3.3 Language Learning Theories
3.3.1 Behaviourist Theory
3.3.2 Innatist or Mentalist Theory
3.3.3 Monitor Theory
[Link] The Acquisition-Learning
Hypothesis
[Link] The Natural Order Hypothesis
[Link] The Monitor Hypothesis
[Link] The Input Hypothesis
[Link] The Affective Filter
Hypothesis
3.3.4 Socio-cultural Theory of Language
Learning
3.3.5 The Acculturation Model
3.3.6 The Intergroup Model
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through some of the views about
language, language and the individual and some theories of language
learning. Knowledge of language in general is very important in this
course. We all use language and there are different kinds of languages
but there are a few general things about language which we all need to
know as human beings and as language specialists. This is important for
our academic work and for research purposes. Learning about language
is interesting and rewarding.

In the just concluded Unit 1, you were introduced to Applied

Linguistics. You were told that AL tries to resolve language based
problems that people encounter in the real world. You also learnt that
AL, as a discipline, was introduced in America, in 1948, during a
conference that was organised by Charles C. Fries. In this unit, we shall
be discussing language learning. We all speak one language or the other

10
ENG 351 MODULE 1

and we have probably watched children at their earlier years of language

learning or acquisition.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss general views about language; and

 describe the different theories of language learning.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.
b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Language and How Does it Work?

In describing language, some people talked about how it works. They

see it as an instrument that works, as if it is an alarm clock whose
functioning could be understood. People also talk about the birth of a
language or its growth or decline as if it is a human being or an empire.
Languages have periods of blossoming and flowering. Languages are
also described as if they have physical qualities i.e. beautiful, ugly,
vulgar, debased or decadent. Some people also talk about language as an
event. Someone can say: a discussion „takes place‟; words „crop up‟.
Someone can ask another person if he knows French. This makes
language something „we know‟ (Corder, 1973:20). He further notes that
we write, read, speak well or badly shows that we are treating language
as skilled behaviour which improves with practice. Our description of
language reveals a variety of different ways of regarding it. The
question, however, as Corder notes is not which views are right, but
which ones are useful for language learning.

3.2 Language and the Individual

The individual is not born with a language. People acquire language

skills when they are born. Not everybody develops language skills to the
same degree but people speak, listen, read and write as they have
opportunity. The study of language involves describing and explaining
what is and what is not observable. There are some internal mechanisms
11
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

involved in language production that have to be explained. Linguists try

to explain what goes on when we speak and perform in any language
task (Corder 1973:23).

Corder notes that the descriptive framework and methods of studying of

language in the individual must have some compatibility with the study
of other aspects of human behaviour and cognitive capacities. There are
theories of social structure, social behaviour and human culture that
linguists use in analysing language and we are going to discuss some of
them in the next section.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

i. Languages can be described as if they have physical qualities i.e

beautiful, ugly, vulgar, debased or decadent. True/False
ii. Language can be described as an event. True/False
iii. Language can be described as something we know True/False

3.3 Language Learning Theories

Have you ever wondered how you learnt the language(s) you are
speaking? Do you know that some people have taken time to find out
the kind of processes involved in language learning? In this section, we
shall be discussing some of the views of some scholars about language.
Below are some of them.

3.3.1 Behaviourist Theory

The first coherent theory of language learning was the behaviourist

theory based on the work of Pavlov and Skinner (Hutchinson &Waters,
1986). Using the behavioural patterns of some animals in their
experiment, the theory states that „language is a mechanical process of
habit formation which proceeds by means of frequent reinforcement of a
stimulus-response sequence‟. It was based on the view that all learning-
including language learning-occurs through a process of imitation,
practice, reinforcement, habit formation and generalisation (Spada &
Lightbown, 2002). Simply put, language is learnt, like other
psychomotor skills such as walking, jumping, dancing, etc. “The motto
of behaviourism is that language is a verbal behaviour, learn-by-doing
activity in learning a language” (Demizeren, 1989:157).

To the behaviourists, the social environment is crucial, not only as the

source of linguistic stimuli that learners need to form associations
between the words they hear and the objects and events they represent,
but also as feedback on learners‟ performance (Spada & Lightbown,
2002). Skinner (1957) claimed that if learners correctly produce

12
ENG 351 MODULE 1

language that approximates what they are exposed to in the input, and
these efforts receive positive reinforcement, habits are formed.

Spada & Lightbown (2002) note that one of the ideas associated with
behaviourism was the notion that L1 habits which learners had already
established would interfere with the formation of new habits in the L2,
hence, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) which was proposed to
account for the role of the L1 in the L2 learning. However, (CAH) failed
to predict errors that L2 learners were observed to make and those it
predicted did not occur at all. It was then realised by researchers that
learners from different backgrounds made the same errors.

Some of the behaviourist precepts are:

1. The social environment is very crucial in language learning.

2. The teacher or facilitator has a role to play in the language
learning activity.
3. Errors must be corrected immediately; they are not permitted in
learning.
4. Frequent repetition is essential to effective learning.

3.3.2 Innatist or Mentalist Theory

This theory was developed in America by Noam Chomsky. As a result

of the weaknesses in the behaviourist theory, the „innatist or mentalist
theory‟ was introduced. The major principle or tenet of mentalist theory
is that everybody learns a language, “not because they are subject to a
similar conditioning process, but because they possess an inborn
capacity which permits them to acquire a language as a normal
maturational process” (Wilkins, 1972:168 cited in Demizeren, 1989).

To Chomsky (1968), the children learning language have innate

properties of language because they master their native language in a
very short time in spite of the highly abstract nature of rules. He insisted
that every human being is born into a society with a language
acquisition device (LAD) which embodies the nature and structure of
human language. Language acquisition device (LAD) is the language
innate faculty which is responsible for language acquisition without any
need for the social environment.

This was later referred to as Universal Grammar (UG), which was

described as “a specialised module of the brain, pre-programmed to
process language” (Spada & Lightbown, 2002:116). Universal Grammar
(UG) permits the child to acquire language during a particular
developmental period, called “critical period” for language acquisition.
At each learning level, the child subconsciously form hypotheses, and

13
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

lists them in his/her linguistic formations and thus he/she induces rules
from his/her data.

However, it has been argued that language learning cannot be separated

from the social environment. The presence of people such as father and
mother around the child learner establishes a natural social environment.
Therefore, language is not totally of inborn nature nor is it just a matter
of biological make-up. Also, language learning involves a learn-by-
doing activity to an extent. When the child realises that his/her
hypothesis falls short, he/she makes necessary corrections or
modifications (Demizeren, 1989). Mentalist tenets are:

1. The language teacher is not needed.

2. Errors are permitted because they serve as reflections of learners‟
language learning or acquisition process.
3. The role of social environment is undermined.
4. Language is innate.

3.3.3 Monitor Theory

This theory was propounded by Krashen (1982). Spada and Lightbrown

(2002) noted that this theory shares a number of assumptions with the
Chomskyan Universal Grammar (UG), but its scope is specifically
second language acquisition. One of these assumptions is that human
beings acquire language without instruction or feedback on error.
Krashen developed this theory in terms of five “hypotheses” – the
acquisition-learning hypothesis; the monitor hypothesis; the input
hypothesis; the natural order hypothesis; and the affective filter
hypothesis (See Krashen, 1982; 2003).

The fundamental hypothesis of Monitor Theory is that there is a

difference between “acquisition” and “learning”. The monitor
hypothesis suggests that in the case of spontaneous or impromptu
speeches, which originate in the system, what has been learned may be
used to edit or self-correct speech of the L2 learnt (Spada & Lightbown,
2002). In order to state that L2 learners undergo a series of stages like
L1 learners, Krashen (2003) presents the following five hypotheses as
the core of his language acquisition theory. They are as follows:

[Link] The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

This hypothesis claims that we have two independent ways of

developing language ability: acquisition and learning. Language
acquisition is a subconscious process. Nobody is aware when it is
happening. Language learning is done in school. It is a conscious
process. Error correction helps learning. “When we make a mistake and

14
ENG 351 MODULE 1

someone corrects us, we are supposed to change our conscious version

of the rule” (Krashen 2003:1).

[Link] The Natural Order Hypothesis

This hypothesis claims that the parts of language are acquired in

predictable order. That is, you can predict which aspect of the language
the learner will learn first. This theory seems to relegate the language
environment to the background. It is said that the order of first and
second languages are similar. This also depends on the individual and
exposure to the language. In a situation where a learner has some natural
deficiencies such as deafness, a natural order hypothesis may not work.

[Link] The Monitor Hypothesis

This monitor hypothesis is an attempt to explain how acquisition and

learning are used. Language is normally produced using our acquired
linguistic competence. Conscious learning functions as a “monitor” or
“editor”. Our conscious monitor corrects, inspects and scans internally
human subconsciously acquired competence. For instance, before a
sentence is uttered, our monitor or edit must scan the sentence for any
error. This is referred to as “self-correction”. Three conditions are stated
by Krashen, to successfully use the monitor. The acquirer must know
the rule. The acquirer must be thinking about correctness, or focus on
form. The acquirer must have the time.

[Link] The Input Hypothesis

The input hypothesis attempts to explain how language acquisition

occurs. It reflects the view that L2 learning occurs like L1 learning as a
result of exposure to meaningful and varied linguistic input which helps
the learner‟s developing competence (Spada & Lightbown 2002).

