CONTRUCTION SITES: USING LEAN PRINCIPLES

TO SEEK BROADER IMPLEMENTATIONS

2
Fhivio Augusto Picchi\ Ariovaldo Denis Granja

ABSTRACT
This paper aims to evaluate Lean Thinking applications possibilities concerned with the
construction job site flows, by identifying the potential of using lean principles to structure
implementations, seeking broader results.
From one hand, previous studies indicate that it is feasible to use lean tools and
techniques in construction sites. On the other, poor implementations of lean concepts are
often observed when tools are implemented in isolation, without a full lean system
perspective. In a manufacturing environment, mapping the value stream is an essential step in
creating a lean endeavor, generally followed by the implementation of flow and pull tools.
The authors argue that using the five lean principles is a step in the right direction also on
construction sites, enabling the discussion of Lean Thinking applications from a rather
fragmented and isolated view to a strategic point of view. Finally, the authors suggest actions
for implementing available lean tools as part of a broader perspective, based on lean
principles.

KEYWORDS
Lean Thinking, lean construction, construction management, construction site, flow and pull.

Associate Professor, Architecture and Construction Department, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture
and Urban Design. Av. Albert Einstein, 951, Caixa Postal 6021, Univ. of Campinas, Campinas/SP, Brazil,
CEP 13084-971, Phone +55 19/3788-2082, FAX 19/3788-2411, adgranja@[Link].
2
Director, Lean fustitute Brazil, Rua Topazio 911, Sao Paulo/SP, Brazil, CEP 04105-063, Phone +55
11/5571-6887, FAX 1115571-0804, :fpicchi@[Link]

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INTRODUCTION
The concept of Lean Thinking has its roots on Toyota's Production System (TPS),
specifically in the automotive industry. Womack et al. (1991) first introduced this concept by
establishing a new paradigm for production in a manufacturing environment. Lean Thinking
relies heavily on eliminating waste, understood as any human activity that absorbs resources
but creates no value (Womack and Jones 1996).
Construction differs in many ways from manufacturing. Koskela's pioneer work (Koskela
1992) was the first attempt to seek understanding of Lean Thinking on the construction
sector. Since then, several researches have been performed (e.g. Howell and Koskela 2000,
Howell 1999, Ballard and Howell 1998) aiming to establish a conceptual understanding as
well as to devise successful practical applications in the context of construction.
The present research consists mainly of a literature review. By using this exploratory
methodology, the authors aim the development of a systems synthesis and a conceptual
framework. The authors employed an inductive approach from existing works in this field,
seeking a wider conceptual synthesis. This framework is based on the five lean principles
stated by Womack and Jones (1996): value, value stream, flow, pull and perfection. In this
study the approach is limited to the job site flows. This discussion is part of a broader
framework of crossing the five lean principles and the five construction flows, namely,
business, design, supply, job site and use and maintenance flows (Picchi 2001)
While several cases of Lean Thinking applications in construction have been discussed,
most of them focus on isolated tools and techniques (Santos 1999). This kind of application
is considered a major reason for poor implementation of lean concepts, consequently yielding
few meaningful results (Rother 1997). Lean Thinking successful implementation demands
for a correct perception of philosophy, systems and techniques involved (Shook 1997).
The main goal of this research is to appraise examples of Lean Thinking applications
possibilities restricted to the job site flow, by figuring out potentials of taking lean principles
to structure implementations, focusing on broader results. The analysis aims to provide a
wider and integrated understanding of lean concepts and techniques that may be applied to
construction sites, and to determine present gaps and future research priorities as well.

LEAN TOOLS IMPLEMENTATIONS AND THE FIVE LEAN PRINCIPLES

There are several reports on implementing lean tools in the job site flow. In the following
sections, the authors present and discuss some related works on this issue in the context of
the five lean principles. The authors do not aim to show a complete survey of all the works
related to this issue, but rather to refer to selected examples of how lean tools have been
employed.

VALUE

The correct definition of how value is perceived from the client's point of view is the starting
point to the application of Lean Thinking. Focusing on the whole enterprise, this perception
includes the determination of the main characteristics of the product and the associated
benefits the client is willing to pay for. This is the first step to waste recognition, defined as

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everything that adds no value from the clients' perspective (Womack and Jones 1996). As
this work focus exclusively on the job site flow, its particular consideration is affected in a
certain way.
One possible explanation for these specifics could be identifying on the job site
processes, what is perceived as value from the client's point of view. One can point out that
traditional construction process improvements are related to this principle. However it is
important to observe that these improvements are generally conceived having in mind cost
reduction, what is an important part of value, but not always considering possibilities of
enhancing features that are perceived as value by the client's eyes.

