Instrumentation Interview Questions

Can you explain what process control is?

Process control is a statistics and engineering discipline that deals with architectures, mechanisms, and
algorithms for maintaining the output of a specific process within a desired range.

What is the purpose of a PID controller?

A PID controller is used to control a process by continuously adjusting the control inputs in order to minimize
the difference between the desired setpoint and the measured process variable.

Can you describe the working principle of a thermocouple?

A thermocouple works on the principle of the Seebeck effect. It generates a voltage when its junction of two
different metals is heated or cooled.

What is the difference between PLC and DCS?

PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is ideal for discrete control tasks, while DCS (Distributed Control
System) is designed for process control tasks. PLCs are used in applications that require robustness,
simplicity, and a lower cost. DCSs are preferred for complex control processes where coordination between
various processes is necessary.

Can you explain what Instrumentation Amplifiers (InAmps) are used for?

Instrumentation Amplifiers are used where great accuracy and stability of the circuit are required. They are
used to amplify very low-level signals, reject noise, and also provide a high degree of isolation.

What is a 4-20mA signal and why is it widely used in industrial control systems?

A 4-20mA signal is a type of electrical current loop used in control systems. It is preferred because it can
overcome the resistance of the line, is less susceptible to noise, and can provide a ‘live zero’ signal, where
4mA represents the lowest measurable value, and zero current indicates a fault.

What is a smart transmitter?

A smart transmitter is a type of process variable instrument that is able to perform functions beyond simple
measurement. These include diagnostic functions, digital communication, and the ability to be configured for
different parameters.

Can you explain the working of a flow meter?

Flow meters measure the rate or quantity of a moving fluid. The working principle depends on the type of flow
meter. For example, a magnetic flow meter works by applying a magnetic field to the metering tube, which
results in a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines.

What is the difference between a solenoid valve and a motor-operated valve?

Solenoid valves are electrically controlled valves that typically handle smaller flow rates and are best for
applications requiring fast opening and closing. Motor-operated valves are used for larger flow rates and are
designed for applications where slower, controlled opening and closing are necessary.

What does HART communication protocol mean?

HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) is a communication protocol widely used in industrial
automation systems. It allows for two-way field communication and enables additional information beyond just
the normal process variable to be communicated to/from a smart field instrument.
What is the role of a transducer in instrumentation?

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. In instrumentation, it’s typically used to
convert a physical quantity like pressure or temperature into an electrical signal.

What is an RTD?

RTD stands for Resistance Temperature Detector. It’s a type of sensor used to measure temperature by
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.

How does a level transmitter work?

A level transmitter measures the level of a substance in a container (for example, a tank) by measuring the
pressure at the bottom of the tank due to the weight of the liquid.

What is the difference between a sensor and a transducer?

A sensor is a device that detects a physical quantity and generates a corresponding signal. A transducer, on
the other hand, converts one form of energy into another. In some cases, a sensor can be a type of
transducer, but not all transducers are sensors.

How does a pressure transmitter work?

A pressure transmitter works by measuring the force that fluid or gas exerts on a sensor element in the
transmitter and converting that measurement into an electronic signal that can be read and interpreted.

Can you explain the principle of operation of an ultrasonic flow meter?

Ultrasonic flow meters work on the principle of measuring the speed of a fluid flow using ultrasound to
calculate volume flow. They use a set of transducers that emit and receive ultrasonic waves. The difference in
the transit times of these waves is used to calculate the flow rate.

Can you explain what is meant by loop checking in instrumentation?

Loop checking in instrumentation is a process where the performance and connections of control loops are
verified. It’s performed to ensure that the control loop is functioning correctly before the process is started.

Explain distributed control system?

A Distributed Control System (DCS) is a control system for a process plant where control elements are
distributed throughout the system. This is in contrast to centralized systems that operate from one location.

What is the purpose of an orifice in a pipeline?

An orifice in a pipeline is used to change the fluid flow characteristics, typically to reduce pressure, restrict
flow, or measure flow velocity.

How does a Vortex Flow Meter work?

A Vortex Flow Meter works on the principle of vortex shedding. As fluid passes a bluff body, vortices are shed
alternatively from each side. The frequency of these vortices is proportional to the velocity of the fluid, and thus
the flow rate can be calculated.

What is calibration in terms of instrumentation?

Calibration in terms of instrumentation is the process of checking and adjusting the output or response of a
measurement instrument to ensure its accuracy and reliability. It’s typically done by comparing the
instrument’s output with a known standard.
What is the difference between intrinsic safety and explosion-proof?

Intrinsic safety refers to equipment and wiring that is inherently safe. In other words, in an explosive
atmosphere, it is incapable of causing an explosion. On the other hand, explosion-proof equipment is designed
to prevent an internal spark or explosion from causing a much larger blast.

How does a pneumatic control valve work?

A pneumatic control valve works by converting an electrical signal into a pneumatic signal (air pressure). This
air pressure is then used to actuate the valve and control the flow of a process fluid.

What are control valve actuators and what are the different types?

Control valve actuators are devices that move or control the valve’s closure member. They can be classified
as pneumatic, hydraulic, electric, etc., based on the type of power used.

What is a control loop in instrumentation?

A control loop in instrumentation is a system where output is controlled by varying the input. It consists of a
sensor, a controller, and a control element.

What is the difference between analog and digital signals?

Analog signals are continuous and change smoothly over time, while digital signals are discrete and change in
steps. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values within a range, whereas digital signals have a
limited number of distinct values.

How does a variable frequency drive (VFD) work?

A VFD works by varying the frequency of the electricity supplied to a motor, thereby controlling the speed and
torque of the motor. It converts the incoming AC voltage to DC, and then back to a quasi-sinusoidal AC
voltage, with the ability to vary the frequency and voltage.

How does a strain gauge work?

A strain gauge works on the principle that the electrical resistance of a wire changes proportionally with its
strain within the elastic limit. When a load is applied, the resulting strain deforms the gauge and changes its
electrical resistance.

What is SCADA and what is it used for?

SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. It’s a type of industrial control system used for
gathering and analyzing real-time data, controlling industrial processes locally or at remote locations, and
directly interfacing with devices such as sensors, valves, pumps, motors, and more.

How does a capacitive level sensor work?

A capacitive level sensor works by measuring the change in capacitance caused by the change in the level of
a substance. As the level changes, the dielectric constant between the sensor and the substance changes,
which in turn changes the capacitance.

What is a servo motor and where is it used?

A servo motor is a rotary actuator that allows for precise control of angular position, velocity, and acceleration.
It’s used in applications such as robotics, CNC machinery, or automated manufacturing.

What is a fieldbus?
Fieldbus is a communication protocol used for real-time distributed control of process or manufacturing
automation. It allows for digital communication between various field devices like sensors, actuators, and
controllers.

What is SIS?

A Safety Instrumented System (SIS) is designed to prevent or reduce hazardous events by taking the process
to a safe state when predetermined conditions are violated. It comprises sensors, logic solvers, and final
elements.

What is Profibus communication?

Profibus is a standard for fieldbus communication in automation technology, initially promoted by Siemens.
It’s used to exchange data between controllers and devices such as I/O devices, transducers, drives, etc.

What is the difference between a switch and a transmitter?

A switch operates by turning a device on or off when certain conditions are met. A transmitter, on the other
hand, sends a continuous signal representing the measurement of a variable.

What is a mass flow meter and how does it work?

A mass flow meter is a device that measures the mass flow rate of a fluid flowing through a tube. It operates
by measuring the force exerted by the fluid flow on a known mass.

What is the function of a manifold in instrumentation?

A manifold in instrumentation is used to connect one part of the system to another. It helps in isolating the
pressure instruments from the process for maintenance and calibration without interrupting the process.

What is the purpose of a flame scanner in a boiler?

A flame scanner is used in a boiler to monitor the flame condition, typically using ultraviolet or infrared sensors.
It ensures that a flame is present when fuel is being burned and triggers a shutdown if the flame goes out to
prevent a dangerous situation.

Can you explain the principle of operation of a radar-level transmitter?

A radar-level transmitter works on the principle of time-of-flight. It sends a radar pulse toward the product
surface, which then gets reflected back. The time taken by the pulse to return is proportional to the distance
and hence, the level of the product.

What is the role of a junction box in instrumentation?

A junction box in instrumentation is used for connecting different instruments and for housing the terminations
of multiple field cables. It provides a central location for wiring connections and helps in reducing clutter and
confusion in wiring systems.

What is a PLC and where is it used?

A PLC, or Programmable Logic Controller, is a rugged computer used for industrial automation. It’s used to
automate specific processes, machine functions, or entire production lines.

What is a bubbler-level measurement system?

A bubbler level measurement system measures the level of liquid by determining the pressure required to
force a gas through a submerged tube at a constant flow rate. The pressure is proportional to the liquid level
above the open end of the tube.
What is a Coriolis flow meter and how does it work?

A Coriolis flow meter measures the mass flow and density of a fluid based on the Coriolis effect. It uses a
vibrating tube, through which the fluid flows. When the fluid moves through the vibrating tube, a Coriolis force
acts on the tube, causing it to twist. This twisting is proportional to the mass flow rate of the fluid.

How do you select a control valve for a specific application?

Selecting a control valve for a specific application depends on factors such as the type of fluid, flow rate,
pressure, temperature, the desired flow control characteristics, and the available actuation method.

What is a purge system and what is its purpose?

A purge system is used to clean or clear a process line, vessel, or system by introducing a purging medium,
usually a gas or a liquid, to remove unwanted contaminants or residue. It’s used to maintain the cleanliness
and integrity of the system.

What is a temperature transmitter?

A temperature transmitter is a device that converts the output of a temperature sensor, like a thermocouple or
RTD, into a standardized analog or digital signal that can be read and interpreted by a control system.

How does an electro-pneumatic positioner work?

An electro-pneumatic positioner works by receiving an electrical input signal, converting it into a proportional
pneumatic output signal, and then using that output to control the position of a control valve or actuator.

What is the difference between a potentiometer and a rheostat?

A potentiometer is a variable resistor with three terminals, used to measure voltage, while a rheostat is a
variable resistor with two terminals, used to control current. Potentiometers are typically used for voltage
division, whereas rheostats are used for current control.

What is a turbidity meter?

A turbidity meter is a device that measures the cloudiness or haziness of a liquid caused by suspended
particles. It measures the intensity of light scattered by the particles present in the fluid.

How does a conductivity meter work?

A conductivity meter works by measuring the ability of a solution to conduct an electric current between two
electrodes. The conductivity is directly related to the concentration of ions in the solution, which can be used to
determine the concentration of a specific substance.

What is an I/P converter?

An I/P (Current-to-Pressure) converter is a device that converts a 4-20mA electrical signal into a proportional
pneumatic output, typically 3-15 psi or 6- 30 psi. It’s used to interface electrical control devices with pneumatic
actuators and valves.

What is the role of a pressure regulator?

A pressure regulator’s role is to control or maintain a pre-set downstream pressure. It reduces a source or inlet
pressure to a lower outlet pressure and maintains this outlet pressure despite changes in the inlet pressure.

How does a proximity sensor work?

A proximity sensor works by emitting an electromagnetic or electrostatic field, or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. When an object
approaches the sensor within its range, the change in the field or return signal is detected and processed.

What is an encoder in instrumentation?

An encoder is a sensor of mechanical motion that generates digital signals in response to motion. It can
provide information about the position, velocity, and direction of a mechanical part or device.

What is the difference between active and passive sensors?

Active sensors require an external source of power to operate and produce an output signal, while passive
sensors generate an output response from an external stimulus without the need for additional energy.

What is the principle of a pH meter?

A pH meter measures the hydrogen-ion activity in water-based solutions. It uses a pH-sensitive electrode
(usually glass) to measure the voltage caused by the ion concentration, and this is used to determine the pH.