[Link] The Affective Filter Hypothesis

This suggests that a condition for successful acquisition is that the

learner is motivated to learn the L2 and, thus receptive to the
comprehensive input (Spada & Lightbown 2002).This motivation could
be intrinsic or extrinsic. If intrinsic, it means the learner is naturally
motivated to learn the language and if extrinsic, it means the learner is
motivated by social factors such as jobs or social climbing.
As reported by Spada & Lightbown (2002), Krashen (1982) has been
criticised on the ground that his “hypotheses” are vague and difficult to
investigate empirically. Nevertheless, the monitor theory has had a
significant impact on the field of L2 learning and teaching. His attempt
to distinguish between “acquisition” and “learning” is laudable.
15
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

3.3.4 Socio-Cultural Theory of Language Learning

This theory was proposed by Vygostky (1987). Spada and Lightbown

(2002) state that the theorists working within a socio-cultural
perspective of L2 learning operate from the assumption that there is a
dialectical relationship between culture and mind, and that all learning is
first social, then individual. Their argument is that through dialogue or
communication, learners construct knowledge and this knowledge is
later internalised. In this theory, emphasis is laid on the integration of
the social, cultural, and biological elements.

3.3.5 The Acculturation Model

The acculturation model sees the learner adapting to a new culture. It

was used to explain the acquisition of an additional language by
immigrants in naturalistic majority language contexts. Barkhuizen
(2006:561) notes that the theory emerged from a now famous case study
of a 33year-old Costa-Rican named Alberto who failed to acculturate to
the target language community and thus developed only a pidginised
form of English. Schumann (1978:34), who was the proponent of the
study, explains his findings as follows:

Second language acquisition is just one aspect of

acculturation and the degree to which a learner
acculturates to the target language group will control
the degree to which he acquires the second language.

Acculturation is said to be expressed in terms of social distance

(becoming a member of a target group) and psychological distance (how
comfortable learners are with the learning task). Welsh (2001) used the
acculturation model in investigating English learners‟ perception of their
language learning within a home stay as an accommodation which
includes full board and lodging for students studying in a foreign
country through which they may be exposed to the culture, language and
social structures of that country. Welsh noted that, for many of the
students, their expectations were not met. The study provided useful
insights into the connection between acculturation of international
students and their experiences of language learning. Some of the
limitations that the model had are summarised below.

 It does not explain the internal mechanisms of how an L2 is

acquired.
 It is a psychological model rather than a cognitive processing
model.
 The model does not consider the language learner as having a
complex.
16
ENG 351 MODULE 1

 It does not consider social identity that must be understood with

reference to larger and frequently inequitable social structures
which are reproduced in day to day social interaction (Norton
Pierce 1993:13) as reported in Barkhuizen (2006:562).
It focuses on group differences between the language learners
group and the group associated with the target language
(Barkhuizen, 2006:562).

3.3.6 The Intergroup Model

This emphasises ethnicity and the issues of social inequality as a social

factor in L2 learning. According to Giles and Brye (1982), language
learners tend to define themselves in ethnic terms and identify with their
own group. They tend to make insecure social comparison with the out-
group. Giles and Brye (1982) note the following as criticisms against the
inter-group theory:

 It is a theory which also takes into account the relationship

between the learner‟s group (in-group) and the target language
group (the out-group)
 Unlike the acculturation model which sees the relationship
between the groups as static or changing very slowly, inter-group
theory emphasises the dynamic nature of the interaction between
the groups, specifically groups with different ethno-linguistic
identities.

Barkhuizen notes that the theory did not get off the ground probably
because of lack of any research evidence to support its claims. For more
on the theories of language learning see Barkhuizen (2006:575).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Describe the acculturation and the inter-group models of language

learning.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have talked about the fact that different people have
different ideas about language, depending on who they are and why they
are writing. No individual is born with any language. We all acquire the
language of the environment in which we find ourselves when we are
born. It was also discussed that there are different theories about
language learning.

17
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 every individual has an idea about what language is, depending

on who we are;
 we all use language and there are different kinds of languages;
 some people talked about how language works;
 people also talk about the birth of a language or its growth or
decline as if it is a human being or an empire;
 languages are also described as if they have physical qualities i.e
beautiful, ugly, vulgar debased or decadent;
 some people also talk about language as an event;
 the acculturation model sees the learner adapting to a new
culture;
 Barkhuizen (2006:561) notes that the theory emerged from a now
famous case study of a 33year-old Costa-Rican, named Alberto,
who failed to acculturate to the target language community and
thus developed only a pidginised form of English;
 the intergroup model emphasises ethnicity and the issues of
social inequality as a social factor in L2 learning;
 unlike the acculturation model which sees the relationship
between the groups as static or changing very slowly, intergroup
theory emphasises the dynamic nature of the interaction between
the groups; and
 the first coherent theory of language learning was the
behaviourist theory based on the work of Pavlov and Skinner
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1986).

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1) True 2) False 3) True

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Write short notes on the innatist or mentalist theory, monitor

theory and the socio-cultural theory of learning.
2. The motto of behaviourism is that language is a verbal behaviour.
How will you explain the language behaviour of a child whose
parents are Yoruba but born in India and has the problem of
interference?

18
ENG 351 MODULE 1

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Barkhuizen, G. (2006). “Social Influences on Language Learning.” In:

Davis, A. & Elder, C. (Eds.). The Handbook of Applied
Linguistics. USA & Oxford ,UK: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 552-
575.
Chomsky, N. (1968). Language and mind. New York, NY: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.
Corder, P.S (1973). Introducing Applied Linguistics. Harmodsworth,
Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd.
Demirezen, M. (1989). Mentalistic “Theory and Language Learning” .
Hacettepe Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, Vol. 4, pp.153-
160.
Giles & Byrne, T. (1982). “An Intergroup Approach to Second
Language Acquisition”. Journal of Multilingual and
Multicultural Development, 3, pp.17-40.
Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1986). English for Specific Purposes: A
Learning-Centred Approach. New York: Cambridge University.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language
Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D. (2003). Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use.
Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behaviour. New York, NY: Appletton-
Century- Crofts.
Spada, N. & Lightbown, P. M. (2002). “Second Language Acquisition.”
In:
Schmit, N. (Ed.). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Great Britain:
Arnold.
Vygostsky, L. S. (1987). The Collected Works of L.S. Vgostsky.
(Volume 1).Thinking and Speaking. New York, NY: Plenum
Press.
Welsh, A. K. (2001). Homestay: The Perceptions of International
Students at a Tertiary Institution in New Zealand. Unpublished
M.A thesis, University of Auckland, New Zealand.
Widdowson, H. (2000). On the Limitations of Linguistics Applied.
Applied Linguistics, 21(1), pp.3-25.
Wilkins, D. A. (1972). Linguistics in Language Teaching. London:
Edward Arnold.

19
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

UNIT 3 THE NATIVE SPEAKER IN APPLIED

LINGUISTICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Concept of Universal Grammar (UG)
3.2 Definitions of „Native Speaker‟
3.3 Native Speaker or Native-Like
3.3.1 Childhood Acquisition
3.3.2 Intuitions about Idiolectal Grammar
3.3.3 Intuitions about the Standard Language Grammar
3.3.4 Discourse and Pragmatic Control
3.3.5 Creative Performance
3.3.6 Interpreting and Translating
3.4 Losing a Native Speaker Identity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 1, you were introduced to applied linguistics; and in Unit 2, we

reviewed some theories on language learning. This unit centres on the
native speaker in Applied Linguistics. It dwells on childhood acquisition
intuitions about idiolectical grammar, standard language grammar, and
so on.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

describe who a native speaker is; and
 describe the extent to which a second language learner can
acquire native-like competence.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.
b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers
20
ENG 351 MODULE 1

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

The concept of the „native speaker‟ in AL is a curious one as Davies

(2006:431) puts it. There are so many controversies about the concept of
the native speaker and some linguists have asked the question about its
usefulness to AL. Some even see the idea as pointless. Below are some
arguments from notable linguists along that line. Ferguson (1983:07) in
Davies (2006:431) has the following comments:

‘Linguists…. have long given a special place to the native

speaker as the only true and reliable source of language data‟.

He notes further that:

„Much of the world‟s verbal communication takes place by

means of languages which are not user‟s mother tongue, but
their second, third or nth language, acquired one way or
another and used when appropriate. This kind of language use
merits the attention of linguists as much as do the more
traditional objects of their research‟.

This means that, to Ferguson, the idea of a native speaker is not limited
to a particular language or set of speakers. As much as Davies (2006)
also believes in the myth-like properties of the native speaker idea, he
also thinks about its possibility of being real. David refers to Chomsky,
a protagonist of the universality of languages, as equating language
development with other human development. Chomsky quoted in
Paikeday (1985), notes that the question of what are the languages or
dialects attained and what are the differences between native and non-
native is pointless.

He concludes that everyone is a native speaker of the particular

language and that; the person has grown in his/her mind/brain.
Chomsky, a theoretical linguist, is not interested in languages, he studies
language. Davies comments that Chomsky does, in fact, acknowledge
the real individual, living as he says in the real world, whose repertoire
(stock of information on language use) is multiple and that applied
linguistics has its role in the real world of the native speaker.

3.1 The Concept of Universal Grammar (UG)

The concept of Universal Grammar (UG) is that different languages are

the same language but with different settings. This means that languages
differ essentially in terms of vocabulary. He notes that a child may be a
native speaker of more than one language as long as the acquisition
process starts early and necessarily pre-puberty. Felix (1987) notes that
after puberty, it becomes difficult [and Birdsong (1992) added „very
21
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

difficult‟] to become a native speaker. Native/non-native speaker

differences are not innate, but learnt. This concept of the native speaker,
Davies says, has the reality of membership that it always gives.