VALUE STREAM
Managing physical flows of people, materials and equipment in construction sites must be
taken as part of the production planning and control process (Alves and Formoso 2000). In
another related work, Elfving et al. (2002) have examined the reduction of lead times for
specific components, such as electrical switchgear. Results pointed out that long lead times
have are caused by the large number of design iterations and change orders.
Ballard et al. (2002) and Ballard and Howell (2003) used a process map flow to analyze
precast concrete fabrication. That approach was useful to identify opportunities of using flow
and pull lean techniques. Results report improvements up to 181% in the productivity rate. In
another work, Walsh et al. (2003) identified opportunities of reducing 30% the cycle time in
high volume home building, analyzing a extended process map of trades.
The Lean Thinking analogue tool for depicting production processes is the value stream
mapping (Rother and Shook 2000). By adopting this approach, process understanding can be
improved and conditions for reducing variability and waste are achieved.
Mapping the value stream of ready-mix concrete regarding hatching and delivery has
been carried out by Tommelein and Li (1999) Results showed that the current practices for
managing the concrete supply chain upstream could be improved toward a just-in-time (JIT)
lean approach. Structural steel supply flow in industrial and building construction has been
analyzed by Tommelein and Weissemberger (1999) Again by using value stream mapping
lean tool, results pointed out to the use of buffers at nearly all stages in the process, hindering
the steel to flow properly. These evidences show that remarkable process improvements may
be achieved by implementing lean concepts in a broader scope.

FLOW

The concept of flow is one of the core elements of Lean Thinking philosophy to achieve
complete removal of waste. It is related to the ideal of flowing value without interruptions,
eliminating waste and reducing the lead time of generating new products or services
(Womack and Jones 1996). Practical implementations are geared towards production cells for
instance, where remarkable productivity gains can be achieved. Concepts applied in this
context are: one piece flow, multi-functional operators, and controlled and standardized
rhythm (Rother and Harris 2002).

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 Creating continuous flow in construction sites is a huge challenge due to its fragmented
nature, low standardization patterns of activities, one of a kind features of construction's
products, etc. (Koskela 2000). Randolph Thomas eta!. (2003) carried out a work flow study
on three bridges construction sites. Results showed 12.063 hours oflabor resources employed
on the three bridges, and from these 4.601 hours (38%) were related to reworking, batch and
queues, and other inefficiencies. The Last Planner system of production control (Ballard
1997, Ballard 1999b, Ballard 2000) seeks to quantify work flow reliability by the PPC
(percentage of planned assignments completed). According to Ballard (1999b), PPC has been
measured at levels ranging below 30% to 60%, with rare exceptions above those levels.
Raising PPC at levels above 90% seems to require some additional actions as pointed out in
that work.
Santos 1999; Santos et a/.1999; Santos et a!. (2000) and Santos and Powell (2001)
identified the use of some tools to support flow in six job sites. The authors pointed out that
implementations of reducing work in progress and downsizing batches in construction sites,
important elements for creating continuous flow, are still unusual.
One of the cornerstones for achieving continuous flow on manufacture is the working cell
(Suzaki 1987); however, initiatives of implementing this concept in construction are still rare.
Working cells in construction job sites have been addressed in a pioneer case study focusing
on drywall technique (Santos et a!. 2002). Results showed that visual controls in the
workstation, packages and in the employed materials are key features for achieving
meaningful implementations of working cells in construction. Howell et a!. (1993) and
Ballard and Tommelein (1999) have undertaken studies about the interaction between diverse
work cycles concerning different teams. Results showed that unbalanced activities between
construction trades are a important reasons for difficulties on stabilizing flow. Connected to
this issue, repetitive and standardized work cycles in home buildings have been investigated
by Ballard (2001).
Flow depends heavily on the quality management of activities being carried out.
Avoiding reworking related to quality deficiencies is essential for assuring products to flow
properly. Research work on reducing variability by using poka-yoke (mistake-proof) devices
has been undertaken by Santos and Powell (1999). According to this work, poka-yoke
devices could be installed on construction machinery supplied on site avoiding incorrect use
of these kinds of products. In spite of that, little use of these mistake-proof devices has been
noticed in construction sites, mostly of them related to safety management.
The use of visual control devices for implementing the concept of transparency is used in
the lean system for immediate problem detection and to improve flow reliability. Santos eta!.
(1998); and Formoso and Santos (2002) studied some examples ofvisual controls in job sites
observing a tendency of straight correlation between transparency and efficiency in these
cases. In a similar way, Reineck et a!. (2002) reported productivity gains in construction
sites, by implementing improvements on process transparency. Moser and Santos (2003)
depict the use of visual controls as imperative for implementing working cells in the
construction sector.
Standardized work is another fundamental aspect for stabilizing flow (Rother and Harris
2002). At the same time, Santos et a!. (2002) showed the paradox of construction companies
developing written standards but at the same time failing to implement and maintaining