What is the purpose of grounding in instrumentation?

Grounding in instrumentation is used to protect the instruments and personnel from electrical faults. It also
helps to maintain signal integrity by preventing electrical noise and interference from affecting the
measurement signals.

How does a photoelectric sensor work?

A photoelectric sensor works by emitting a light beam (visible or infrared) from its light-emitting element. This
beam is then received by a light-receiving element. When an object passes through the beam, the sensor
output changes, indicating the presence of the object.

Can you explain Bernoulli’s principle in terms of flow measurement?

Bernoulli’s principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in
pressure. This principle is used in flow measurement, where a restriction in the flow path causes an increase
in fluid velocity and a decrease in pressure. This pressure difference can then be used to calculate the flow
rate.

What is a vibration sensor and how does it work?

A vibration sensor, also known as a vibration transducer, converts vibrations into an electrical equivalent
output. Common types of vibration sensors include piezoelectric and accelerometer sensors. They work by
producing an electrical signal proportional to the vibration.

What is the function of a pneumatic system in instrumentation?

A pneumatic system in instrumentation uses compressed air as a medium for transmitting control signals.
These systems are often used in industrial control applications due to their reliability, simplicity, and safety.

What is a load cell and how does it work?

A load cell is a type of sensor that is used to measure force or load. It converts a force into an electrical signal.
This is accomplished through a mechanical arrangement that causes strain in the device when a force is
applied, changing its resistance.

How does a piezoelectric sensor work?

A piezoelectric sensor works based on the piezoelectric effect. When force, pressure, or acceleration is
applied to the sensor, it produces an electrical charge that is proportional to the applied force.
What is a limit switch and where is it used?

A limit switch is a type of sensor that detects the presence or absence of an object when the object reaches a
specific physical limit or boundary. They’re often used in industrial controls to control the motion of machines
and systems.

What is the principle of a magnetic flow meter?

A magnetic flow meter, also known as a mag meter, measures flow by using Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic
induction. It applies a magnetic field to a conductive fluid flow, and the voltage induced across the fluid flow is
proportional to its velocity.

What is the function of a relay in an electrical circuit?

A relay is an electrically operated switch. It uses a small amount of power to control a larger amount of power
by opening or closing contacts in another circuit. When a voltage is applied to the coil, it generates a magnetic
field that moves the contacts to turn the relay on or off.

What is the difference between RTD and thermocouple?

Both RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) and thermocouples measure temperature, but they do so in
different ways. RTDs work by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature, and they are
known for their accuracy. Thermocouples measure temperature based on the Seebeck effect, where a voltage
is produced by the temperature difference between two different metals.

What is the role of a solenoid valve in a control system?

A solenoid valve in a control system is an electromechanical device used for controlling liquid or gas flow. The
solenoid acts as an actuator on the valve body to open, close, or partially obstruct the flow.

How does a differential pressure transmitter work?

A differential pressure transmitter works by sensing the difference in pressure between two points in a system.
This is done by having two pressure inlets. The transmitter then outputs a signal proportional to this pressure
difference.

What is the HART protocol?

HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) protocol is a communication protocol widely used in
industrial automation systems. It’s known for its ability to communicate over legacy 4-20mA analog wiring,
carrying both the 4-20mA signal and digital communication.

What is a transducer and how does it work?

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. For instance, a pressure transducer
converts pressure into an electrical signal. The transducer works by changing its physical properties in
response to the input energy, generating a corresponding output signal.

How do you calibrate a pressure transmitter?

To calibrate a pressure transmitter, you need to compare its output against a known standard at different input
levels. The input levels are typically at the low end, mid-range, and high end of the scale. Adjustments are
made until the transmitter’s output matches the expected values at these points.

What is a data logger and what is it used for?

A data logger is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location. It’s equipped with a
sensor to receive information and a computer chip to store it. Data loggers are used in various industries for
different purposes, like monitoring temperature, humidity, pressure, and more.
How does a pneumatic actuator work?

A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or compressed air into either linear or rotary motion.
This is achieved by the compressed air forcing the piston to move within the cylinder, which in turn moves the
valve stem and actuates the valve.

What is a sensor’s sensitivity?

A sensor’s sensitivity is the ratio of the output signal or response to the input quantity or stimulus. It indicates
how much the sensor’s output changes when the measured property changes. High sensitivity is desirable as
it allows the sensor to detect small changes in the measured property.

What is an ultrasonic flow meter and how does it work?

An ultrasonic flow meter measures the velocity of a fluid with ultrasound to calculate the flow rate. It sends an
ultrasonic wave through the fluid, and the change in the wave’s speed as it travels upstream and downstream
is used to calculate the flow rate.

What is the function of a level transmitter?

A level transmitter is used to measure the level of a substance in a container. It can be used to measure the
level of liquids, powders, or other granular materials. The level measurement can be either continuous or point
values.

What is a variable frequency drive (VFD)?

A variable frequency drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an electric motor by varying the
frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor. VFDs are used in applications ranging from small
appliances to large compressors.

How does an inductive proximity sensor work?

An inductive proximity sensor works by generating an electromagnetic field in a coil and detecting changes in
this field caused by a metallic object. When a metal object comes close to the coil, it changes the field’s
strength and induces a current in the coil, which the sensor detects.

What is a thermal mass flow meter and how does it work?

A thermal mass flow meter measures the flow of gas directly by detecting the cooling effect of the gas as it
passes over a heated surface. As more gas flows over the surface, more heat is removed. This change in
temperature is used to determine the mass flow rate.

How does a gas chromatograph work?

A gas chromatograph works by injecting a sample gas mixture into a flow-stream, then passing it through a
column. Different components in the sample separate based on their chemical properties and interaction with
the column’s material. As the separated components exit the column, they’re detected and quantified.

What is the function of a diaphragm in a pressure gauge?

The diaphragm in a pressure gauge serves as a barrier between the process fluid and the pressure measuring
mechanism. When pressure is applied, the diaphragm flexes and transfers this movement to the measuring
element.

What is a PID controller?

A PID controller is a control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. PID stands for
Proportional, Integral, Derivative. These three control actions allow the controller to adjust the control output to
drive the process variable towards the setpoint.
What is the purpose of a heat exchanger?

A heat exchanger is a system used to transfer heat between two or more fluids, without them mixing together.
Heat exchangers are used in many applications, including heating and cooling in buildings, power generation,
and in many industrial processes.

What are the common types of process control valves?

Common types of process control valves include gate valves, globe valves, ball valves, butterfly valves, and
plug valves. Each has its unique characteristics and applications.

What is the difference between a contact and non-contact temperature sensor?

A contact temperature sensor requires physical contact with the object to measure its temperature. Examples
include thermocouples and RTDs. A non-contact temperature sensor measures temperature by capturing the
amount of thermal radiation emitted by the object, such as an infrared thermometer.

What is an optical sensor and how does it work?

An optical sensor is a device that converts light rays into electronic signals. It measures the physical quantity
of light and then translates it into a form that is readable by an integrated measuring device. It works based on
either the reflection or interruption of light.

What is the main advantage of a pneumatic control system?

The main advantage of a pneumatic control system is its simplicity and reliability. They are particularly
effective in harsh environments where electronic systems might fail. They are also safer to use in hazardous
environments where a spark could trigger an explosion.

What is the purpose of a data acquisition system?

The purpose of a data acquisition system is to collect information from different locations and convert the
collected signals into digital values for processing and analysis. It serves as an interface between the real
world of signals or physical parameters and the digital world of processing and data analysis.

What is a pneumatic signal?

A pneumatic signal is a type of control or measurement signal used in a pneumatic system. It typically consists
of a pressure air signal, where changes in pressure represent different values of the process variable. A
common standard for pneumatic signals is 3-15 psi.

What is Modbus protocol?

Modbus is a serial communication protocol developed for use with its programmable logic controllers (PLCs). It
allows for communication between many devices connected to the same network, for example, a system that
measures temperature and humidity and communicates the results to a computer.

How does a vortex flow meter work?

A vortex flow meter measures the flow rate of fluids by detecting the vortices created by the fluid passing a
bluff body in the flow stream. The frequency of these vortices is proportional to the flow rate, and the meter
translates this into a usable output signal
Field Instrumentation

What does ARRH and # refer to in valve specification?

AARH refers to average roughness height and is a measure of roughness of sealing surface of a
flange. The # refers to ANSI class of flange/valve and is indicative of its pressure rating.

What does DN stand for in valve size?

DN stands for Diameter Nominal. It is a flange size of the valve.

What is the full form of ASTM standard?

ASTM stands for American Society for Testing of Materials.

What does BENCH RANGE refer to in an actuator?

The bench range/set of an actuator/control valve combination refers to the air pressure required
to fully open/close the valve out of line when it is not subjected to process fluid forces.

Why control mode specification is given in the data sheet of the transmitter?

Not mandatory. This is controller specification. Direct OR reverse.

What is the use of the diode in series to the coil in a relay?

A diode is often used in parallel with a relay coil to dissipate energy stored in coil inductance
when the coil is disconnected from the electric circuit. It is also known as freewheeling diode.

Where and Why are “O” Rings used in DPT’?

For providing leak proof seal.

Why is earthing provided in the rack room if the power supplies present are floating

Earthing is provided in rack room for purpose of safety. Even if power supplies are kept floating.

Relationship between AWG & mm2

A) AWG was used prior SI standards to specify the diameter of the core of the electrical wires.

B) Both awg and mm2 are used to specify size of cross section of a wire/conductor. The
relationship is found in a standard table – westermann’s tables.

Advantages of Displacer type Level switch to float type switch?

Displacer type switches involve very little movement whereas float type switches involve large
movement of float and hence are more likely to get stuck-up. However float switches can be
used over a much longer range than a displacer switch.
Construction of micro switch

A micro switch is a small switch consisting of a tiny spring loaded plunger which operates an
electrical contact when actuated. This arrangement is encaged in a plastic housing. It is very
commonly found in pressure switches.

Where should we use top mounted or side mounted level switch?

The type of switch to use depends on size of the vessel and the location of actuating level. If the
vessel is small or actuating level is near the top, top mounted switch can be used. In a large
vessel with intermediate actuation points, side mounted switch is used. A top mounted switch
needs a stilling well.

Application of PCV

A PCV is a self-actuated pressure control valve used to maintain upstream or downstream

pressure at a set pressure using force from the process fluid if necessary.

Difference between PSV & PRV

A pressure safety valve is used to relieve over-pressure by releasing relatively small volumes of
material and installed on smaller vessels.

A pressure relef valve is used to relieve over-pressure by releasing relatively large volumes of
material and installed on large vessels/tanks.

Why PSV in Cooling water line at outlet of a heat exchanger is required?

The PSV in cooling water line at the outlet of a heat exchanger is actually a thermal safety valve
and is used to relieve overpressure due to thermal expansion of water.

Comparison of PD meter, turbine meter & Coriolis meter in Custody transfer applications..
(Accuracy wise)

A PD meter, a turbine meter or a coriolis meter may all be used in custody transfer. A PD meter
or a turbine meter typically deliver accuracy around 0.5% and contain moving parts and require
more maintenance and indicate volumetric flow.

A good coriolis meter involves almost no wear and tear, needs less maintenance effort, delivers
accuracy close to 0.1% and directly indicates mass flow.

For custody transfer of gas service ultrasonic multi-path flow meters are also used with accuracy
up to 0.35%. They are maintenance free and having very good diagnostic features.

What is a thermal relief valve?

A thermal relief valve is typically used to relieve over pressure due to thermal expansion of
liquid in pipelines.
HSE and Safety Interview Questions and
Answers

What is a BUMP TEST ?