The native speakers are believed to know how things are done because
they know the tradition and the repository of the language. They are
expected to exhibit normal control, especially in fluent speech, writing,
and general communication. they are said to have a natural intuition for
shared cultural knowledge at different levels. McCawley (1986) notes
that native speakers combine their role as learners with that of authority,
and this differentiates them from the non-native speakers. Davies (2006)
notes that remaining a learner helps the native speakers gain access to
the standard language.

3.2 Definitions of ‘Native Speaker’

Below is a summary of what Davies and some other scholars agree on

about the native speaker (all native speakers). The native speaker may
be defined in the following six ways Davies (1991, 2003) in Davies
(2006:435).

 The native speaker acquires the L1 of which she/he is a native

speaker at childhood.
 The native speaker has intuitions (in terms of acceptability and
productiveness) about his/her idiolectal grammar.
 The native speaker has intuitions about those features of the
standard language grammar which are distinct from his/her
idiolectal grammar.
 The native speaker has a unique capacity to produce fluent
spontaneous discourse, which exhibits pauses mainly at clause
boundaries (the „one clause at a time facility) and which is
facilitated by a huge memory stock of complete lexical items
(Pawley& Syder 1983). In both production and comprehension,
the native speaker exhibits a wide range of communicative
competence.
 The native speaker has a unique capacity to write creatively (and
this includes, of course, literature at all levels, from jokes to
epics, metaphor to novels.
 The native speaker has a unique capacity to interpret and translate
into the L1 which she/he is a native speaker. Disagreements
about the deployment of an individual‟s capacity are likely to
stem from a dispute about the standard or (standard) language.

22
ENG 351 MODULE 1

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

(Answer True or False)

i. The native speaker cannot acquire the L1 of which she/he is a

native speaker at childhood.
ii. The native speaker has a unique capacity to produce fluent
spontaneous discourse.
iii. The native speaker does not have intuitions about those features
of the standard language grammar which are distinct from his/her
idiolectal grammar.

3.3 Native Speaker or Native-Like

There have been questions about the extent to which the L2 learner
becomes a target language native speaker. Davies answers these
questions based on the six points listed earlier on the definitions of the
native speaker. Davies (2006: 436) responds as summarised below.

3.3.1 Childhood Acquisition

The second language learners do not acquire the target language in early
childhood. If they do, then the learners become bilingual native speaker-
that is, native speakers of L1 and L2.

3.3.2 Intuitions about Idiolectal Grammar

It is possible for the L2 learner to have intuitions about idiolectal

grammar of the target language. This can be done through sufficient
contact and practice. For the second language learner to gain access to
intuitions about his own idiolectal grammar he/she must have been able
to have some childhood acquisition.

3.3.3 Intuitions about the Standard Language Grammar

With sufficient contact, and practice, the L2 learner can gain access to
the standard grammar of the target language. It is reported that in many
formal learning situations, it is through exposure to target language
standard grammar that the target language idiolectal grammar would be
learnt.

3.3.4 Discourse and Pragmatic Control

In practice, it is very difficult for a non-native speaker to gain the

discourse and pragmatic control of a native speaker, although, it is not
an impossible task. For example, if a Nigerian stays for a long time in a

23
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

country like Britain, he/she can have discourse control of the English
language, and in fact many do.

3.3.5 Creative Performance

It should be possible for a second language learner to become an
accepted creative artist in the target language. Davies (2006: 436)
reports on writers such as Conrad, Becket, Senghor, Narayan who did
well in creative performance. He however mentions the attitudinal issue
of non acceptability of the L2 creative writer by the L2 community.
Another attitudinal issue is the acceptability of a standard variety of a
language to readers of other standard varieties.

3.3.6 Interpreting and Translating

Davies (2006) notes that this must be possible even though international
organisations generally require that interpreters should interpret into
their L1

Even though it is difficult, he goes ahead to say that the adult non-native
speaker can acquire the communicative competence of the native
speaker and also acquire the necessary confidence for membership, with
a lot of exposure or contact to the target language . He also notes that if
a non native speaker wishes to become a native speaker or be seen as a
native speaker and it is accepted, it then becomes irregular if he/she
shows differences on more refined tests of grammaticality. Davies also
notes that, since this is purely psycholinguistic, it is unimportant.

Davies notes further that the positions of psycholinguistics and

sociolinguistics on the differences between native and non-native
speakers are irreconcilable. To him, no test is ever sufficient for the
psycholinguist to demonstrate the distinction between the native and
non- native speaker. Whereas the sociolinguist would always find
another exceptional learner who will demonstrate that exceptional non
native speaker can be equated to native speakers on ultimate attainment.
That is probably why Cook (1999) submitted that the distinction
between native/non native speakers should be one above all of
biography. There are all kinds of reactions to this. Finally, on the issues
of the native speaker‟s identity, Davies refers to Hyltenstam and
Abrahamson (2000) on the different views of what being a native
speaker means. These include:

 native speaker by birth (by early childhood exposure)

 native speaker by virtue of being a native user
 native speaker for native speaker-like (by being an exceptional
learner)
 native speaker through education in the target language medium
 native speaker through long residence in the adopted country.
24
ENG 351 MODULE 1

3.4 Losing a Native Speaker Identity

This section talks about the global expansion of English in the twentieth
century which has been widely discussed. Some discuss the expansion
in a favourable light, while some others in a non-favourable light.
Davies (2006: 438) mentions Fishman, Cooper and Conrad (1975);
MacArthur (1999) as some of the scholars who discuss the expansion
favourably and they commented on the empowering role of English, the
access it provides, both to knowledge and to markets, the empowerment
it provides by having most of the world‟s technological development in
English.

Those who discussed the expansion unfavourably saw it as a

domineering language through globalisation. Phillipson (1992) notes
that English squeezes other languages into less and less central roles
until they are marginalised and eventually displaced or replaced by
English in the communities. Davies cites the examples of Singapore
where English is now the only language of instruction in the school. The
same thing Davies notes happened in Guyana where the local languages
were marginalised.

In Nigeria, English is the nation‟s official language in that it is the

language of government, education, law, commerce and inter-ethnic
communication. The national policy of education recommends the use
of some of the indigenous languages, along with English, at the lower
primary school education and in conducting proceedings at the various
assemblies in governance. The general picture in Nigeria now is that,
English is surviving side by side with the indigenous languages. It does
not seem presently that it will displace the indigenous languages totally
as it has done in some other countries; but the threat it poses to the
indigenous languages is the prestigious status it occupies as the language
of the elite, which open doors to good jobs and opportunities and this
makes everyone to desire at least basic literacy in it. Apart from this,
Nigeria, being a multilingual nation has a lot of indigenous languages
which have not been committed to writing and since some of the main
speakers are dying, the languages run the risk of extinction.
There are countries where becoming proficient in English, while at the
same time not losing their first language have been regarded as
successful. In all cases of the intrusion of English as a second or foreign
language, there is the issue of self and identity, which Davies notes is
closely associated with language and, in particular, one‟s first language.
This image of self or identity can be threatened by seeing one‟s
language as inadequate or not good and, yet, unable to attain the
necessary perfection in the L2. This is what has happened to some
Nigerian speakers of English. Details about losing a native speaker
identity can be found in Davies (2006: 438-442).

25
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What do you think is the future of English Language in Nigeria?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have been able to define who a native speaker is and the
criteria for doing so. You have also learnt about the possibility of losing
a „native speaker‟ identity.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

 There are so many controversies about the concept of the native

speaker and some linguists have asked the question about its
usefulness to AL.
 Much of the world‟s verbal communication takes place by means
of languages which are not user‟s mother tongue.
 Native/non-native speaker differences are not innate but learnt.
 The native speaker acquires the L1 of which she/he is a native
speaker in childhood.
 It should be possible for a second language learner to become an
accepted creative artist in the target language.
 Phillipson (1992) notes that English squeezes other languages
into less and less central roles until they are marginalised and
eventually displaced or replaced by English in the communities.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A friend of yours relocated to the US at age 10. He /she has spent

about 10 years there now. Do you think your friend can achieve
native-like competence in English? If no, why? And if yes, how?
2. According to Davies (2006), to what extent can the L2 learner
become a target language native speaker?

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1) False 2) True 3) False

26
ENG 351 MODULE 1

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

English may likely displace indigenous languages in the future due to

the threat it poses to the indigenous languages at the moment.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Birdsong, D. (1992). “Ultimate Attainment in Second Language

Acquisition.” Language, 68, 706-55.

Cook, V.(1999). “Going beyond the Native Speaker in Language

Teaching.” TESOL Quarterly, 33, (2), 185-209.

Davies, A. (2003). The Native Speaker: Myth and Reality. Clevedon,

UK: Multilingual Matters.

Davies, A. (2006). “The Native Speaker in Applied Linguistics.” In: A.,

Davies, and C., Elder.(Ed). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics.
USA, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, pp.431-450.

Felix, S.W. (1987). Cognition and language growth. Dordrecht: Foris.

Ferguson, C. (1983). “Language Planning and Language Change”. In:

H. Cobarrubias & J. Fishman (Eds.). Progress in Language
Planning: International Perspectives. Berlin: Mouton, pp. 29-40.

Fishman, J.A., Cooper, R.L., & Conrad, A.W. (1975). The Spread of
English. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Hyltenstam, K. & Abrahamsson, N. (2000). „Who can become Native-

Like in a Second Language? All, some or none? On the
Maturational Constraints Controversy in Second Language
Acquisition‟. Studia Linguistica, 54 (2), pp.150-66.

MacArthur, T. (1999). On the Origin and Nature of Standard English.