4
standard practices. Results pointed out for an urgent need for a more widespread promotion
of visual management approaches within the construction management. Work structuring is
regarded by some authors as revisiting construction processes for waste reduction, and it can
be considered as part of the requirements for achieving improvements on flow consistency
(Ballard 1999a; Tsao et al. 2000, Tsao and Tommelein 2002, and Ballard et al. 2001).

PULL

Pull and flow lean principles are regarded as the core characteristics of Lean Thinking, and
are cornerstones for the elimination of waste. A lean pull technique was successful reported
in a pipe-spool construction process (Tommelein 1998). By using this technique, real-time
feedback from the job site can be used to drive fabricator's off-site work, and vice versa.
Benefits reported are smaller buffers, earlier project completion and increased productivity,
when properly implemented. In a similar work, steel supply chain for industrial and
residential buildings has been analyzed having in mind the pull production concept
(Tommelein and Weissenberger 1999).
Just-in-time production (JIT) is also encouraged to construction application by
implementing better managing practices for uncertainty elimination and causes of flow
variation (Ballard and Howell 1995; Ballard 1998). More on implementing JIT logistics to
the supply flow of building materials on site has been carried out by Bertelsen and Nielsen
(1997).

PERFECTION
One may note a continuous progress in the adoption of quality systems programs in the
construction industry. Results of this strategy are that reasonable improvements and
standardization of tasks have been achieved. Lean Thinking adopts a quite broader concept of
standardized work, which stabilizes processes by defining precisely: sequence, rhythm, and
allowed inventory (LEI, 2003).
It is important to note that Lean Thinking focus on continuous learning and
improvements directly on the base of the functional hierarchy, with a scientific and rotinized
method (Spear and Bowen, 1999; Fujimoto, 1999). Adopting this strategy ensures one that
problems can be efficient detected and rapidly solved. Therefore, one may point out that even
in successful cases of quality programs implementation, additional elements based on lean
concepts are necessary, so an environment of continuous improvements and learning is
accomplished.

DISCUSSION
It is possible to infer from the literature (Rother 1997; Santos 1999, Johansen et al. 2002),
and :from the author's observations in the manufacture and in construction sites, that lean
implementations are usually very fragmented. These pioneer cases are important steps
towards lean dissemination in job sites, but lean tools use based on a broader lean system
analysis is necessary for more significant results (Womack and Jones 1996; Liker 1997;
Rother and Shook 2000).

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 Figure 1 summarizes examples of lean tools already used in job sites.

EXAMPLES OF LEAN SUGGESTIONS FOR WIDER AND

TOOLS APLICCATIONS INTEGRATED LEAN TOOLS APPLICATIONS

Construction process
improvements seeking cost Identifying value from the client's point of view.
reductions. Value as Revisiting construction processes seeking to add
perceived by the client's more value to the client, by reducing waste and
eyes is not systematically enhancing additional willed features.
considered as a rule.

Value stream mapping of materials and

information.
Process mapping Designing a future value stream mapping,
applications. proposing necessary improvements and
identifying adequate tools.

Specific tools applications:

visual controls and poka-
yoke.
Creating a continuous flow atmosphere, by
Last planner used to revising work division patterns of teams and
stabilize working flow.
workers.
Identifying and minimizing Adopting standardized work by defming
process wastes by using
sequence, rhythm, and inventory.
work structuring.

Just-in-time applications Conceiving a broad direct communications

among trades or for the system for pulling services, components and
supply of specific materials. materials just when necessary.

Designing processes to immediate detection of

Use of quality systems, problems.
focusing mainly on process Establishing systematic procedures of continuous
characteristics affecting learning and improvements on the functional
product performance. hierarchy base, whenever variations on
standardized work processes are identified.

Figure 1: Examples of lean tools already reported in construction implementations and suggestions for wider
and integrated applications for the sector.