A bump test is a functional test of a gas monitor/detector. Sensors and alarm indicators are
tested, ensuring acceptable performance of sensors and monitor before use.

All sensors are challenged with a known quantity of gas, and instrument response is compared
to the actual quantity of gas present.

OSHA says, “The International Safety Equipment Association (ISEA), founded in 1933, is a trade
association for manufacturers of protective equipment, including environmental monitoring
instruments.

The ISEA recommends, at a minimum, verification of sensor accuracy before each day’s use. The
only way to guarantee that an instrument will detect gas accurately and reliably is to test it with
a known concentration of gas.

Exposing the instrument to a known concentration of test gas will show whether the sensors
respond accurately and whether the instrument alarms function properly.

A bump test verifies calibration by exposing the instrument to a known concentration of test gas.

The instrument reading is compared to the actual quantity of gas present (as indicated on the
cylinder). If the instrument’s response is within an acceptable tolerance range of the actual
concentration, then its calibration is verified. Sensors, especially LEL (combustible) sensors, may
be lose sensitivity to the target gas through poisoning.

Silicone compounds including silanes, halogens, halogenated hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds,

as well as acids and bases and various VOCs are known poisons. The only way means of
identifying loss of sensor sensitivity is by gas-checking or calibration.

As a result, OSHA and instrument manufacturers/end users require a bump test before every
day’s use.

What is a Lower Explosive Limit ?

The lower explosive limit (LEL) of a gas or a vapour, is the lowest concentration (in air) that is
needed for the gas to ignite and explode.

For example, propane can explode when it reaches 2.1 per cent of the air, by volume. At
2.1%v/v, propane has reached 100% of its lower explosive level. 50% LEL propane is 0.6%v/v.

Most flammable gas detectors measure the percent of LEL present. Some sensors are capable of
measuring methane by volume, as well as percent LEL.

There are two explosive limits for any gas or vapor, the lower explosive limit (LEL) and
the upper explosive limit (UEL).
At concentrations in air below the LEL there is not enough fuel to continue an explosion; at
concentrations above the UEL the fuel has displaced so much air that there is not enough
oxygen to begin a reaction.

Concentrations of explosive gases are often given in terms of percent of lower explosive limit
(%LEL).

Also Read : Gas Detectors Interview Questions & Answers

What is a Confined Space?

Generally speaking, a confined space is an enclosed or partially enclosed space that:

 is not primarily designed or intended for human occupancy

 has a restricted entrance or exit by way of location, size or means
 can represent a risk for the for the health and safety of anyone who enters, due to one or
more of the following factors:
 its design, construction, location or atmosphere
 the materials or substances in it
 work activities being carried out in it, or the
 mechanical, process and safety hazards present
Confined spaces can be below or above ground. Confined spaces can be found in almost any
workplace.

A confined space, despite its name, is not necessarily small.

Examples of confined spaces include silos, vats, hoppers, utility vaults, tanks, sewers, pipes,
access shafts, truck or rail tank cars, aircraft wings. Ditches and trenches may also be a confined
space when access or egress is limited.

Photo-ionization Detector Related Questions

What is a PID?

A photo-ionization detector or PID, uses an electrodeless ultraviolet lamp to ionize chemicals

with ionization potentials (I.P) below the range of the lamp and thereby measure their
concentrations in parts-per-million (ppm).

A PID is best used to detect low levels (0-2000ppm) of broad band toxics or volatile organic
compounds (VOCs).

Sample Site Remediation Procedure using PID: Prior to use, the PID was calibrated against a 100
parts per million (ppm) isobutylene span gas in air matrix. The instrument was then zeroed
against the ambient air near the work area.

The PID is useful for qualitative field screening of VOCs and provides a basis for comparison
between soil samples collected in the field.

Soil samples were placed into sealable plastic bags and allowed to sit in a warm area for
volatilization to occur. Each bag was opened and the tip of the PID was inserted into the head
space above each sample.

What are some examples of chemicals that are detected by PIDs?

Acetone, Ammonia, Asphalt fumes, Benzene, Butane, Chlorobenzene, Cyclohexane, Diesel Fuel,
Ethyl ether, Ethylene glycol, Formaldehyde, Gasoline, Hexane, Iodine, Isobutylene, Jet fuels,
kerosene, Methyl Mercaptan, Mineral Spirits, Nitric Oxide, Octane, Pentane, Propylene,
Resorcinol, Styrene, Toluene, Turpentine, Vinyl Chloride, etc.

What are VOCs?

VOCs are Volatile Organic Compounds, organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and
easily form vapors at normal temperatures and pressure.

The term “organic” indicates that the compounds contain carbon. VOC exposures are often
associated with an odour while other times there are no odours. Both can be harmful.

The term is generally applied to organic solvents, certain paint additives, aerosol spray can
propellants, fuels (such as gasoline, and kerosene), petroleum distillates, dry cleaning products
and many other industrial and consumer products ranging from office supplies to building
materials. VOCs are also naturally emitted by a number of plants and trees.

What are the effects of VOC exposure?

Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include conjunctival irritation, nose
and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, declines in serum
cholinesterase levels, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue, dizziness.

The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are highly
toxic, to those with no known health effect.

As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of the health effect will depend on many factors
including level of exposure and length of time exposed.

Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, and memory
impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have experienced soon after
exposure to some organics.

Also Read : Hydrogen Sulfide Gas (H2S)

Toxic Gas Related Questions & Answers

What are TWA, PEL and REL ?

The Threshold Limit Value (TLV(R) ) of a chemical substance establishes the reasonable level to
which a worker may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, over a working lifetime without
adverse health effects.

TLV(R) is a reserved term of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial

Hygienists (ACGIH)(R) . It is however sometimes loosely used to refer to other similar concepts
used in occupational health and toxicology. A list of current TLVs (R) and biological exposure
indices (BEIs) are published annually by the ACGIH (R) .
A Time Weighted Average (TWA) is a TLV(R) based on a 8-hour workday and a 40-hour
workweek. For example the TWA for carbon monoxide is 25 ppm. This means that an average of
25 ppm is considered to be the safe TLV (R) for an 8-hour workday.

A Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) is a TLV(R) based on a 15 minute average.

A Ceiling is a TLV that should not be exceeded during any part of the work experience.

The Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL or OSHA PEL) is a TLV (R) established by OSHA in the U S
for exposure of an employee to a substance or physical agent, and may differ from TLVs (R) in
other jurisdictions.

Permissible Exposure Limits are established by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA). A PEL is usually given as a time-weighted average (TWA), although some
are Short Term Exposure Limits (STEL) or Ceiling Limits.

RELs or Recommended Exposure Limits are TLVs(R) established by NIOSH for exposure of an
employee to a substance or physical agent.

Who decides safe levels for toxic gas exposures?

There are various organizations who make recommendations about exposure levels, or threshold
limit values (TLVs) for various chemicals. Among them are:

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Under the Occupational Safety and Health
Act of 1970, the US Congress created OSHA as a Federal agency under the Department of Labor
that develops and enforces federal standards for health and safety in the work place. The
mission of OSHA is “to assure the safety and health of America’s workers by setting and
enforcing standards; providing training, outreach, and education; establishing partnerships; and
encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health”.

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. A US Federal agency under the
Department of Health and Human Services created by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1970, that trains occupational health and safety professionals, and is responsible for conducting
research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related injury and illness.

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. A voluntary membership

organization of professional industrial hygiene personnel in governmental or educational
institutions. ACGIH develops and publishes recommended occupational exposure limits each
year called Threshold Limit Values (TLV’s) for hundreds of chemicals, physical agents, and
includes Biological Exposure Indices (BEI).

Different organizations may not agree on the safe level for different chemical exposures. For
example, NIOSH establishes a threshold limit of 35 ppm for a time weighted average (TWA) for
carbon monoxide for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek. ACGIH recommends a
TWA of 25 ppm.

What is H2S?

Hydrogen Sulfide is a colorless, transparent gas with a characteristic rotten-egg odor at low
concentrations. It is not detectable by odor at high concentrations. As the level of H 2S increases,
the sense of smell is lost!

Hydrogen Sulfide is a naturally occurring gas mixed with natural gas or dissolved in the oil or
brine and released upon exposure to atmospheric conditions.
ACGIH 2008 recommendations are as follows for Threshold Limit Values for H 2S:

A Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) is a TLV (R) based on a 15 minute average.

Short Term Exposure Level – STEL (15 min Average) – 15ppm

Long Term Exposure Level -TWA (8 hr average) – 10ppm

Also Read : Basics of Gas Monitoring

Carbon Monoxide Related Questions & Answers

Does everyone react to Carbon Monoxide (CO) in the same way?

The harmful effects of the gas in the air are affected by exposure time and factors such as age,
health and size.

Many of us encounter CO regularly and never know it because it is invisible and odorless.

That is why victims of CO poisoning often have no warning that they are in danger – until it is too
late.

Symptoms include headache, nausea, chronic fatigue, confusion, and dizziness. Extreme
exposure can even cause a coma or death.

What causes Carbon Monoxide (CO) and why is it dangerous?

Carbon Monoxide is a product of incomplete (poor) combustion. It is a direct and cumulative

poison.

When combined with blood hemoglobin, CO replaces oxygen in the blood until it completely
overcomes the body.

Death from CO occurs suddenly. The victim inhaling the toxic concentration of the gas becomes
helpless before realizing that the danger exists.
How much Carbon Monoxide (CO) is safe?

Toxic Gases are measured in ppm (parts per million). 1% volume = 10,000 ppm

Ammonia Related Questions & Answers

What are the hazards of working with Ammonia?

Ammonia is widely used as a refrigerant gas, as well as in the fertilizer industry.

A colourless gas with a sharp, penetrating, intensely irritating odour and a colourless liquid under
pressure, it is not considered a flammable gas.

However, a large and intense energy source may cause ignition and/or explosion.

Ammonia gas can decompose at high temperatures forming very flammable hydrogen and toxic
nitrogen dioxide. It is a COMPRESSED GAS and a confined space explosion and toxicity hazard.

Ammonia gas is a CORROSIVE GAS and may be fatal if inhaled. It may cause lung injury, and the
liquefied gas can cause frostbite and corrosive injury to eyes and skin.

Ammonia gas is a severe respiratory tract irritant. Most people can detect it by smell at 0.6 to 53
ppm. Nose and throat irritation may be noticed at concentrations as low as 24 ppm after 2-6
hours exposure.

A 10-minute exposure to 30 ppm may be faintly irritating to some, while 50 ppm may be found
to be moderately irritating by most. A 5-minute exposure to 72 or 134 ppm will cause irritation of
the nose and throat for most people.

At 500 ppm, immediate and severe irritation of nose, and throat occurs. Brief exposure to
concentrations above 1500 ppm can cause pulmonary edema, a potentially fatal accumulation of
fluid in the lungs.

The symptoms of pulmonary edema (tightness in the chest and difficulty breathing) may not
develop for 1-24 hours after an exposure.

Numerous cases of fatal ammonia exposure have been reported, but actual exposure levels
have not been well documented. If the victim survives, complete recovery may occur depending
on the extent of injury to the respiratory tract and lungs.

However, long-term respiratory system and lung disorders have been observed following severe
short-term exposures to ammonia.