World Englishes, 18 (2) , pp.61- 170.
Paikeday, T.M. (1985). The Native Speaker is Dead! Toronto and New
York: Paikeday Pub. Co.

Pawley, A & Syder, F.H (1983). „Two puzzles for Linguistic Theory:
Nature Like Selection and Nature-Like Fluency‟. In: J.C.,
Richards & R. Schmidt. (Eds.). Language and Communication.
Harlow: Longman, pp.191-226.

Philipson, R. (1992). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

27
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

UNIT 4 FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Factors Responsible for the Rapidity and
Accuracy of the Acquisition of a Language
3.2 Characteristics of L1 and L2
3.2.1 Age
3.3 Similarities and Differences between L1 and
L2
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit takes you deeper into some of what has been mentioned in
units 1-3 about the language learner. In this unit, you will learn about
first and second language acquisition. You know we all just discover
that we speak one language or the other and some of us speak up to two
or three languages, depending on our flair for languages and the need for
them. There are a lot of things that we are able to do with our bodies that
we just take for granted. This includes the ability to speak and reason
out things without being told, at times. First language acquisition is one
of such mysteries and we need to know what linguists who have
researched into this area of study have to say.

In Unit 3, you were introduced to different language learning theories.

In this unit, you will be introduced to first and second language
acquisition. How many languages can you speak? How did you learn
your second language? This unit discusses the learning variables in first
and second language acquisition. Tucker (2003) notes that no matter the
number of languages that are learnt later in life, „the rapidity and
accuracy of the first acquisition can simply not be repeated‟. These were
the thoughts of Tucker as a student as at the time she made these
comments. The claim seems to be true as many other scholars also
imply this in their studies. To her, this seems to be why first language
acquisition and subsequent second language acquisition is such a highly
researched topic. In both cases, the learner learns the sounds, the words,
phrases, sentences until the learner is able to make very complex
sentences that will show some level of competence in the language.

28
ENG 351 MODULE 1

Tucker also notes that the outcomes of both types of acquisitions are
different and, according to Tucker, the differences are dramatic in that
the child‟s ability to communicate in the target language far surpasses
that of the adult. She went ahead to mention some of the things that
make for the differences. These will be discussed along with the views
of other scholars in section three. Before we continue, let us look at
some of our objectives for this unit. This will guide you as you read
because they will remind you of your expectations.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the factors responsible for the rapidity/accuracy of the

acquisition of a language; and
 describe the differences between LI and L2.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.
b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Factors Responsible for the Rapidity and Accuracy of the

Acquisition of a Language

Let us consider the following.

a. Input

The quality and quantity of the „input‟ makes the first difference. The
quantity of the exposure to the target language that a child has is greater
than that of the adult (Tucker, 2003). The „input‟ is the learning situation
in form of exposure to the language in various ways that a learner is
opportuned to have. A child hears the language all day long at home, at
play, in the classroom, when rebuked, etc but an adult may be restricted
to the classroom or home instructors as a result of lack of time to study
or listen to the language being spoken or read. A classroom situation
where an instructor may be speaking to twenty to twenty-five learners at
the same time may not give enough room for individualised attention
that could aid learning. Relevance of the language to the lives of the
29
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

adult may be another determining factor in the acquisition of the

language.

b. Age

Scholars have noted the issue of a „critical period‟ after which

successful learning may be difficult to accomplish. This period is
usually tied to puberty because it has been noticed that people go
through significant changes physically, emotionally and in terms of
cognition during puberty. Three main changes noted in terms of
language acquisition are considered below.

i. The presence of muscular plasticity

A child‟s plasticity is said to go away at about the age of five.

Some psychologists note that it is difficult for a learner to fully
master pronunciation of a second language. What then happens
when young people and children above five years old travel
outside their countries to other countries and within one or two
years they have mastered the art of speaking the host language?
This only shows that this claim may not be true for all cases and
this is why motivation is important in language learning. There
have been cases of children and young people from Nigeria who
have settled in Europe or America after they were five and have
mastered to an appreciable extent the host language. It was
actually taken over as their first language as most lose their
original language.

ii. Memorisation capabilities

It has been noted that as a person grows older, their ability to

retain large amount of information reaches its peak and then
begins to decrease (Tucker (2003).

iii. Neurobiological changes

Tucker notes what she referred to as lateralisation hypothesis.

This is related to neurology. Medical science reports that as a
person matures, the left hemisphere, which controls the analytical
and intellectual functions becomes more dominant than the right
side, which controls the emotional functions. This also affects
language learning. Adults have the advantage of getting the
essentials of grammar and structure than children because of their
cognitive development. The disadvantage of this ability is that
adults tend to still hold on to the structures of their first language.

30
ENG 351 MODULE 1

c. Motivation

Motivation has a lot to do with emotional changes. Children are easily

motivated more than adults. Tucker notes two ways by which adults can
be motivated and these are 1) integrative motivation (encourages a
learner to acquire the new language so as to be able to identify with
speakers of the target language) 2) instrumental motivation (encourages
a learner to acquire proficiency for practical purposes such as becoming
a translator, doing research in different areas.
d. Egocentricity

It has been reported that adults may get annoyed when corrected during
learning another language but children do not. Adults may even feel
frustrated or threatened when learning a new language, especially if it
has to do with status enhancement. The adult sees mistakes most often
as failures rather than an avenue for correction (Tucker 2003).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Mention and discuss three of the factors affecting the acquisition of a

language as discussed by Tucker (2003).

3.2 Characteristics of L1 and L2

A person‟s first language is usually seen as the first language learnt and
still spoken. In some cases, the first language may be lost, leaving the
individual with the second and other languages learnt later. This is
referred to as language attrition. This can happen when young children
move to a new environment and the earlier learnt language is no longer
spoken frequently. A person‟s first language may not even be the
dominant language.

A second language is any language learnt after the first language or the
mother tongue. Ervin-Tripp (1974) notes that it has been observed that
the development of comprehension of syntax and of morphological
features follows the order in the mother tongue studies. She noted that
children of older ages learnt much faster than younger children for the
sample in the age of four through nine.

3.2.1 Age

Some researchers have claimed that one of the important things to note
about a first and a second language is the age the person learnt the
language. It is believed that a second language is consciously learnt and
used after puberty while a first language is unconsciously acquired. In
most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and
comprehension in their second languages as in their first.
31
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

3.3 Similarities and Differences between L1 and L2

Below are some of the similarities and differences that some scholars
have noted between L1 and L2.

a. Speed

It is believed that the speed at which a first language is learnt is faster

than that of a second language. The acquisition of a second language can
be a lifelong process for many people and that most people never have
native-like competence in the second language no matter the number of
years they spend learning it.

b. Stages

A lot of research has shown that basic sounds, vocabulary, using

grammatical structures are developed while learning a second language.
The rate at which they are learnt, however, depends on the individual for
second language learning.

c. Competence

LI speakers always try to achieve target language competence while L2

learners may be content with less than target language competence or
more concerned with fluency than accuracy (Ellis 1994). Ellis (1994)
also notes that children normally achieve perfect L1 mastery but adult
L2 learners are unlikely to achieve perfect L2 mastery. Children are also
noted to develop clear intuitions about correctness, while L2 learners are
often unable to form clear grammaticality judgments. In terms of overall
success, Ellis notes that children normally achieve perfect L1 mastery
while adult L2 learners are unlikely to achieve perfect L2 mastery.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Why do you think complete success is rare in L2 acquisitions for a

Nigerian learner of English?

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

This can be found in the relevant section of the manual and
module. Some of these are: age, motivation, input, etc.

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Complete success in L2 is hampered by MT interference,
completely within the L2 itself and limited exposure.

32
ENG 351 MODULE 1

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we talked about the acquisition of the first and second
languages as noted by some scholars. Tucker (2003) notes some factors
affecting the accuracy of the acquisition of the first and second
languages. Some of these are age, motivation and egocentricity. We also
noted the findings of Ellis 1994 on the differences between the first and
second languages.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, the following are aspects learnt by you:

 The quantity of the exposure to the target language that a child

has is greater than that of the adult.
 The „input‟ is the learning situations in form of exposure to the
language in various ways that a learner has.
 Relevance of the language to the lives of the adult may be
another determining factor in the acquisition of the language.
 The child‟s language is a system in its own right rather than being
a small fragment of the adult system.
 Wherever there is a relationship between cognition and language
development, language depends on cognition.
 The learning of a first language has many sides and is not simply
a matter of learning syntax and vocabulary.
 There are particular stages of development through which all
children progress, even if the rate of progression varies.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are the major characteristics of L1 and L2 acquisition? Can

you try to account for why there would be major differences in
L1and L2 acquisitions of a Nigerian learner of English?
2. What are the similarities and differences between L1 and L2
acquisition? Can you remember any notable similarity between
your L1 and L2 when you learnt them? Write about your
experience.

33
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Cook, V. J. (1969). “The Analogy between First and Second Language

Learning.” IRAL VII/3, pp.207-216.

Cook, V. J. (1973). “The Comparison of Language Development in

Native Children and Foreign Adults”. IRAL XI/1, pp.13-28.

Corder, P. S. (1973). Introducing Applied Linguistics. Harmodsworth,

Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd.

d‟Anglejan, A. & Tucker, G.R. (1975). “The Acquisition of Complex

English Structures by Adult Learners”. Language Learning,
XV/2.

Ervin, S. (1964). “Imitation and Structural Change in Children‟s

Language.” In: E.H. Lenneberg. (Ed.). New Directions in the
Study of Language, MIT pp.163-89.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1969). “Relevant Models of Language Education”.

Review, Vol. 22, No 1, pp. 26-37.