These examples indicate that, although these tools were developed in the different
environment of manufacturing, they can be adapted to construction. The authors consider that
lean implementations are also viable for the construction sector. Results obtained even in the

6
present fragmented way of lean implementations are positive and encouraging (Ballard and
Howell2003; Santos 1999; Koskela 2000).
In most cases just one tool has been used in each job site, without connection with other
tools or lean principles. The understanding of each tool as a means for perceiving a lean
principle, as depicted in Figure 1, is a first step for wider applications. Figure 1 also presents
suggestion for extensive applications in job site, seeking core aspects implementation for
each principle. Based on the literature review and on the authors' experience implementing
lean in different industries, we can identify three different lean implementation scenarios,
depicted in Figure 2.
Scenario 1 of Figure 2 shows the most frequent applications pattern observed so far in
construction companies. The limited results obtained by this approach have already been
discussed.
Scenario 2 represents a major step towards a wider application of lean thinking in job
sites: the systematic interpretation of the five lean principles combined with tools use driven
by a future state value stream mapping designed to improve flow. Value stream mapping as
proposed by Rother and Shook (2000) is a powerful tool to provide a large view of a lean
system for each company, avoiding fragmented implementations. This tool can provide a
guide for several steps in a lean transformation, as we can conclude comparing, for example,
with the six steps proposed by Serpell and Alarcon (1998) for construction improvements.
Value stream mapping present state covers the two first steps: diagnostic of current situation
and analysis and identification of improvement opportunities. Future state of value stream
mapping gives direction for the third and fourth steps: definition and evaluation of
improvement strategies and actions and planning of implementation. The process mapping
cases referred in the previous section value stream show the potential of this kind of analysis,
although the cases so far are applied to partial job sites activities and do not take advantage of
the full value stream mapping, combining information and material flow (Rother and Shook
2000).
There is no notice of implementations in construction with the amplitude of scenario 2.
The construction of this scenario is a challenge for future researches and practical
implementations. In fact, researchers and practitioners face a larger challenge, that is, the
application of lean to the job site as part of a company-wide transformation. This situation is
illustrated in scenario 3 of Figure 2. As an example, Thomassen et al. (2003) describe a case
of lean application in job site that made clear to the involved agents that job site
implementation would not evolve without lean design and lean supply. The necessity of
involving several functions of the company, such as product development, suppliers and
customers relationships, etc., had already been emphasized by Womack and Jones (1996),
but hardly accomplished (Rother 1997). Liker (2004) recognizes 14 management principles
that drive the Toyota Production System, named The Toyota Way; these principles are
organized in four categories: philosophy, process, people and partners and problem solving.

7
 Job site 1 Job site 2 Job site N
Company X Com an Y CompanyZ

Scenario 1 - Fragmented tools application

Value
Value Stream c::==>
Flow
Pull
Perfection

Job sites 1 to N
Company X

Scenario 2- Integrated Job site application

Value
Value Stream c::==>
Flow
Pull
Perfection

Company X
Scenario 3- Lean Enterprise application

Figure 2: Different scenarios for lean application

It seems that lean implementations are most effective when considering the construction
company as a whole, and should be considered as a long-term goal. Nevertheless, inadequate
processes are a recurrent characteristic of construction sites. In this regard, Value Stream

8
mapping is a valuable tool for eliminating waste and promoting value. The authors consider
that systematic improvements of processes via Value Stream mapping followed by flow and
pull implementations are effective steps for lean implementations. One last point to Figure 2,
Scenario 3, is that this integrated lean implementation status depends heavily on the
leadership process. Leaderships should be in charge of seeking potential results by
implementing lean, and by aligning them with the strategic targets of the company. The
experience of the authors shows that lean implementations can be achieved by different
ways, for instance, by a process of identification of lean potentials in another company by the
leadership and then deciding to apply in his own, or even through specific lean
implementations in pilot projects. As a rule, results obtained in the very first steps of lean
implementations taught leaderships that wider and integrated applications are the key for
even better outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS
Lean applications in job sites so far are mainly focused on isolated tools implementation,
with limited results. These pioneer cases show that the tools can be used in the construction
environment. Broader applications and higher level results can be achieved by using the five
lean principles as a direction, value stream mapping to draw a future state and identify the
adequate tools use, and considering job site implementation as part of a lean enterprise
transformation.
The authors have noticed a lack of awareness on the following research issues:
• Using value stream mapping for the understanding of waste generation on construction
sites, and correct actions for implementing available tools (Rother and Shook 2000).
• Full understanding of the flow principle applied to processes as a very first priority
towards lean (Rother and Shook 2000). An environment of continuous flow should bring
meaningful results, by adapting tools as described in Rother and Harris (2002).
• Broadening the understanding of standardized work within construction processes,
continuous learning, and systematic improvements (Fujimoto 1999).
• Application of the lean business system to the whole construction company, resulting in
more meaningful job site implementations, leading to a higher level of results (Womack and
Jones 1996; Liker 2004).

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