The TWA established by ACGIH for ammonia is 25 ppm. The STEL is 35 ppm.
Safety Precautions for Ammonia :

 CORROSIVE, COMPRESSED GAS. May also be an EXPLOSION HAZARD, especially in

confined spaces. Engineering controls, proper training, protective equipment
requirements and personal hygiene measures are essential.
 If ammonia is released, immediately put on a suitable respirator and leave the area until
the severity of the release is determined. In case of leaks or spills, escape-type respiratory
protective equipment should be available in the work area.
 Never work alone with this chemical.
 Unprotected persons should avoid all contact with this chemical, including contaminated
equipment.
 Use a closed handling systems for processes involving this material. If a closed handling
system is not possible, use the smallest possible amounts in a well-ventilated area
separate from the storage area. Prevent the release of gas into the workplace air. For
large-scale operations, consider the installation of a leak detection system with an
alarm.
 Do not use with incompatible materials such as oxidizing agents (e.g., nitrogen oxide),
halogens (e.g., chlorine, fluorine) and heavy metals (e.g., mercury, silver).
 Regularly inspect cylinders for corrosion or other damage or leaks before handling. Use
corrosion-resistant transfer equipment.
 For large-scale handling operations use non-sparking ventilation systems, approved
explosion-proof equipment and intrinsically safe electrical systems in areas of use. Keep
aisles and exits free of obstruction. Avoid all ignition sources (e.g., sparks, open flames,
hot surfaces). Do not use near welding operations. Keep away from heat. Post “NO
SMOKING” signs. It is very important to keep areas where this material is used clear of
other materials which can burn (e.g., cardboard, sawdust).
 Never perform any welding, cutting, soldering, drilling or other hot work on an empty
vessel, container or piping until all the ammonia has been cleared. Do not heat
compressed gas cylinders. Do not handle cylinders with oily hands. Leave cylinder cap on
cylinder until cylinder is secured and ready for use. Always secure cylinders to a wall, rack
or other solid structure in an upright position.
 Use the appropriate pressure regulator. Before connecting the cylinder for use, make sure
that back feed from the system into the cylinder is prevented.
 Do not open a damaged cylinder. Open cylinder valve slowly to prevent rapid
decompression and damage to valve seat. Keep cylinder valves clean and free from
contaminants (particularly oil and water). Make sure valves on gas cylinders are fully
opened when gas is used. Open and shut valves at least once a day, while cylinder is in
use, to avoid valve ‘freezing’.
 Shut flow off at cylinder valve and not just at the regulator after use. Replace outlet caps
or plugs and cylinder caps as soon as cylinder is disconnected from equipment.
 Make sure cylinders are labeled clearly. Avoid damaging cylinders. Move cylinders by
hand truck or cart designed for that purpose.
 Keep empty cylinders under slightly positive pressure. Do not use cylinders as rollers or
for any other purpose than to contain the gas as supplied.
 Follow handling precautions on Material Safety Data Sheet. Have suitable emergency
equipment for fires, spills and leaks readily available. Practice good housekeeping.
Maintain handling equipment. Comply with applicable regulations.
Smoke Detection System Questions

[Link] are the types of ‘smoke detectors’ ?

Three types of smoke detectors are used. They are:

1. Optical type,
2. Radioactive type,
3. Ionization type.
[Link] the operating principle of the different types of smoke detectors.

Optical type:

when the smoke cuts the optical detection path, and unbalance in the detector current loop
raises a smoke alarm. These type detectors are sensitive to larger particles of combustion 0.5 to
10 microns.

It is suitable for applications where thermal turbulence can be expected.

Radio active type:

when the smoke is detected by the radio active substance, the unbalance in the detector current
loop raises a smoke alarm. This type of detectors are sensitive to air movement greater than
5m/sec.

It is normally installed with the photoelectric (optical type) type smoke detectors.

[Link] is a smoke detector as important as a ‘heat switch’ and ‘UV detector’?

Smoke detectors are used in confined areas such as control rooms and electrical switch rooms.

4. How carbon monoxide detectors work?

Carbon monoxide detectors sound an alarm when they sense a certain amount of carbon
monoxide in the air over time. Different types of alarms are triggered by different types of
sensors.

Biomimetic sensor:

A gel changes color when it absorbs carbon monoxide, and this color change triggers the alarm.

Metal oxide semiconductor:

When the silica chip’s circuitry detects carbon monoxide, it lowers the electrical resistance, and
this change triggers the alarm.

Electrochemical sensor:

Electrodes immersed in a chemical solution sense changes in electrical currents when they come
into contact with carbon dioxide, and this change triggers the alarm.
Once the alarm sounds, the carbon monoxide detector must be in a carbon monoxide-free
environment to reset itself.

[Link] happens when a smoke detector detects smoke?

When a smoke detector detects smoke, the detector loop current changes. The unbalance in the
loop current is detected as smoke.

Once in every 10 secs the L.E.D on each smoke detector blinks as self loop check. On detection
of smoke, this L.E.D remains continuous on (bright).

[Link] the manufacturers of smoke detection systems.

Name of the smoke detector manufactures are Firecheta, Cloride Gent…etc.

[Link] are periodic checks and maintenance required on smoke detection system?

Particularly on the optical type smoke detectors, the collection of dust in the sensor path may
result in a false alarm. Also the periodic maintenance ensures the reliability of the detection
system.

[Link] are the common problems faced when maintaining a smoke detection system?

 False alarm due to accumulation of dust, floor cleaning, water vapour

 Loose connection results in the fluctuation of the detector loop current.
 Improper base plug-in connection.
9. Commonly used terms in Gas Detection :

LEL – Lower Explosive Limit. The minimum concentration of a combustible gas or vapor in air
which will ignite if a source of ignition is present

UEL – Upper Explosive Limit. Most, but not all, combustible gases have an upper explosive limit
which is the maximum concentration in air which will support combustion. Concentrations which
are above the U.E.L. are too “rich” to burn.

PPM – Parts Per Million (toxic & VOC)

%VOL – Percent by volume (oxygen)

VOC – Volatile Organic Compounds (PID)

PID – Photo Ionization Detection (VOC)

TWA – Time Weighted Average (toxic gases)

STEL – Short Term Exposure Limit

IP – Ionization Potential & Ingress Protection

IS Rating – Intrinsic Safety (UL, CSA)

T90 – Time sensor needs to reach 90% full response

10. Ionization smoke detector principle

The ionization smoke detector is widely used. Its capability to detect smoke originating from fire
is best utilized for clean-burning fires that produce small particles during combustion.

The ionization smoke detector consists of an alpha particle producing a radioactive source, a
smoke chamber, and charged detector plates.

 The alpha source causes the air within the smoke chamber to become ionized and
conductive
 As smoke particles enter the smoke chamber, the smoke particles attach themselves to
the ionized air molecules and the air in the chamber becomes less conductive
 When the air conductivity within the chamber drops below a predetermined level, the
alarm is triggered.

Gas Detectors Interview Questions & Answers

How carbon monoxide detectors work?

Carbon monoxide gas detectors sound an alarm when they sense a certain amount of carbon
monoxide in the air over time. Different types of alarms are triggered by different types of
sensors.

 Biomimetic sensor: A gel changes color when it absorbs carbon monoxide, and this
color change triggers the alarm.
 Metal oxide semiconductor: When the silica chip’s circuitry detects carbon monoxide,
it lowers the electrical resistance, and this change triggers the alarm.
 Electrochemical sensor: Electrodes immersed in a chemical solution sense changes in
electrical currents when they come into contact with carbon dioxide, and this change
triggers the alarm.
Once the alarm sounds, the carbon monoxide detector must be in a carbon monoxide-free
environment to reset itself.

What are TWA and STEL?

TWA stands for Time Weight Average. This in reference to dosages of toxic gas you may
encounter in the work place. It is based on an 8 hour day/ 40 hour work week. TWA is a term
established by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).

STEL stands for Short Term Exposure Limit. This is the average amount of gas you can be
exposed to in a 15 minute period with no long term health effects. This may occur 4 times a day.
STEL is a term established by the ACGIH.

Explain about Common units for measuring concentration ?

% (percent)

This unit expresses concentration in parts per hundred (percentage) of a substance in 100mL of
a medium such as air.

ppm (parts per million)

This unit that expresses concentration in parts per million is measured as the volume (denoted
in litres [L]) of a substance found in 1L of a medium such as air.

mg/m3 (milligram per cubic metre)

This unit expresses the concentration in one cubic metre of air (equivalent to 1L or 1000mL) of a
substance in terms of its mass (measured in milligrams). It is primarily used for particle-like
substances, and only rarely for gaseous concentrations.

mg/L (milligram per litre)

This unit expresses the concentration in one litre of air (1000mL) of a substance in terms of its
mass (measured in milligrams). It is generally used for measuring concentrations in liquids, and
only rarely for gaseous concentrations.

Explain different Gas Conversion Formulas for Converting from one unit of
concentration to another ?

M: Molecular weight of a substance

22.4(L): The volume of 1 mol at 1 atmospheric pressure at 0ºC
273(K): FK stands for Kelvin, the unit used to measure thermodynamic temperature;
as 0ºC corresponds to 273.15K.
You simply need to add 273 to the Celsius/Centigrade value (273+T) to obtain the
temperature in Kelvin
1013(hPa): One atmospheric pressure
P: P denotes the atmospheric pressure at the point of measurement (hPa)
How often do we need to calibrate gas monitor?

This is a controversial subject. OSHA would have you calibrate your gas detector before each
use. In practice, our customers come up with their own intervals.

If the gas monitor is used infrequently, say once a month, it should be calibrated every time to
give you confidence that the unit is going to respond as it should. If your company uses its
detection device a few times a week, then our customers have told us they do an occasional
bump test and calibrate less often.

How to clean gas monitor?

You should follow each manufacturer’s directions. For BW Honeywell Gas Detectors the
manufacturer recommends the use of a soft damp cloth. The only approved cleaner is ACL
Staticide.
You should avoid exposing the sensor screens to moisture. DO NOT use computer keyboard air
dusters to clean debris from sensor filters or products such as EconoClean, WD40, etc. as these
will destroy the sensors.

What is Oxygen Deficiency?

The most widely accepted definition is that air is oxygen deficient whenever concentration is less
than 19.5%. This occurrence is often associated with confined spaces, unventilated cellars,
sewers, wells, mines, ship holds, tanks, and enclosures containing inert atmospheres.

Typical causes are displacement, microbial action, oxidation, combustion and absorption.

What is a Confined Space?

In terms of OSHA and NIOSH safety requirements, a “confined space” refers to an area whose
enclosed environment and limited access make it dangerous to people working there.

Anywhere access or egress is limited, or that may contain hazardous atmospheres (too low or
enriched oxygen levels, toxic or flammable gases) will likely be classified as a confined space for
workers.

Confined spaces can be above or below ground level.

Examples of confined spaces include inside airplane wings, tanks, pipes and sewers, ventilation
shafts, electrical service rooms, vats, and silos.

Also Read : Safety Questions and Answers

Gas Detection below terms used generally :

 LEL – Lower Explosive Limit. The minimum concentration of a combustible gas or vapor in
air which will ignite if a source of ignition is present
 UEL – Upper Explosive Limit. Most, but not all, combustible gases have an upper explosive
limit which is the maximum concentration in air which will support combustion.
Concentrations which are above the U.E.L. are too “rich” to burn.
 PPM – Parts Per Million (toxic & VOC)
 %VOL – Percent by volume (oxygen)
 VOC – Volatile Organic Compounds (PID)
 PID – Photo Ionization Detection (VOC)
 TWA – Time Weighted Average (toxic gases)
 STEL – Short Term Exposure Limit
 IP – Ionization Potential & Ingress Protection
 IS Rating – Intrinsic Safety (UL, CSA)
 T90 – Time sensor needs to reach 90% full response
What are the three basic kinds of atmospheric hazards?

 Oxygen (deficiency and enrichment)

 Flammable gases and vapors
 Toxic contaminants
What is LFL ?

Lower flammability limit (LFL) usually expressed in volume percent, is the lower end of the
concentration range over which a flammable mixture of gas or vapour in air can be ignited at a
given temperature and pressure.

The flammability range is delineated by the upper and lower flammability limits. Outside this
range of air/vapor mixtures, the mixture cannot be ignited (unless the temperature and pressure
are increased).
What is ppm.m?

ppm.m (parts per million metre) is the recognised unit of measure for a toxic or flammable gas
being detected over an open path.