Larsen-Freeman, D. & Long, M. (1991). An Introduction to Second

Language Acquisition Research. London & New York:
Longman.

Laver, J. (1970). „The Production of Speech‟. In: J., Lyons. (Ed.). New
Horizons in Linguistics. Penguin.

Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). The Biological Foundations of Language.

Wiley.

Schachter, J. (1988). “Second Language Acquisition and its

Relationship to Universal Grammar.” Applied Linguistics 9, 3,
219-235.

Sutherland, N. S. (1966). “Competence and Performance.” In: J., Lyons,

& R.A., Wales (Eds). Psycholinguistic Papers. Edinburgh
University Press.

Wode, H. (1981). Learning a Second Language. Tübingen: Narr.

34
ENG 351 MODULE 1

UNIT 5 SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE

LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Act of Language Learning
3.2 Second Language Learning
3.2.1 The Learner
3.2.2 Input and Output
3.3 The Language Learner
3.4 Social Context
3.4.1 Gender and Power
3.4.2 Age
3.4.3 Audience
3.4.4 Identity
3.4.5 Social Network Relations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through some of the things that
influence language learning around us. It is important to note that we all
live in a society among people with all kinds of environments, and
whether we believe it or not, it affects all that we do, including learning
a language. In this course, you will notice in almost all the units, that
there are a lot of references to earlier scholars. You should not feel
bored by all these, it only shows that a lot of people have worked in this
area of study and we need to make references to them. In fact, you will
do yourself a lot of good if you can check up some of these references
and learn more about what has been reported about them.

One of the questions that AL answers is- what are the social influences
that affect language learning? In short, applied linguistics is interested
mainly in solutions to language problems. In this unit, you will be taken
through some of the findings of scholars on social influence on language
learning. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

35
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify the types of learners that we have ; and
 mention the social factors that can affect a learner‟s understanding of
a language.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.
b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Act of Language Learning

The act of learning a second language is a difficult one. The

grammatical system has to be learnt and the learner has to battle with
how to use it appropriately in real life situations. One of the assignments
of the applied linguist is trying to examine or determine what goes on in
the mind of the learner in relation to the environment. Obviously, a lot
of things go on at the same time in the mind of the learner which the
linguist cannot see physically. This means that, in matters of language
learning, a number of variables come into play. Widdowson (2000:3)
notes that applied linguistics is a mediating activity, which seeks to
accommodate a linguistic account to other partial perspectives on
language so as to arrive at a relevant reformulation of real world
problems.

The word „social‟, according to Barkhuizen, has different definitions

and scholars have reacted to it in different ways. Ellis (1994)
differentiates between social context and social factors. According to
Ellis, social context refers to different settings in which L2 can take
place. Each setting can be seen as a context in which a number of social
factors influence learning outcomes. His examples of social factors are
age, sex, social class and ethnic identity. To him, settings could be
natural settings where informal learning occurs or educational settings
where formal learning takes place. Ellis also refers to what he calls
social „aspects‟ Ellis (1997:37) social determinants (Ellis and Roberts
1987:26), situation domains and situational contexts (Ellis & Roberts
1987: 7), situational variables (Ellis, 1992), learning environments
(Ellis, 1990) and external constraints (Ellis 1999:461).
36
ENG 351 MODULE 1

For Brown and Fraser (1979), they use the term situation but divided it
into two, i.e. scene and participants. They later divided scene into setting
and purpose. Long (1998:93) uses social settings and environments
interchangeably. Other scholars who have worked on the social settings
and environments are Stern (1983) and Spolsky (1989). All these studies
point to the fact that language learning takes place in a social context,
which consist of a number of influential social factors. Language
learning, as described by Krashen (1981), is consciously studying the
language and acquisition. It is subconsciously internalising it. Some
scholars, however, use the term interchangeably. Evidence of what is
learnt is revealed through the interlanguage.

Researchers who look at the development use of interlanguage and

output mention both the product of the learning (the form of the actual
language used by the learner) and the process of learning (the
psychological processes that occur during learning and the social
context factors that interfere with the learning process (Barkhuizen
2006:554). Barkhuizen distinguishes between product, process and
language education by saying that language education refers to
practices, procedures and provision of language learning. He notes that
there is obviously a connection between social context and language
learning. To him, learning cannot take place in a social vacuum.

3.2 Second Language Learning

Barkhuizen (2006:556) notes that learning a second language involves at

least five elements. Below is a diagram of the relationship between the
elements.

Output

interlanguage
Interlanguage
Learner

Input

Social context

Fig.5.1: Necessary Elements for Learning an Additional Language.

[Source-Barkhuizen (2006:556)]

37
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What are some of the things you need to take into consideration before writing?

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Mention and discuss some essay writing strategies that have been
mentioned in this unit.

3.2.1 The Learner

There are a number of social factors that can be mediated through

learner attitudes which affect language learning. Ellis mentioned four
factors- age, sex, social class and ethnic identity. Younger learners are
generally more successful at learning languages than older learners.
Again, men use a higher frequency of nonstandard forms than women.
Women might be better at L2 learning than men because they are likely
to be open to new linguistic forms in L2 input, and are more likely to rid
themselves of interlanguage forms that deviate from target language
norms.

The results studied in the field to date suggest that middleclass children
achieve higher levels of L2 proficiency and more positive attitudes than
working class children when the programme emphasises formal
learning. This may be because they are better able to deal with
decontextualised language. However, when the programme emphasises
communicative language skills, the social class of learners have no
effect.

There are different social classes in every community. For example, in

Nigeria, being a member of the high class automatically qualifies you
for a life of affluence, which includes education in one of the very good
schools in the country. Members of the lower class may have to make do
with whatever they get from the government schools. It is, however,
interesting to note that there are some children from the lower class who
attend government schools and come out with distinctions while some of
those from the high class have low grades in some subjects. The reasons
for this may be partly attitudinal.

In the US for example the social stratification of school children begins

in the first grade. Children from highest achieving reading groups are
monitored into college-bound course in the secondary school, while
those from lower level reading groups are tracked into the industrial and
technical classes. The children from the highest achieving reading
groups are those from the middle class homes, where storytelling and
educational-type toys abound, while the other set are working class
children from different ethnic, linguistic and cultural homes. Once
38
ENG 351 MODULE 1

children are placed in their respective reading groups, they experience

varying quality of instruction coupled with different sets of expectations.
These findings by Wood (200) in Barkhuizen (2006) point to the social
influences on language learning of children.
What happens is that some drop out of school while some proceed to
college. L2 students may be classified as intellectually deficient because
of low English proficiency and could be tracked into inappropriate
courses (Barkhuizen 2006:557). You will notice that there is complexity
in this issue of social factor in terms of age, gender, social class and
ethnicity. These are all interconnected in one way or the other. Ellis
(1994) also states that, there is a general agreement that ethnicity play an
important role in language learning.

3.2.2 Input and Output

Input is a type of language „resource‟ received by learners when

listening or reading in a target language. This may be in a language
classroom, a natural setting or Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
laboratory. Input is seen as part of the social context. Ellis (1999), in his
research, hypothesised that input and output work together in
interlanguage. Swain‟s (1985) work on output claims that acquisition
may occur when learners have to make efforts to ensure that their output
is comprehensible.

Norton (1989) notes that output is not perceived to be merely the

appropriate use of linguistic forms; it is rather a source of resistance, a
political tool. He notes further that written and spoken input are
external to the learner and that access to them is gained through
interaction, in modified negotiated or scaffolded forms. Spada (1997)
notes that it is not very clear the effect of input on language learning.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

The diagram above shows the relationship between some variables in

language learning. Explain it to a friend.

3.3 The Language Learner

One of the specific goals of language learning is to construct a mental

system of L2 knowledge; what is referred to in different ways as an
interlanguage (IL). One other goal is to utilise this IL for effective
communication. A learner's interlanguage system is "neither the system
of the native language nor the system of target language, but instead
falls between the two" (Brown, 1994, p. 204). It is said to be an
independent and thoroughly legitimate system that the learner constructs
while actively endeavouring to make sense of (and make sense in) the
new language.
39
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

William Pellowe (1986) notes that „errors‟ and „strange language‟ exist,
not as bad habits, but as hypotheses within this active process of
language exploration and formation. There is an interaction between the
language forms in a learner's system: when a learner starts to learn a
new form, formerly "mastered" forms will become destabilised.
Likewise, seeing a "rule" in a new context temporarily destabilises the
learner's understanding of that rule (Nunan, 1995b). The second language
learners‟ interlanguage is not like that of the native speaker. They do not speak
or write the way the native speakers do.

3.4 Social Context

There is a social and contextual dimension to every naturally occurring

use of language. These social factors determine the choice and form of
what is written, said or understood. Sociolinguistics helps us to see the
influences of ethnicity, gender, ideology and social rank on language
events. Below are a few of the factors that can influence language
behaviour.

3.4.1 Gender and power

The notion of gender has been reported to account for some of the
apparently systematic differences in the way men and women use
language. The differences could be in terms of the way people plan their
narratives, discourse organisation, different accents that men and women
use from one region to the other- and so on (Cameron, 1995).

3.4.2 Age

It has been noted that older and younger people use language differently.
Features can reveal evidence of changes in language use over time. For
example, in Nigeria, older people use proverbs more than the younger
ones. The young have all sorts of slang language and modern day usage
that are not familiar to the older ones.

3.4.3 Audience

Conversations usually have a recipient design. Speakers produce

utterances with the listeners in mind. It makes speakers to adjust their
tone, accent, style, posture and even their walk at times. Llamas and
Stockwell (2002: 159) refer to this as accommodation and note that this
can be an important cause of language change over time.

3.4.4 Identity

People are usually aware of their personal, ethnic, political and family
identities and this is often a factor in their language use. People pay
40
ENG 351 MODULE 1

allegiance to their family or membership of a particular social group or

organisation. This can show forth in their language patterns and use.

3.4.5 Social network relations

The relative strength of the relations between individuals within a social

group is also important in understanding how linguistic features are
maintained, reinforced and spread. Language use may depend on
whether individuals have strong or weak ties with their group. This kind
of ties can wield a lot of socio-linguistic influence.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In summary, we have been able to go through the act of learning, second

language learning, interlanguage and, social factors that affect language
learning.

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

These are: age, teacher, audience, social context, etc.

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Use the diagram to provide the relevant answer.

5.0 SUMMARY

The summarized statements below are aspects of this unit that you must
not forget.

 One of the questions that AL answers is- what are the social
influences that affect language learning?
 The word, social, according to Barkhuizen, has different
definitions and scholars have reacted to it in different ways; to
Ellis, social context refers to different settings in which L2 can
take place.
 Language learning takes place in a social context which consists
of a number of influential social factors.
 Input is a type of language input received by learners when
listening or reading in a target language.
 There are a number of social factors that can be mediated through
learner attitudes which affect language learning.
 A learner's interlanguage system is "neither the system of the
native language nor the system of target language, but instead
falls between the two" (Brown, 1994, p. 204).

41
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss some practical ways in which you think the social context of a
nine year old Nigerian girl can affect her language behaviour in modern
day Nigeria. The girl could be from any of the geopolitical zones in
Nigeria.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Barkhuizen, G. (2006). “Social Influences on Language Learning”. In:

Davis, A. & Elder, C. The Handbook of Applied Linguistics.
USA & Oxford ,UK: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 552-575.

Brown , P. & Fraser, C. (1979). “Speech as a Marker of Situation.” In:

K. Scherer & H. Giles (Eds). Social Markers in Speech. pp. 33-
62.

Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Cameron, D. (1995). Verbal Hygiene. London: Routledge.

Ellis, R. & Roberts, C. (1987). “Two Approaches for Investigating

Second Language Acquisition.” In: R., Ellis. (Ed.). Second
Language Acquisition in Context. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.

Ellis, R. (1992). “Learning to Communicate in the Classroom.”Studies

in Second Language Acquisition, 14, pp.1-23.

Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (1995). Interpretation tasks for grammar teaching. TESOL

Quarterly, 29 (1), pp.87-105.

Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Ellis, R. (1999) “The Roles of Modified Input and Output in the

Incidental Acquisition of Word Meanings.” Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 21, pp.285-301.

Ellis, R. (1999). “Item versus System Learning: Explaining Free

Variation”. Applied Linguistics, 20, pp. 460-80.

42
ENG 351 MODULE 1

Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language

Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.

Llamas, C. & Stockwell, P. (2002). “Sociolinguistics”. In: N., Schmitt.

(Ed.). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. London: Hodder
Arnold, pp. 150-169.

Milroy, J. & Milroy, L. (1999). Authority in Language: Investigating

Standard English. (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.

Milroy, J. (1987). Language and Social Networks. (2nd ed.). Oxford:

Basil Blackwell.

Nunan, D. (1995a). “Closing the Gap between Learning and

Instruction”. TESOL Quarterly, 29 (1), pp.133-155.

Nunan, D. (1995b, November). “Getting it Right: Learners and

Grammar.” Paper presented at the 21st Annual JALT Conference
on Language Teaching/Learning and Educational Materials
Exposition, Nagoya, Japan.

Schmidt, E., & Frota, S. (1986). “Developing Basic Conversational

Ability in a Second Language: A Case-Study of an Adult
Learner”. In: R. Day. (Ed.). Talking to Learn: Conversation in
Second Language Research. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, pp.
237-326.

Spada, N. (1997). “Form-Focused Instruction and Second Language

Acquisition: A Review of Classroom Laboratory Research.”
Language Teaching, 30, pp.73-87.

Spolsky, B. (1989). Conditions for Second Language Learning. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Stern, H.H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Swain, M. (1985). “Communicative Competence: Some Roles of

Comprehensible Output in its Development”. In: S, Gass, & C.
Madden. (Eds.). Input in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley,
M.A.: Newbury House, pp. 235-53.

43
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

UNIT 6 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN

LANGUAGE LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Level of Success
3.2 Methods Used to Investigate Individual
Differences
3.3 Factors Responsible for Individual
Differences
3.4 Propensities for Language Learning
4.4.1 Learning Style
3.5 Motivation
3.6 Anxiety
3.7 Personality
3.8 Willingness to Communicate
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 5, you learnt about social influences in language learning. You

also learnt that one of the assignments of the applied linguist is trying to
examine or determine what goes on in the mind of the learner in relation
to the environment. In this unit, you will learn a few things about how
people learn languages and the kinds of things that can be responsible
for success or failure in language learning.

We shall discuss in the unit, the factors responsible for different levels
of attainment or success in language learning. These are methods used to
investigate language learning, factors responsible for individual
differences, propensities for language learning, motivation, anxiety,
personality and willingness to communicate.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the factors responsible for individual differences
 discuss briefly what is meant by propensities in language
learning.

44
ENG 351 MODULE 1

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.
b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers

3.0 HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

As a distance or ODL student, you should read this unit with careful
application of the content to yourself. What level of success do I have in
learning English? What is my attitude and aptitude in English? Am I
really motivated and willing to communicate in the language? What is
my language learning style? These are the questions that should be
agitating your mind as you read the unit.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Level of Success

The level of success that an individual attains in language learning

differs in both first and second languages. Scholars have noted that even
children vary in their rate of acquisition but, in most cases, they achieve
full competence in their mother tongue. With adult learners of L2, only a
few achieve a native-like competence. Ellis (2006) notes the following
as being responsible for the different levels of attainment – social,
cognitive and affective. Many scholars or researchers in language
studies have worked on individual differences in language teaching and
learning. Some of these are Horwitz, Carroll and Sapon etc.

There are changes in labels used to refer to individual differences. The

terms like good and bad, intelligent and dull, motivated and unmotivated
were used in the past for learners but have now given way to terms such
as integrative, instrumentally motivated, anxious and comfortable, field
independent and, field sensitive, auditory and visual. All these terms are
said to reflect a radical shift in the way learners are viewed.

Also in the past, the primary concern of individual differences in applied

linguistics was to determine which learner should be selected for foreign
language instruction. This is another way of predicting which learners
would succeed if there were language aptitude tests. Ellis (2006) notes
the growing interest in individual differences since 1970s and concludes
that the task facing researchers is not just to identify the psycholinguistic
processes involved in L2 acquisition or what motivates the individual

45
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

learner selectivity but how selectivity and processes interact in the

performance of different tasks.

3.2 Methods Used to Investigate Individual

Differences

Ellis (2000:526) notes that a number of quantitative methods have been

used to investigate individual differences and states that the favoured
one is a survey questionnaire consisting of scaled items arranged in a
questionnaire that learners are expected to respond to. These items
enable learners to report on some aspects of their language learning. An
example is the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) which is an
established test from the field of psychology. The data obtained from the
questionnaires and tests are then submitted to correlational analysis
(Ellis, 2006:527). Ellis notes the purpose of such tests as “identification
of relationships among individual difference variables or relationship
between a specific factor such as motivation and a measure of L2
achievement or proficiency.” He notes that much depends on the
validity/reliability of such questionnaires. The questions that linguists
ask are: do they measure what they purport to measure? And do they do
so consistently?

He notes that considerable efforts have gone into the development of

questionnaires. Ellis (2006: 529) also reported on the findings of
Spolsky (2000) and on Wallace Lambert who originated the use of
motivation questionnaires in 1950. Wallace Lambert is reputed to have
said that “the best way to learn about someone‟s integrative motivation
was probably to sit quietly and chat with him over a bottle of wine for
an evening.” Ellis notes that the limitations of quantitative approaches
have led to the argument in favour of qualitative methods. Spolsky
suggests the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods such as
interviews and learner‟s autobiographical narratives; an example of such
is Schumann (1997), but Ellis (2006:529) argues that it is time
consuming.

3.3 Factors Responsible for Individual Differences

In the language aptitude review of the factors responsible for language

learning, it is noted that age is not included. Ellis (2006) argues that it is
probably because „age‟ does not belong to any of the categories listed
for differences by the researchers but it is seen to potentially affect
learner‟s abilities, propensities, cognitions and actions as do other
factors such as previous learning experiences and learning situations.
Age is also seen to affect the actual psychological processes involved in
learning. Younger learners are able to access a language acquisition
device while older learners rely on general cognitive learning strategies.
Ellis notes that the role played by age in L2 acquisition demands an
46
ENG 351 MODULE 1

entirely separate treatment, which should be handled on its own. You

will find discussions on age in some other units in the course.

Three basic things have been highlighted by earlier scholars under

cognitive abilities for language learning. These are intelligence,
language aptitude and memory. Shekan (1990) administered language
aptitude tests on children in the Bristol language project and found that
language aptitude was strongly related to measures of foreign language
ability. Skehan explained that the aptitude tests measured an underlying
language learning capacity. Sasaki‟s (1996) also suggests that language
aptitude- i.e. ability to analyse linguistic structure and intelligence are
related. The work of Sparks, Ganschow and Patton (1995) also suggests
that language aptitude was one of the best predictions of the grades
achieved by school foreign language learners. Carroll (1995) identified
four aspects of language aptitude as follows:

 Phonemic coding ability ( i.e. the ability to code foreign sounds

in a way that can be remembered later)
 Grammatical sensitivity (i.e. the ability to recognise the
grammatical functions of words in sentences)
 Inductive learning ability (i.e. the ability to identify patterns of
correspondence and relationships involving form and meaning)
 Rote learning ability (i.e. the ability to form and remember
associations between stimuli).