For example 250 ppm.m can represent a 1 meter wide gas cloud whose concentration is 250
ppm of the target gas or a 2 meter gas cloud with a concentration of 125 ppm.

What Is a Bump Test ?

A bump test is a brief exposure of the sensor to gas and verifies if the sensor is responding and
the alarm is functioning.

Why is LEL important in Combustible Gas Detection ?

In environments with combustible gas hazards, it is important to know long before the gas
concentration reaches the LEL.

Typical safety standards require that a gas detection unit give warnings at 10 – 20% of the LEL.
Do not confuse the alarm level with the volume of gas required to reach the LEL.

For example: Methane has an LEL of 5% by volume in air. For a gas detector to give an alarm at
10% of the LEL, it must trigger when it detects 0.5% by volume.

The detector for this application would most likely be calibrated for the range from 0% to 5% gas
by volume, but display the reading as 0 – 100% LEL.

If you have a flameproof fixed detector (Ex) can you make it “intrinsically safe” (IS)
by using a zener barrier or galvanic isolator?

No, a flameproof detector “safety protection” cannot be changed by using a zener barrier or
galvanic isolator of any sort. It can only be used as a flameproof device.

If you have a “intrinsically safe” (IS) fixed detector do you need a zener barrier or
galvanic isolator when used in a hazardous zoned area 0, 1 or 2 for example?

Yes you must use a zener barrier or a galvanic isolator to comply with the detectors certification
requirements.

A zener barrier or Galvanic isolator must be used when a “intrinsically safe” (IS) detector is used
in a hazardous zoned area.

What are the mounting heights for CO gas detectors and NO2 gas detectors?

 Carbon Monoxide (CO) gas has a slightly lower density than air. Recommended mounting
height for Carbon Monoxide (CO) gas detector is 1.5 m above floor.
 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) gas is heavier than air and sinks in the air. Recommended
mounting height for Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) gas detector is 0.2 meter above the floor.
 According in garages are concentrations expected less 1%VOL and because of thermal an
convection of gas the spreading is at whole area.
What is the gas sensor (cell) life time for CO gas detectors and NO2 gas detectors?

 CO gas sensor (cell) life expectancy is 5 years, normal operation environment.

 NO2 gas sensor (cell) life expectancy is 2 years, normal operation environment.
 If gas sensor (cell) is intensively exposed for fumes (gas) the life time is shorter.
 If gas sensor (cell) is less exposed for fumes (gas) the life time can be longer.
Questions & Answers on Gases in F&G

What kind of substance is carbon monoxide?

A colourless, odourless, highly toxic gas that is formed whenever incomplete combustion of
carbon, or carbon-containing compounds occurs.

In our immediate environment it frequently is given off by industrial gas burners, and as it can
be found in automotive exhaust or cigarette smoke it tends to accumulate in poorly ventilated
places like congested road tunnels or bars at levels approaching or even exceeding the 50ppm
threshold.

What are the symptoms that carbon monoxide has been inhaled?

CO depletes the oxygen in the blood hemoglobin leading to such typical symptoms as
headaches, nausea, dizziness, etc.

What kind of substance is hydrogen sulphide?

H2S is a colourless, toxic, flammable gas that occurs naturally in volcanic vapours, hot springs;
and it often is generated through the hydrolysis of sulphide salts especially where bacteria break
down organic matter in the absence of oxygen, e.g. in swamps, sewers, rivers, harbours, etc.

It also occurs as a man-made by-product in such industrial facilities as chemical plants, paper
mills, oil refineries, etc.

Also Read : Carbon Monoxide Gas Hazards

What are the symptoms that hydrogen sulphide has been inhaled?

H2S is absorbed into the bloodstream, and transmitted to the nervous system via the lungs, Low
concentrations are oxidised in the blood and quickly become harmless; high concentrations have
a sweetish aroma and a neurotoxic effect, irritating the mucous membranes in the nose, throat,
eyes; may cause subacute poisoning or affect the olfactory nerve to the point of losing one’s
sense of smell.

Basically, hydrogen sulphide is one of the more common pungent odour-emitting and
discomfort-causing substances.

What kind of substance is ammonia?

It is given off in the biodegrading process by microbes (in nature), and as a byproduct of seafood
processing.

Besides being a common synthetically produced inorganic component of nitric acid and fertiliser,
it also has a broad range of other industrial uses.

Since, ammonia does not harm the ozone layer, it has increasingly been coming into use as a
refrigerator coolant.

What are the symptoms that ammonia has been inhaled?

Ammonia is one of the typical, malodourous substances, which cause discomfort.

Inhalation of high concentrations is liable to cause pulmonary oedema. Contact with the skin or
mucous membranes causes irritation that may penetrate as far as the inner tissue.
When the eyes come into contact with high ammonia concentrations, visual impairment may
result.

What kind of substance is carbon dioxide (CO2)?

Generally carbon dioxide is generated during the respiratory process of animals and plants and
when microbes break down organic or when carbon materials combust.

It is necessary for the process of photosynthesis in plants.

In recent years the amount of CO2 has been increasing, and is becoming a serious factor
contributing to global warming, the “greenhouse effect”.

What are the symptoms that carbon dioxide has been inhaled?

Although, it is extremely rare for weak carbon dioxide poisoning to have any ill effects, high
concentrations can cause carbon dioxide narcosis, and in extreme cases even be lethal.

What kind of substance is oxygen?

Oxygen, the most abundant naturally occurring gas, is discharged into the atmosphere through
the process of plant photosynthesis.

It is consumed during the respiration process of flora and fauna, photosynthesis in plants, as ell
as combustion processes.

The oxygen content in air is about 21%, in water 88.8%, and in the human body it is about 65%.

What are the symptoms of extreme oxygen deficiency?

Not enough oxygen in the ambient air can be fatal, causing hypoxia (deprivation of an adequate
oxygen supply for the body.

On the other hand, excessive oxygen in the air poses a fire hazard as it lowers the combustion
temperature of flammable materials, and it serves as an accelerant as well.

What kind of substance is sulphur dioxide (SO2)?

Sulphur dioxide gas (sometimes also called sulphurous acid gas) has a strong pungent smell. It is
produced industrially, by roasting pyrites or sulphur in the presence of air.

Moreover, it occurs naturally in volcanic gas and it is a byproduct of fossil fuel (oil, coal, etc.)
combustion that is a cause of air pollution.

What are the symptoms that sulphur dioxide has been inhaled?

High concentrations cause severe irritation of eyes, nose, and throat. When it dissolves in the
water content of the skin, a corrosive acid (sulphurous acid) is formed.

Prolonged exposure can cause glottal and pulmonary oedema seriously affecting the respiratory
process.

What kind of substance is ozone?

Ozone (O3) is actually a triatomic allotrope of oxygen: one ozone molecule contains one (radical)
oxygen atom more than diatomic O2 (from which it can also be formed by action of high energy
electromagnetic radiation).

Paradoxically, although the ozone layer in the atmosphere (approximate O3 concentration:

0.005ppm) protects the earth from the sun’s ultraviolet light, at ground level in coastal regions
(where ultraviolet light is particularly intense) 0.05ppm of ozone can be found.

Because ozone is highly oxidisable, it is used for sterilization, disinfection, bleaching, and as an
oxidant and such in organic synthesis.

How does ozone affect the human body?

When 0.1ppm of ozone are inhaled for two hours, the lung capacity can decrease by 20% or so.
Headaches or bronchitis may result when a concentration of 1ppm is inhaled for six hours.

In experiments, when laboratory rats inhaled 10ppm, they suffered pulmonary oedema and died
which indicates a comparable degree of toxicity as phosgene, which is widely-acknowledged as a
highly toxic gas.

What are the common methods for analysing / measuring ozone?

A typical analysis method involves the use of a potassium iodide solution to absorb ozone and
determine the concentration by absorptiometry.

Other practical methods entail the use of instruments for measuring ultraviolet (UV) light
absorption, chemiluminescence, controlled potential electrolysis (CPE), or galvanic cells.

What kind of substance is methane?

Methane, a colourless and odourless gas has long been known as a chief ingredient of swamp
gas. Methane gas is formed as organic matter such as cellulose decays in the mud of marshes or
other wetlands.

It is flammable and when mixed with air can become volatile enough to explode. It often
accumulates in underground passageways/conduits (including mine shafts and sewers) where it
can pose a serious explosion hazard.

Also Read : Hydrogen Sulfide Gas (H2S)

How does methane affect the human body?

Methane in itself is harmless, but when its concentration rises, the oxygen concentration falls
which can cause hypoxia.

It also poses an explosion hazard, as it is easily ignitable; (explosive hazard range 5.0-15.0%)

Where is nitrogen oxides measurement mainly conducted?

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) is a generic term for any of a number of different oxygen compounds
(known as oxides) of nitrogen that are given off during combustion, including nitrogen monoxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

Today, their primary sources include automobile exhaust and factory emissions; although
heating and cooking fumes do their part as well.
What kind of substance is nitrogen oxides?

One of the most common nitrogen oxides is nitrogen monoxide (NO) which most commonly is
generated during high temperature combustion; however, when nitrogen monoxide is
discharged into the atmosphere, it oxidises into nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

When this process occurs under certain meteorological conditions where the interaction of
ultraviolet light as well as the presence of hydrocarbons come into play, photochemical smog is
created.

To regulate nitrogen dioxide emissions (which are inherently more toxic and hazardous than
NO), a number of environmental standards are in place.

How do nitrogen oxides affect the human body?

It is extremely rare for nitrogen monoxide (NO) or nitrogen dioxide (NO2) to be present without
the other.

Nitrogen dioxide is toxic and, in high concentrations, strongly irritates eyes, nose, and throat,
causing a cough or even pharyngalgia at times, dizziness, headaches, or nausea at times.

If a large quantity is inhaled, the lips turn blue 5-10 hours later, and cyanosis may occur in
addition to pulmonary oedema.

Even low concentrations generally becomes a problem and raises chronic bronchitis,
gastrointestinal dysfunctions, teeth problems and sleep disturbance as chronic symptoms. In
addition, it weakens the body’s immune system.

What kind of substance is trichloroethylene?

Trichloroethylene is very volatile and in its liquid state at normal temperatures. It is commonly
used to degrease metal machine parts and when it seeps underground it sometimes
contaminates wells or groundwater which is increasingly becoming a problem in recent years.

What kind of substance is chlorine?

Chlorine, a highly caustic gas with a strong irritating odour, does not occur naturally as such.

Chlorine-based solvents such as chloroethylene or organochlorine and inorganic chlorine

compounds are widely used as source material in a broad range of products and processes
including paper bleach, pulp fiber, medical supplies, pesticides, pigment dye, mineral ore
refinement and metal processing.

Moreover, urban drinking water which we use every day contains chlorine as a disinfectant to
eliminate bacteria.

How does chlorine affect the human body?

Inflammation is caused when chlorine comes into contact with the skin. When inhaled, causes
coughing and dyspnea, and even death.

Chronic symptoms include bronchitis, inflammation of nasal mucous membranes.

What kind of substance is hydrogen cyanide?

Also known as hydrocyanic or prussic acid, hydrogen cyanide is a clear colourless gas with a
faintly bitter almond-like odour that is volatile in its liquid state with a boiling point of 25.7ºC
(78.26ºF) and a ignition point of 17.8ºC (64ºF).

It is soluble in water and often used as an aqueous solution. Its vapour density is slightly less
than air (0.947) and its LEL (lower explosion limit) is 5.6% and its UEL (upper explosion limit) is
40%.

It is chiefly used as a source material for various organic compounds such as acrylonitrile, or for
potassium cyanide as well as in insecticides/pesticides, etc.