Some other scholars such as Skehan (1998), Grigorenko, Stenber and

Ehrman (2000) have called for the modifications to Carroll‟s four part
model. Stenberg (2002) however suggests that theory of successful
intelligence which though developed through general research on native
speaking students could also be applicable to L2 learning. In his theory,
he distinguished between three types of aptitude: analytical intelligence,
creative intelligence and practical intelligence.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What are the factors responsible for individual differences in language

learning?

3.4 Propensities for Language Learning

Ellis notes that the major difference between abilities and propensities is
that ability is a matter of innate endowment, which is relatively fixed,
but propensity involves personal preference. Ellis notes that propensity
is more fluid.

47
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

3.4.1 Learning style

Willing (1989) notes that learning style is both cognitive and affective
domain. This refers to the individual‟s preferred way of processing
information and of dealing with other people. He notes that the field
dependent people see things „holistically‟ and so have difficulty in
identifying the parts that make up a whole. They find social interaction
easy and pleasurable. On the other hand, field independent people see
things analytically by distinguishing the parts that make up a whole
(Ellis 2006:565). The hypothesis advanced for these two types of L2
learning are that the field independent learners will do better in informal
language learning because of greater interpersonal skills while the other
will do better in formal learning because of their enhanced analytic
skills. Some other scholars have made use of other models of learning
styles, which involve more than a single dimension of style.

3.5 Motivation

Ellis (2006) notes that motivation is more of an affective domain than a

cognitive factor; teachers recognise the independence of motivation.
Garder (1985) differentiates between orientation and motivation.
Orientation, he notes refers to the long-range goals that learners have for
learning. There are two broad types of orientation–„integrative
orientation‟ and „instrumental orientation‟. Integrative orientation
involves a wish to develop and understand the target language and
culture. Instrumental orientation involves a felt need to learn the target
language for some functional purpose (e.g. obtaining a job).

Motivation could be defined in terms of motivational intensity, that is,

efforts learners are prepared to make to learn a language and their
persistence on learning. This strategy notes that teachers might show
some orientations but be weakly and strongly motivated to achieve their
goals (Elli, 2006).

3.6 Anxiety

There is this tendency to feel anxious when learning a new or another

language. Ellis sees the foreign language classroom as constituting a
particular kind of anxiety, which he terms situational anxiety. He
distinguishes this from the classroom anxiety in general because of the
kind of pressure that the learner of a language experiences, especially
when proficiency is limited. This he says constitutes threat to learner‟s
„language ego‟. Learner‟s diary studies were examined while carrying
out research on learner‟s anxiety.

The research showed that the classroom learners experience anxiety,

especially when it seems they are competing with others in the
48
ENG 351 MODULE 1

classroom. Studies have shown that anxiety is related to L2

achievement. There has also been the argument on whether anxiety is
the cause of poor achievement.

Sparks et al. (2000) found that students‟ anxiety about learning L2 is a

consequence of their learning difficulties. Anxiety, like motivation, is a
learner factor that is amenable to pedagogic influence.

3.7 Personality

Personality is a key factor for explaining individual differences in L2

learning. Scholars have examined a lot of personality variables such as –
risk taking, tolerance of ambiguity, empathy, self esteem, but Ellis
(1994) notes that the aspect of personality that has received the greatest
attention is „extraversion‟. He notes that „extraversion‟ is viewed as a
factor having a positive effect on the development of L2 basic
interpersonal skills. He also notes that extraverted learners are likely to
interact more and more easily with other speakers of the L2.
Introspective learners may find it easier to study L2 and thereby develop
their cognitive academic language proficiency.

Ellis reports on Dewaele and Furnlham‟s (1999) review of 30 students

on personality and concluded that „extraverts‟ were found to be
generally more fluent than introverts in both L1 and L2. They also claim
that extraverts are less easily distracted when operating from short term
memory, and are better equipped physiologically to resist stress, and so
have lower level of anxiety. This helps them to pay more attention to
learning tasks.

3.8 Willingness to Communicate

This has to do with intention to initiate communication, given a choice

(MacIntyre et al., 2001:369). Communicative language teaching places
willingness on learning through communicating. MacIntyre et al.,
(2001) note that learners with a strong Willingness To Communicate
(WTC) are likely to benefit more from CLT (Communicative Language
Teaching), while those who are not willing to communicate may learn
better form traditional, instructional approaches.

Dornyei and Kormos (2000) also worked on WTC on Hungarian

children and found that Hungarian students‟ WTC in the classroom was
influenced by their attitudes to the task. Ellis concludes by saying that
teachers can enhance their students‟ WTC by ensuring they hold
positive attitudes to the tasks they are asked to perform (Ellis 2006:542).

49
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Describe the characteristics of extraverted and introspective learners and

how their learning of language can be facilitated.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have been able to describe what is meant by individual differences

in this unit. We have also talked about the methods used to investigate
individual differences, factors responsible for individual differences,
propensities for language learning, learning style, anxiety, motivation
etc.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt the following points that you must not
forget. Take note of them.

 The level of success that individuals attain in language learning

differ in both first and second languages.
 With adult learners of L2, only a few achieve native-like
competence.
 A number of quantitative methods have been used to investigate
individual differences.
 Ellis 2006 notes that the favoured method is a survey
questionnaire consisting of likert-scaled items that will enable
learners report on their language learning.
 Ellis notes that the major differences between abilities and
propensities is that abilities is a matter of innate endowment
which is relatively fixed but propensities involve personal
preference and are more fluid.
 Learning style is both in the cognitive and affective domains.
 Personality is a key factor in explaining individual differences.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the major propensities for language learning and how can you
help a younger sister of yours who is not motivated to learn a second
language that is very important for her to do a particular course in a
foreign country?

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

The factors are age, cognitive level, aptitude, intelligence, etc.

50
ENG 351 MODULE 1

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

a) Extraverted learners: Interact more easily with other speakers.

b) Introspective learners: Find it easily to study L2 and develop
cognitive academic proficiency.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Bley-Vroman, R. (1989). “The Logical Problem of Second Language

Learning”. In: Gass & J. Schachter. (Eds.). Linguistic
Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition.

Carroll, J. (1991). “Cognitive Abilities in Foreign Language Aptitude:

Then and Now”. In: T. Parry, & C. Stansfield. (Eds). Language
Aptitude Reconsidered. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
pp.11-29.

Carroll, J. & Sapon, S. (1959). Modern Language Aptitude Test- Form

A. New York: The Psychological Corporation.

Dewaele, J. & Furnham, A. (1999). “Extraversion: The Unloved

Variable in Applied Linguistic Research”. Language Learning.
49, pp.509-44.

Dornyei, Z. & Kormos, J. (2000). “The Role of Individual and Social

Variables in Oral Task Performance”. Language Teaching
Research, 4, pp.275-300.

Ellis, R. (2006). “Individual Differences in Second Language Learning”.

In: A. Davies, & C., Elder. (Eds.). The Handbook of Applied
Linguistics. USA, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, pp.54-
81.

Gardner, R. (1985). Social Psychology and Second Language Learning:

The Role of Attitude and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold.

Grigorenko, E., Sternberg, R. & Ehrman, M. (2000). “A Theory-Based

Approach to the Measurement of Foreign Language Learning
Ability: The Canal-F Theory and Test”. The Modern Language
Journal, 84, pp.390-405.

Horwitz, E. (2000). “It ain‟t Over till it‟s Over: On Foreign Language
Anxiety, First Language Deficits and the Confounding of
Variables”. The Modern Language Journal, 84, pp.256-9.

Maclntyre, P., Baker, S., Clement, R., & Conrod, S. (2001).

“Willingness to Communicate, Social Support and Language
51
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Learning Orientations of Immersion Students”. Studies in Second

Language Acquisition, 23, pp.369-88.

Sasaki, M. (1996). Second Language Proficiency, Foreign Language

Aptitude, and Intelligence. New York: Lang.
Schumann, J. (1997). The Neurobiology of Affect in Language. Vol. 48:
Language Learning Monograph Series. Ann Arbor MI:
University of Michigan & Blackwell.

Skehan, P. (1990). “The Relationship between Native and Foreign

Language Learning Ability: Educational and Linguistic
Factors”. In: H. Dechert. (Ed.). Current Trends in European
Second Language Acquisition Research. Clevedon, UK:
Multilingual Matters, pp 83-106.

Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning.

Oxford: Oxford University press.

Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., & Patton, J. (1995). “Prediction of

Performance in First-Year Foreign Language Courses:
Connections between Native and Foreign Language Learning”.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, pp.638-55.

Spielman, G. & Radnofsky, M. (2001). “Learning Language under

Tension: New Directions from a Quantitative Study”. The
Modern Language Journal, 85, pp.259-78.

Spolsky, B. (2000). “Anniversary Article: Language Motivation

Revisited.” Applied Linguistics. 21, pp.157-69.

Stenberg, R. (2002). The Theory of Successful Intelligence and its

Implication for Language Aptitude-Testing. In: P. Robinson.
(Ed.). Individual Differences and Instructed Language Learning.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp.13-43.

Willing, K, (1987). “Learning Styles and Adult Migrant Education”.

Adelaide: National Curriculum Resource Centre.