How does hydrogen cyanide affect the human body?

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is one of the most lethal poisons, being twice as toxic as potassium
cyanide. It can be fatal not only when swallowed, but, even when it merely comes into contact
with the skin.

Characteristic of hydrogen cyanide poisoning is how quick it acts. It takes between a few
seconds and 30 minutes maximum for a fatal dose (300ppm or more) to kill an adult.

Hence, any emergency first aid (detox) measures must be immediately and swiftly initiated or it
will be too late.

When the gas is inhaled it may cause headaches, dizziness, ringing in the ears, or vomiting and
in severe cases, unconsciousness, or even death.

The concentration and an illustration of action (In the case of gas inhalation)

What kind of substance is arsenic?

Arsenic is a fairly common fragile crystalline metalloid ranging in colour from silver-white to
black.

It can be produced industrially through a chemical reaction using carbon to reduce arsenious
acid in to its elements.

All compounds containing arsenic are toxic and when they comes in contact with acid or acid
vapour, a highly toxic gas (arsine) occurs.

It is mainly used in insecticides, herbicides, desiccants, and in semiconductor fabrication.

How does arsenic affect the human body?

It frequently affects the function of the digestive organs, causing loss of appetite, convulsions,
nausea, constipation or diarrhea, hepatic disorders, and in severe cases, blood may be vomited
up or found in feces, leading to a state of collapse or shock, and in extreme cases may be fatal.

Moreover, it is considered to have carcinogenic effects on skin, lungs, and liver, too.

What kind of substance is a hydrogen peroxide?

Hydrogen peroxide is a clear, unscented and oily liquid that is water insoluble. It can be
extracted with mercury oxide after dissolving α-ethyl anthraquinone in an industrial solvent and
oxidising in a (redox reaction).
In general, hydrogen peroxide is commercially available as a 30% solution. It also interacts as a
reducing agent and a powerful oxidiser. When metal catalysts in fine particle form (e.g. copper,
silver or platinum) trigger decomposition, high concentrations of oxygen/steam are produced
that can combust explosively.

Hence, hydrogen peroxide is used in 3% solutions not only as a disinfectant, or a bleaching

agent for paper, pulp, and natural fibers, but, also as an oxidiser, sterilizer, reducing agent, and
even as liquid rocket fuel.

How does it affect the human body?

It is highly caustic to skin and mucous membranes, while a 30% solution can cause severe
inflammation of eyes and skin upon contact.

It is commonly known, that in work environments where hydrogen peroxide is in use, exposure
to the vapour can have a bleaching effect on hair.

If larger quantities are ingested, gastritis and acute toxic effects such as esophagitis, and chronic
toxicity symptoms are likely.

What kind of substance is hydrogen chloride?

HCl is a strongly pungent, colourless to slightly yellowish gas. In nature it occurs in volcanic gas
and in the human body’s gastric juices as hydrochloric acid (HCl dissolved in water).

It can be produced by the direct reaction of hydrogen and chlorine, or in a laboratory by dripping
concentrated hydrochloric acid into a strong sulphuric acid solution.

Generally it is marketed as hydrochloric acid in 35-37% concentrations.

Its main uses are in the production of: medical supplies, pigment dye intermediates, inorganic
chlorides, chloroethylene (i.e. vinyl chloride), methyl chloride as well as etchants (i.e. etching
solutions).

How does hydrogen chloride affect the human body?

Contact with eyes or skin causes inflammation. When inhaled, it irritates mucous membranes in
throat or nose, and causes coughing.

When substantial amounts are inhaled it can cause pulmonary oedema and even death.

What kind of substance is sulphuric acid?

One common production method involves burning sulphur or pyrites (usually iron sulphide), to
obtain sulphur dioxide which is then oxidised, and dissolved in water.

Sulphuric acid is one of the most common basic materials, and it is used in fertiliser, pigment
dye, petroleum refining, organic compound production, as well as myriad other uses in the
chemical industry.

How does sulphuric acid affect the human body?

Contact with the skin can cause dermal dehydration or corrosion and severe acid burns.
If its vapour is inhaled for longer periods, tooth erosion, damage to respiratory organs, and even
pneumonia or pulmonary oedema can ensue. Extended contact with the eyes can cause
blindness.

What kind of substance is ethylene oxide?

It is a colourless highly water-soluble substance that is in its gaseous state at normal (room)
temperature and has an ether-like odour. It is frequently used in organic compound formation,
as a colourant, surface-active agent (surfactant), as well as for sterilizing medical instruments.

Its explosive range is very wide with an LEL (lower explosive limit) of 3.0% and a UEL (upper
explosive limit) of 100%. With a very low ignition point of -17.8ºC (0ºF), its vapour is volatile
enough to explode even in the absence of air / oxygen.

Moreover, as there are indications that it may be a carcinogen, the Japan Society for
Occupational Health and the ACGIH stipulate a TLV (Threshold Limit Value) and administrative
concentration threshold of 1ppm.

In addition, in Japan Air Pollution Control Law it is included among the “Substances Requiring
Priority Action” as it is thought to pose a significant health risk among the hazardous air
contaminants.

How is ethylene oxide measured ?

As part of the leak check protocol for comparatively high concentrations, it is measured with
(flammable) gas detector alarms, gas detector tubes, etc.

To measure ethylene oxide in ambient air, various contaminant measurement manuals

recommend solid-phase sampling involving solvent-extraction gas chromatographic mass
spectrometry.

In general, working environment standards prescribe gas chromatography of substances in solid

state.

What kind of gas is chlorine dioxide?

It has a pungent odor, is heavier than air, and is red to yellow in colour. It readily dissolves in
water (Solubility: 0.8 g/100 ml at 20ºC), and is often used even as a solution in water.

Chlorine dioxide itself is incombustible, but has extremely high oxidizability, and poses a danger
of fire or explosion due to contact with combustible matter or reductive matter, or as a result of
exposure to heat, sunlight, impact, or sparks.

Representative industrial applications include disinfectant, which utilizes this powerful oxidation
reaction, and also bleaching agent for fibers, pulp and foodstuffs.

When using chlorine-base bleaching agent or detergent, for example, it is necessary to take care
because chlorine dioxide may be inadvertently generated.

Also Read : Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)

How does chlorine dioxide affect the human body?

Chlorine dioxide has even greater irritability and toxicity than chlorine, and seriously irritates the
eyes, skin and windpipe.
It has been reported that at a concentration of 5 ppm, chlorine dioxide exhibits definite
irritability, while at 20 ppm, it can result in death in a short time, and even at 0.1 ppm, chronic
exposure to chlorine dioxide may result in various symptoms such as inflammation of the
windpipe.

Acute symptoms such as pulmonary edema may occur after several hours of exposure, so when
there is acute exposure it is essential to obtain a diagnosis of a physician and also subsequent
follow-up.

What kind of substance is mercury?

Mercury is a liquid that shines silver-white. It is the only metal that is a liquid at normal
temperature. The specific gravity of mercury is an extremely high value of 13.6, making it very
heavy.

On the other hand, it readily evaporates, and easily forms amalgams with a variety of metals.
Mercury is a highly toxic substance as is also evidenced by reports concerning poisoning due to
methyl mercury.

However, it is widely used not only as an industrial reagent, but also in measuring instruments
such as thermometres, and also in agriculture, batteries (at present, it is used only in button
batteries), and in drugs and medicines.

In days gone by, if you cut or grazed yourself, the first thing that you did was apply
mercurochrome to the wound.

Previously, mercurochrome was kept in all homes as a household antiseptic, but nowadays it is
virtually no longer used because it uses mercury (its use is not prohibited, and if you go to a
chemist’s shop you can still purchase it).

How does mercury affect the human body?

If mercury vapour is inhaled, various psychological symptoms such as loss of appetite, a

headache, heaviness of the head, general malaise, minor trembling, and insomnia are likely to
occur.

Mercury is also absorbed through the skin. The allowable concentration of mercury stipulated by
the Japan Association of Industrial Health is 0.025 mg/m3 for mercury vapour.

The value stipulated by TLV (TWA) of ACGIH, for both a single element and an inorganic
compound, is 0.025 mg/m3, and the value at the control temperature stipulated by the Ministry
of Health, Labour and Welfare is 0.05 mg/m3.

What kind of substance is tetrachloroethylene?

This substance is also called perchloroethylene. It is a volatile substance which is colourless and
emits a characteristic odor. Tetrachloroethylene is noncombustible and easily dissolves oil, so it
is used as a solvent for dry cleaning and also for degreasing and washing metal parts.

Previously, tetrachloroethylene was covered by the Ordinance On Prevention of Organic Solvent

Poisoning. In 2014, however, this ordinance was revised to become the Ordinance on Prevention
of Hazards due to Specified Chemical Substances.
As a result, tetrachloroethylene came to be ranked as a “special organic solvent, etc.” among
type 2 substances of specific chemical substances. It also became a special controlled
substance, and it became mandatory to devise measures based on its carcinogenicity.

In addition, according to the partial revision of the Work Environment Evaluation Criteria, the
control concentration will be reduced from 50 ppm to 25 ppm commencing October 1, 2016.

Instrumentation Technical Interview Questions

What is furnace draft control?

Balanced draft boilers are generally used negative furnace pressure. When both forced draft and
induced draft are used together, at some point in the system the pressure will be same as that
of atmosphere.

Therefore the furnace pressure must be negative to prevent hot gas leakage. Excessive vacuum
in the furnace however produces heat losses through air infiltration. The most desirable
condition is that the one have a very slight negative pressure of the top of furnace.

What is intrinsically safe system?

Intrinsic safety is a technique for designing electrical equipment for safe use in locations made
hazardous by the presence of flammable gas or vapours in the air.

Intrinsically safe circuit is one in which any spark or thermal effect produce either normally or
under specified fault conditions is incapable of causing ignition of a specified gas or vapour in air
mixture at the most ignited concentration.

What is zener diode? What is voltage regulator?

The breakdown region of a p-n diode can be made very sharp and almost vertical diodes with
almost vertical breakdown region are known as zener diodes.

A zener diode operating in the breakdown region is equivalent to a battery. Because of this
current through zener diode can change but the voltage remains constant. It is this constant
voltage that has made the zener diode an important device in voltage regulation.

Voltage regulator: The output remains constant despite changes in the input voltage due to
zener effect.

What is force balance principle? State some of its’ advantages.

Force balance principle : A controller which generates an output signal by opposing torque. The
input force is applied on the input bellows which moves the beam.
This crackles nozzle back pressure. The nozzle back pressure is sensed by the balancing bellows
which brings the beam to balance. The baffle movement is very less about 0.002 for full scale
output.

Advantages:

a. Moving parts are fewer.

b. Baffle movement is negligible
c. Frictional losses are less

What is motion balance principle?

A controller which generates an output signal by motion of its parts. The increase in the baffle is
to move towards the nozzle. The nozzle back pressure will increase.

This increase in the back pressure acting on the balancing bellows, will expand the bellows. The
nozzle is moved upward due to this. The nozzle will move until motion almost equals the input
baffle motion.

How will you test a transistor with a multimeter?

1. Emitter +ve of meter and base -ve output =Low resistance

2. Emitter -ve of meter and base +ve output =High resistance
3. Collector +ve and base -ve output =Low
4. Collector -ve and base +ve output =Low

Emitter: Collector = High resistance

PNP: Opposite Results

Explain ratio control system?

A ratio control system is characterized by the fact that variations in the secondary variable don’t
reflect back on the primary variable. A ratio control system is the system where secondary flow
is hold in some proportion to a primary uncontrollable flow.

If we assume that the output of a primary transmitter is A. and the output of the secondary
transmitter is B, and that the multiplication factor of the ratio relay is K, then for equilibrium
conditions which means set valve is equal to measured valve, we find the following relation:

KA-B=0 or B/A = K where ‘K’ is the ratio setting off the relay.