52
ENG 351 MODULE 1

UNIT 7 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND

LANGUAGE LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Language Acquisition
3.1.1 Language Acquisition and Language Learning
3.2 Arguments for and against Language Acquisition /Learning
3.3 The Critical Period
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through one of the sub-themes of

applied linguistics. The topic is not only important for Applied
Linguistics (AL), but also for other areas of language work. As a
language student, you need to know this area of language study so that
you can be exposed to the psychological processes that take place when
people learn a language. Remember that whatever you learn in this
course is not only meant to be retained for this course alone, but for use
later on in life.

You may come across people who have problems learning a language as
you go through life, you will then remember that you did a course
related to that and that your knowledge of the course can now come in
handy at such a time to help the individual or group. So therefore, I will
advise you to go through this unit carefully so that you can benefit
maximally from the contents.

The principal concern of this unit is the psychology of language

learning. This is the psychological process going on when people
produce or understand utterances spoken or text written.

One way of investigating this is to try and understand how people

acquire such ability. This, in essence, has to do with language
acquisition. You will remember that in Module 1 unit 4, you were
exposed to factors responsible for the rapidity and accuracy of
acquisition of a language. You also learnt about the differences between
first and second language acquisition. In this unit, you will be instructed
on what seems to be going on in the mind of a learner learning a

53
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

language. Some of the facts in this unit may sound receptive of what you
have learnt before. This is to reinforce your learning of this course.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe language acquisition

 differentiate between language acquisition and learning.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.
b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers

3.0 HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

How can this unit be applied to a distant learner like you? You can draw
suggestions from the unit on how to learn English as the second
language. As an adult English language learner, it is possible for you to
borrow ideas from language acquisition process discussed in this unit for
learning English as a second language. Think as you read the unit and
borrow something for language learning.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Language Acquisition

Acquiring a language has to do with the ability of the learner to develop

the knowledge of the basic sound, vocabulary, phrases, questions,
syntax etc., of a language. A child acquires a language along with other
skills and other things about the world around him. The acquisition of a
second language, usually, takes place at a later stage when language
performance has already become established and when many other
physical and mental processes of maturation are complete or almost
complete.

Language performance and language acquisition are two principal

concerns of the psychology of language or psycholinguistics.
Psychology of language deals with the description and explanation of
language in terms of human behaviour. It also explains the relationship
between thought and language.
54
ENG 351 MODULE 1

3.1.1 Language Acquisition and Language

Learning

Scholars have noted that there are so many differences in the conditions
under which learning and acquisition take place. Language acquisition,
mental development and physical maturity take place simultaneously in
an infant. Scholars therefore concluded that there must be a relationship
between language learning and maturation. Lenneberg (1967:178) notes
the following as some of the interactions and connections between
maturation and language acquisition:

We assume that the child‟s capacity to learn language is a

consequence of maturation because (1) the milestones of language
acquisition are normally interlocked with other milestones that are
clearly attributable to physical maturation, particularly stance, gait, and
motor coordination: (2) this synchrony is frequently preserved even if
the whole maturational schedule is dramatically slowed down, as in
several forms of mental retardation; (3) there is an evidence that
intensive training procedures can produce higher stages of language
development

The second thing that scholars like Corder noted was that the motivation
for acquisition and language learning cannot be equated. They have not
been able to establish whether motivation can adequately be used in
language acquisition. Corder mentions the fact that if congenitally deaf
children develop a means of non-verbal communication in their earlier
stages of life, a conclusion can then be drawn that language acquisition
is natural and not because of any practical use to the speaker.

The third thing noted about acquisition is that the infant acquires
language from data different from the adult. He/she acquires it naturally.
People do not usually address the infant directly or specifically. They
expose him/her to the language in an unorganised manner. He/she does
not stay in a classroom. He/she does not understand most of what he/she
hears and just imitates speakers around him/her. Snow (1972) notes that
the utterances he/she is exposed to may be modified or simplified by
him/her and he/she learns most things through his/her normal cognitive
development.

The fourth thing that Corder noted is visitation to another country. Some
people get exposed to the language informally, i.e., no formal
organisation of the language data by any teacher. Some others attend
school or receive formal instructions for second language learning.
Some other people also pick up a foreign language when they decide to
visit another country or live there.

Corder notes that in language acquisition, the extent to which the child
is exposed to „teaching‟, e.g. from the parents and other siblings cannot
55
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

be ascertained. Corder goes further to say that parents will try to repeat
the correct version of what they feel a child is trying to say. Below is an
example:
Child: Table hit head
Parent: No, the head hit the table
(Corder 1973:111)
An adult can correct a child by saying the right thing. This is a form of
correction. An adult can correct a child in this way by saying the right
thing in form of saying the right sentence(s). In this way, the child learns
the right thing or the right way to say what he/she wants to say. The
adult can even ask questions to make the child repeat what he/she has
said so that he/she can be corrected. Below is another example from
Corder (1973:111).

Mother: Did Billy have his egg cut up for him at breakfast?
Child: Yes I showed him
Mother: You what?
Child: I showed him
Mother: You showed him?
Child: I seed him
Mother: Ah, you saw him
Child: Yes I saw him

In language learning, practice and imitation are very important. At

infancy, the child tries to imitate but his/her imitation is not a perfect
imitation. Scholars in language acquisition have debated on whether
imitation and practice are part of the processes of language acquisition.
Corder notes that the process of learning verbal responses which was
incorporated as a specific language learning theory sees „imitation as
acquisition of a response and the function of practice is to strengthen it‟.

In their study of infants‟ imitation of adult utterances, Ervin (1964) and

Slobin (1966) note that the child does not acquire new language forms
by imitation and that, where imitation occurs, it fulfils some other
function than learning. Is it possible for you to use imitation to master
second language? Yes, you can imitate sentence patterns in the manual
you are reading.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

When does language learning and language acquisition take place and
how does this happen?

56
ENG 351 MODULE 1

3.2 Arguments for and against Language

Acquisition Learning

Corder (1973:113) observes that the main argument against language

acquisition and second language learning having anything in common is
that language learning normally takes place after language acquisition is
largely complete. The language learner has already developed
considerable communicative competence in his/her mother tongue and
already knows what he/she can or cannot do with it. This means that the
circumstances – i.e. the learner, teacher, and linguistic data in which
learning takes place are different. This difference can be noticed in the
physiological change in adults and children learning a language. These
changes may inhibit using same strategies to learn a language.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

According to Corder (1973), what are the four things to note in language
acquisition and language learning?

3.3 The Critical Period

In his explanation of the „critical period‟, Lenneberg (1967:158) notes

the fact that language cannot begin to develop until a certain level of
physical maturation and growth has been attained. In Lenneberg‟s view,
„language emerges as an interaction of maturation and self programmed
learning between the ages of two and three while the possibility for
primary language acquisition continues for good between the ages of
three and the early teens‟. The individual is said to be most sensitive to
stimuli at this time. Commenting on how the brain functions, Lenneberg
notes further that between the ages of three and early teens, the
individual has the ability to also- preserve some innate flexibility for the
organisation of brain functions to carry out the complex integration of
sub-processes necessary for the smooth elaboration of speech and
language.

After puberty, the ability for self organisation and adjustment to the
psychological demands of verbal behaviour quickly declines.

The brain behaves as if it had become set in its ways and primary, basic
language skills not acquired by that time, except for articulation, usually
remain deficient for life.
Lenneberg (1967:158)

This means that we acquire language when our brains are in a particular
stage of their development. If language is not acquired then, it becomes
a little difficult at a later age.

57
ENG 351 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has exposed you to some of the psychological processes that
take place when people learn a language. It is noted that there are many
differences in the conditions under which learning and acquisition takes
place. There is a critical period when language can be best learnt and
that a certain level of maturation and growth is required for language
development.

5.0 SUMMARY

The major points that you should note in this unit are present in a
summary from bellow.

 Language acquisition takes place in the infant simultaneously at

the time that he is acquiring other skills and other things about
the world around him.
 When an individual wants a second language, it usually takes
place at a later stage when language performance has already
become established and when many other physical and mental
processes of maturation are complete or almost complete.
 There are so many differences in the conditions under which
learning and acquisition take place.
 Language acquisition is natural and not because of any practical
use to the speaker.
 There must be a relationship between language learning and
maturation.
 The main argument against language acquisition and second
language learning having anything in common is that language
learning normally takes place after language acquisition is largely
complete.
 The language learner is a different sort of person from the infant;
that there has been some qualitative change in his/her physiology
and psychology at some point in his/her maturation process.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are some of the main arguments for and against language
acquisition and language learning? How many languages do you speak?
Did you experience the same things expressed in this unit while learning
your second language? Discuss.

58
ENG 351 MODULE 1

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Language acquisition takes place in the infant simultaneously at the time

the child is acquiring other skills. Language learning takes place at a
later date when the second language learner needs the language.

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1) Capacity to learn the language.

2) Motivation to learn the language.
3) Form data different from adult.
4) Visitation to another country.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Corder, P. S. (1973). Introducing Applied Linguistics. Harmodsworth,

Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd.

Ervin, S. (1964). “Imitation and Structural Change in Children‟s

Language”. In: E.H. Lenneberg. (Ed.). New Directions in the
Study of Language. MIT. pp.163-89.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1969). “Relevant Models of Language Education”.

Rev., Vol. 22, No 1, pp. 26-37.

Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). The Biological Foundations of Language.

Wiley.

Miller. (nd).(Ed). The Genesis of Language. MIT.

Slobin, D. I (1966). Imitation and the Acquisition of Syntax.

Snow, C. E. (1972). “Mother‟s Speech to Children Learning Language”.

Child Development, No 43, pp. 549-65.

59