What is solenoid valve? Where it is used?

A solenoid is electrically operated valve. It consists of solenoid coil in which magnetic plunger
moves. This plunger is connected to the plug and tends to open or close the valve.

There are two types of solenoid valves:

1. Normally Open
2. Normally closed

Use: It is used for safety purpose in different electric work.

How is automatic reference junction compensation carried out in temperature recorders?

In automatic reference junction compensation, variable nickel resistor is used. As the

temperature changes, so does its resistance. This reference junction compensator is located, so
that it will be at the temperature of the reference junction.

The reference junction is at the poset where the dissimilar wire of the thermocouple is rejoined.
This joint is invariably at the terminal strip of the instrument.

What are de-saturators?

When, in some processes, e.g. batch processes, long transient responses are expected during
which a sustained deviation is present the controller integral action continuously drives the
output to a minimum or maximum value.

This phenomenon is called ‘integral saturation of the control unit’. When this condition is met,
then this unit is de-saturated.

Explain the working of Rota meter.

Variable area meters are special form of head meters. Where in the area of flow restrictor is
varied. So as to hold the differential pressure constant. The rota meter consists of a vertical
tapered tube through which the metered fluid flows in upward direction.

As the flow varies the ‘float’ rises or falls to vary the area of the passages that the differential
across it balances the gravitational force on the ‘float’. The differential pressure is maintained
constant. The position of the ‘float’ is the measure of the rate of flow.

What is the working principle of the magnetic meter?

An electric potential is developed when a conductor is moved across the magnetic field. In most
electrical machinery the conductor is a wire.

The principle is equally applicable to a moving, electrically conductive liquid. The primary device
of commercial magnetic meters consist of straight cylindrical electrically insulated tube with a
pair of electrodes nearly flush with the tube walls and located at opposite end of a tube
diameter.

This device is limited to electrically conducting liquids. The magnetic meter is particularly suited
to measurement of slurries and dirty fluids.

Explain the mechanism behind the turbine meter.

Turbine meters consist of straight flow tube within which a turbine or fan is free to rotate about it
s axis which is fixed along g the centre line of the tube. Mostly, a magnetic pick up system
senses the rotation of the rotor through the tube walls. The turbine meter is a flow rate device

since the rotor speed is directly proportional to the flow rate. The output is usually in the form of
electric pulses from the magnetic pick up with a frequency proportional to the flow rate.

How would you choose differential range?

The most common range for differential range for liquid measurement is 0-100. This range is
high enough to minimize the errors caused by unequal heads in the seal chambers.
It is also dependent on the differences in the temperature of the load lines. The 100 range
permits an increased in capacity up to 400. While decrease down up to 20 by merely changing
the range tubes or range adjustments.

Programmable Logic Controller Questions

1. A switch or a pushbutton is a ________ input.

2. A lamp or a solenoid is an example of a ______ output.

3. The ____________ makes decisions and executes control instructions based on the input signals.

4. _________ _________ is a PLC programming language that uses components resembling

elements used in a line diagram.

5. A _________ consists of one or more instructions that accomplish a task.

6. Memory is divided into three areas: _________ , _________ , and ________ _________ space.

7. When talking about computer or PLC memory, 1K refers to _________ bits, bytes, or words.

8. Software that is placed in hardware is called _________ .

9. Which of the following is not required when creating or changing a PLC program?

a. PLC
b. Programming Device
c. Programming Software
d. Connector Cable
e. Printer

10. A special cable, referred to as a _______ cable, is needed when a personal computer is used
as a programming device.

11. Label the following statements as TRUE or FALSE.

11.a) Most PLCs have a fixed number of timers

11.b) Normally closed contacts “invert” the state of the signal they reference

11.c) PLCs are advantageous for use in fixed-circuit or fixed program operations

12. Complete the following statements.

12.a) PLC process scanning consists of the ____ scan, ____ scan and ____ scan.

12.b) ____ scanning and ____ scanning are the two methods (orders) in which PLCs solve ladder
logic programs.

13. Describe the differences between an [XIC] and an [OSR] instruction.

14. Label the following statements as TRUE or FALSE.

14.a) PLC scan time is dependent on the complexity of the PLC program

14.b) Most PLC timers have microsecond resolution

Also Read : PLC Program for Analog Input Sampling

PLC Answers

1) discrete;

2) discrete;

3) CPU;

4) Ladder logic;

5) program;

6) program, data, configuarable parameter;

7) 1024;

8) firmware;

9) e;

10) PC/PPI.

11.a ) FALSE

11.b ) TRUE

11.c ) FALSE

12.a) INPUT, PROGRAM, OUTPUT

12.b) RUNG, COLUMN

13. An [XIC] (examine if closed) instruction is used in a ladder logic program to determine if a bit
is on (1). When the instruction is executed, if the bit addressed is on (1), then the instruction is
evaluated as TRUE.
When the instruction is executed, if the bit addressed is off (0), then the instruction is evaluated
as FALSE. The [OSR] (one shot rising) instruction is true for one PLC scan when the rung
conditions preceding the OSR go from false-to-true.

14.a) TRUE

14.b) FALSE

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Vibration Measurement Questions

Why do we need vibration monitoring?

It is essential to monitor critical machines in the plants for increasing their efficiency and
reliability. Hence real time vibration monitoring is the key to reduce frequent failures of
machinery & keep high uptime.

What causes vibrations?

Unbalance of shaft, Bearing problem, Cracking of the rings, Fluid coupling problem, Shaft
misalignment, Oil whirl and other dynamic instabilities

What is on line monitoring of vibrations?

Time Based Maintenance System (TBM) is called preventive maintenance. One can extend the
life of the machines by monitoring these online in a cost effective way.

Vibration Monitoring and Analysis is the easiest way to keep machines healthy and efficient in
the long run and increase the overall efficiency of the plant. It reduces the overall operating cost
as well as the down time period.

Vibration sensors are used to predict faults in a running machine without dismantling it and give
a clear indication of the severity by showing the amplitude of vibration.

Where do we need on-line vibration monitor?

In Industries rotating machines are divided according to their criticality into three categories :

 First critical machine – Turbine and generator Secondary critical machines – ID fan, FD fan,
PA fan, and boiler feed pump, cooling water pump, condensate extra pump, critical large
HT motors of mills and other large motors.
 Balance of plant machines – Coal handling plant crushers, cooling tower fans, raw water
pumps and make up water pumps
This explains where Vibration Monitoring is required and how critical is each machine if there is
shut down. For taking the machines for maintenance we need to know the healthy state of the
machine without dismantling it. This is possible only by online monitoring.
What are the types of sensors for vibration monitoring?

The three principal vibration sensor types are displacement, velocity, and accelerometer.

The displacement transducer is an eddy current device, the velocity transducer is often a spring
held magnet moving through a coil of wire or piezo velocity sensor, and the accelerometer is a
piezoelectric device somewhat similar to ultrasonic transducers.

What is the benefit of vibration monitoring?

With vibration Monitoring system, we can prevent problems from arising and this saves a lot of
time, money, and avoids frustration.

 To increase equipment protection

 To improve safety for personnel
 To improve maintenance procedures
 To detect problems early
 To avoid catastrophic failures
 To extend equipment life
 To enhance operations
What is the benefits of Vibration Analysis & diagnostic Software?

Vibration analysis & diagnostic system that is applicable to a variety of rotating machinery, helps
safe operation and to improve operational efficiency.

It precisely keeps track of and quickly feeds back conditions of rotating machinery which are the
key production assets of plants.
It Helps customers improve productivity and reliability by optimizing plant operation.

 Detects abnormal symptoms from vibration characteristics or subtle changes in vibration.

Reduces risks of unplanned production shutdown by taking proactive approach.
 Advanced diagnostics realize assumption of causes and areas of anomalies and detailed
analysis. Help users practice optimum, efficient maintenance.
What is ‘vibration’?

Vibration is defined as the motion of the equipment or its part to and from its rest (static)
condition.

Explain following with their sensitivity (output) and the measuring units:

Radial:

A vibration measurement across the radius of a rotating shaft. It is measured in terms of Micron.
The sensitivity of a radial vibration pickup (eddy probe) is 200mv DC/mill (refer to the drawings
for the exact parameters).

Velocity:

It is defined as the rate of change of distance traveled by the equipment. Velocity measurement
is generally used for measuring the equipment body vibration. The sensitivity of a velocity
pickup is 500mv DC/inch/sec (refer to the manufacturer drawings for the exact parameters).
Acceleration:

It is defined as the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration measurement is generally used for
measuring the equipment body vibration. The sensitivity of a velocity pickup is 100mv
DC/inch/sec2 (refer to the manufacturer drawings for the exact parameters).

What is the resistance of an ‘Eddy probe’?

An eddy probe resistance should be between 5-8 ohms.

Draw a sketch of an eddy probe calibration graph?

Eddy probe calibration graph : Check Here

What is gap voltage? Why and how is it set?

Gap voltage is feed back voltage derived by setting the standard gap between the eddy probe
tip and the rotating shaft.

The gap voltage is the base DC voltage set to get the AC pulses peak per the radial vibration
measured on the shaft.

The gap voltage is set at –8.00V DC i.e. equal to a gap of 40 mill (between the probe tip and the
measuring surface). or at -10.00V DC as per the system standard.

Why an eddy probe and its probe driver is a matched pair?

Eddy probe output is always measured after the probe driver. The characteristic of the eddy
probe slightly differs from one to another.

Always an eddy probe is installed on the shaft, after measuring and plotting an eddy probe
calibration graph with its driver. The calibration is done by adjusting the sensitivity
potentiometer on the eddy probe driver assigned for that particular eddy probe.

What do the AC and DC signal represent in radial vibration, where ‘AC is super imposed on DC’?

DC signal is the gap voltage set for –8.00V DC. DC signal is always present whether the unit is
running or stopped.

How much is the radial vibration, if the signal measured on a DVM is 135.00mv AC?

The DVM measures the AC voltage in RMS (root mean square value).

AC peak to peak =135.00*2 root 2 = 181.837mv

Eddy probe sensitivity=200mv/mill or 200mv/25.4 Microns

Hence, the vibration in Micron =(381.837*25.4)/200 = 48.49 Micron

Why is vibration measurement very important on gas turbine and compressor?

Gas turbines and compressors are high speed rotating equipment. On equipment when vibration
exceeds the manufacturer limits can cause sever damage to both itself and to its associated
components/parts.
Hence it is important to measure and monitor vibration on the running equipment.

Generally a high vibration pre-alarm and shutdown limits are set as per the manufactures
recommendations.

What type of vibration measuring instrument is used on a gas turbine? Where are the vibrations
measuring points?

Since a gas turbine is hot engine, its bearing vibration measurement cannot be done through an
eddy probe system.

Generally a velocity or an acceleration pick-up is used for measuring and monitoring the
vibration on the body of the gas turbine. The vibration pick-ups are generally installed on the
turbine’s CT/GP and PT points.

What is the type of vibration pick-up (contact or non-contact type) commonly installed on a gas
turbine?

On gas turbine vibration measurement, the ‘contact type’ peck-up such as a velocity or
acceleration pick-up is used.

What type of vibration measuring instrument is used on the compressors? Where is the vibration
measuring points?

On a gas compressor shaft/bearing, measurement is carried out using a eddy probe

displacement system.

On each gas compressor, on both forward and aft radial bearings (journal bearing) two eddy
probes are installed in the ‘x’ and ‘y’ positions.

What is the type of vibration pick-up (contact type or non-contact type) commonly installed on a
gas compressor?

A ‘non contact type’- eddy probe is installed on gas compressors.

What is ‘x or y function’ and, ‘x and y function’ selection on a radial vibration monitor?

X or Y function:

in this mode, the unit shutsdown when either ‘X’ or ‘Y’ probe detects a high vibration exceeding
the setpoint.

X and Y function:

in this mode, the unit shutsdown only when ‘X’ and ‘Y’ probes detects a high vibration exceeding
the setpoint.

What is a ‘Probe driver’? What does is it do? What is the other name for a probe driver?

Probe driver is an amplifier installed in the field closer to the sensor. It transmits the field
vibration signal to the remote control panel.

The other name for the probe driver is ‘proximeter’. Radial, velocity and accelerometer probe
drivers are of different types.
What are the three wires used on a probe driver?

The three wires terminated on the probe driver are: -24V DC (power supply), common and
output signal.

What is a ‘charge amplifier’? Where is it used?

Charge Amplifier is a probe driver installed for the accelerometer pick-up.

What is an ‘axial displacement’? How is it measured?

Axial displacement is the movement of the rotary shaft in the axial direction to and fro. Every
centrifugal shaft is permitted to have a fixed axial movement designed by the manufacturer, this
is to allow the compressor to take the load on the thrust collar.

Axial displacement is measure using an eddy probe system. It is measured using the
proportional change in the DC voltage (gap voltage) caused by the movement of the shaft from
its center position to either side (+or-).

What is the unit measurement of axial displacement?

Axial displacement is measured in terms of “Microns”

What is the term ‘float/end float’ in a compressor?

It is the free axial movement of the compressor shaft. End float is the maximum possible
movement of the shaft. It is a small amount approximately 250 Microns (refer to the
manufacturer drawings for drawings for the exact parameters).

What are the following assessments/recommendations of a vibration analysis? How are they
corrected?

Misalignment:

misalignment may cause two time RPM vibration. This is corrected by re-aligning the compressor
shaft one to another.

Unbalance:

unbalance in the compressor shaft may cause one time RPM vibration. This is corrected by
balancing the compressor shaft on a balancing wheel.

Overhauling:

multiple RPM vibration is symptom of damaged bearings. This is corrected by a total overhaul of
the compressor or replacement of parts.

(The above are only a simple clue and not a standard confirmed judgment)

What precautions are to be taken when installing a vibration measuring instrument?

Vibration measuring instrument such as a eddy probe, velocity and acceleration pick-ups, eddy
probe drivers, charge amplifiers are sensitive instruments. The following care has to be taken
while installing in the field.
-Do not drop the instrument, this may result in the loss of their characteristic.

-Fixing and tightening to be done as per the manufacturers recommended torque.

-Proper care of the signal cable insulation.

-Prevent any loose connections. …Etc.

What are the reasons for a vibration ‘spike signal’?

The following may cause a ‘spike signal’ in the vibration measurement.

-Loss of signal cable insulation.

-Signal cable passing next to high voltage lines.

-Improper earthing facility.

-Grounding of the wires.

-Loose mounting of the instrument field components…Etc.

List the manufacturers names of vibration measuring instruments?

The common vibration measuring instrument manufacturers are:

Bently nevada

Forbes Marshall Shinkawa

Dymac

Bell and Howell

Which of the above manufacturer’s product is more reliable and why?

With past experience, it is observed that the ‘Bently nevada’ vibration measuring system is more
reliable due to its component layout on the control panel, accuracy and high gauge signal cable
system in the field.

Instrumentation Inspection & Quality Control

1) What is QA/QC?

Ans> QA/QC means Quality assurance/Quality control the purpose of this (QA/QC) is to establish
the sequence of requirement for the quality of material quality of works its inspection and
records.

2) What is the basic responsibilities of a QA/QC personal ?

Ans> To ensure execution of works and comply fully as per standard and approved speck.

3)What are QA/QC’s ITP’s and QCP? Give a brief?

Ans> ITP: This is procedure informs about the kinds of quality check (surveillance inspection
witness or hold points) means quality of works is being done in proper sequences.

QCP: This is procedure addresses the activities and requirement in details.

4) What is NCR? Why does it need for a QA/QC personal?

Ans> NCR means Non-Compliance Report, QA/QC personal has reserve the right issue a warning
of the contractor doesn’t comply or violate with the standard procedure.

5) What are general work procedure (WP)?

Ans> The. general sequence of activities will be as follows;

1. Receiving Drawing and documents.

2. Reproduction of Drawing
3. Issuing of Drawing to site
4. New issuing New revision
5. Shredding of Drawings
6. Redlining Drawings
7. Transmittal of redlines to client (As-built).
6) What is ISO? Explain some of its standards?

Ans> ISO means international standard organization some of them are as below;
ISO;9001, ISO;9002, ISO,9003 etc.

7) What are the standard height to install the instruments?

Ans> Standard height to install the instruments is 1.4 meter but it can very less or more as per
locations convenience.

8) What is loop check?

Ans> To ensure that the system wiring from field to control console functioning fine.

9) What is different between open and close loop ?

Ans>

Open loop; A loop system which operates direct without any feedback and it generates the
output in response to an input signal.
Closed Loop; A loop system which uses measurement of the output signal through feedback
and a comparison with the desired output to generate and error signal that is applied to the
actuator.

10) What are inspection points for a cable tray installation.

Ans> Material check as per approved spec, size and type, trays hook-up, proper distance
structure, tray to tray i.e. power/control/and signal/low voltage and high voltage , support fixed
strongly not shaking.

11) what are inspection point for field instruments with impulse tubing?

Ans> Materials inspection as per approved spec material, type and size installation as per hook-
up, check line route to avoid any obstruction check tube support, compression fitting of ferrules,
and then pressure test (hydrostatic test) shall be done.

12) What are inspection points for cable laying.

Ans> material inspection as per approved materials, type and size, meggering, cable routing
drawing, completion of cable route (tray conduit or trench etc) and cable numbering tags, cable
bending, use of proper tools and equipment for cable pulling.

13) What are inspection points for junction box and Marshalling cabinets.

Ans> Material inspection, type, size as per approved specification, installation hook-up

For frame, bracket or stands, fixed properly means shaking free, name plate and tag no.

14) how do you determine the correct installation of flow orifice?

Ans> The orifice data (tag) shall be punched in the up stream of orifice , the data (tag) side shall
be in the upstream of flow direction.

15) |Explain why shield of signal cable is not earthed on both sides?

Ans> To avoid the current noise (resonance).

16) What is final RFI? When it shall be raised up?

Ans> When the QA/QC department of contractor is satisfied that the work detailed in the
construction RFI is completed, then request shall be submitted for inspection to the client QA/QC
department.

17) What are the required documents for an inspection?

Ans> Following are the required documents for an inspection;

1. RFI (Request for inspection)

2. P&ID for line verification
3. PP for location (pipe plan)
4. Wiring diagram for wiring details
5. Data sheet for calibration and pressure test
6. Hook-up etc. for remote tubing/air line
7. QR for maintaining record
8. WP, work procedure, to check each and every steps as per spec.
 9. QCO for issuing in case of little violation
[Link], for issuing in case of major violation etc.
18) What are the required documents for a remote loop folder?

Ans> Following are the required documents for a remote loop folder:

1. Loop package check list

2. ILD (instrument loop diagrams)
3. Instrument loop acceptance records(TR/test record)
4. P&ID (piping & instrument Diagram)
5. ISS/IDS(instrument specification sheet/instrument data sheet)
6. Alarm List
7. Calibration record (TR)
8. Cable megger report (primary prior to pulling)
9. Cable megger report (secondary after pulling)
[Link] test record(TR)
[Link] check record (remote loop)(green color)
[Link] punch list, Loop check punch list etc…
19) What are the required documents for a local loop folder?

Ans> Following are the required documents for a local loop folder:

1. Loop package check list

2. ILD (if not mechanical loop)
3. Cable megger report (primary prior to pulling) if not mechanical loop
4. Cable megger report (secondary after pulling) if not mechanical loop
5. Alarm list ( if not mechanical loop)
6. P&ID
7. ISS/ISD (instrument specification sheet/instrument data sheet)
8. Calibration record (TR)
9. Pressure test record(TR) if required
[Link] check record (local loop)(green color)
[Link] punch list
[Link] check punch list/loop check punch list.
20) What is schedule Q?

Ans> Schedule Q is an attachment to the contract, which is the provision of quality Assurance
and control, Inspection and test plan.

21) What is ITPs? What is hold points

Ans> ITP means inspection and test plan, details of work scope and required types of Inspections
Hold point (H) is the level of inspection that client inspection must required through RFI and
cannot be proceeded until inspection is done by client.

Witness point (W) is the level of inspection that inspection activity can be proceeded without
client inspection or if client is not available as per RFI timing.

22) What is RFI? When an RFI will be raised?

Ans> Request for inspection (RFI), RFI shall be raised only when the status of the preliminary
inspection is satisfactory, and the works (items) are hold or witness point.

22) What is a Project Specification ?

Ans> A project specification specifies the minimum requirements according to the design and
relevant international codes and standards.
23) What is an ITP ?

ITP (INSPECTION & TEST PLAN) is a Document that defines the activities requiring inspection or
test (witness hold points etc.) the controlling specifications the acceptance criteria the persons
responsible and the record to be produced.

24) What is a QCP ?

QCP (QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURE) is a procedures that complements the ITP, by providing
information that cannot practically be included in the ITP , but is necessary in order to perform
control inspection and test .

25)What is a Project Procedure ?

PP is a procedure that presents the systematic controls to be implemented and identifies the
responsibilities and authorities such as to ensure that the specified requirements are followed .

Calibration Interview Questions

What is Calibration?

Calibration is important wherever measurements are important. It gives you confidence in your
instruments and the results that they monitor, record and control. Calibration is the process of
comparing a reading on one instrument, with another instrument that has been calibrated and
referenced to a known set of parameters. The equipment used as a reference should be directly
traceable to equipment that is calibrated to the national standard.

Calibration of your measurement instruments has two objectives. Firstly, it checks the accuracy
of the instrument. Secondly, it determines the traceability of the measurement. In practice,
calibration also includes repair of the device if it is out of calibration. A report is provided by the
calibration expert, which shows the error in measurements with the measuring device before
and after the calibration.

Another definition here.

Calibration is a process by means of which deviation of the display value from the
actual value is determined and documented for a given measuring instrument, or
deviation of the output quantity from the nominal value for a given test instrument.

Measurement is thus performed which allows for a comparison of the device under test to a
precise standard which can be traced back to national standards by means of a documented
process. The objective of this process is to recognize and document deviations.

If the value displayed by the measuring instrument, or the output quantity of the test
instrument, is found to be outside of the allowable tolerance range during the course of
calibration, two options are available:
 1. The instrument is adjusted in order to bring its values back into the allowable tolerance
range, and is then recalibrated.
2. Adjustment is deliberately omitted because the user wants to document measuring
deviation for long-term use of his measuring or test instrument during defined periods of
time.
Why Is Calibration Important?

An instrument’s measurement accuracy degrades over time. This is typically caused by wear and
tear.

However, changes in accuracy can be caused by both electric and mechanical shocks and the
environment the instrument is in. Why is calibration so important? The bottom line is, calibration
of an instrument improves the accuracy of the measuring device so the instrument user can
have confidence in their results.

What is Adjustment?

Adjustment is a process by means of which an instrument is aligned or balanced such that

measuring deviation from the setpoint value is as small as possible, and within the allowable
tolerances specified for the instrument. The process of adjustment causes permanent change to
the measuring instrument.

What is Traceability?

Traceability describes a process by means of which the measured value indicated by a

measuring instrument can be compared to the national standard for the given measured
quantity in one or several steps.

Why do we need to Calibrate Instruments?

Regular calibration provides you with:

 Knowledge and evidence of how your instrument measures – now and over time
 Reliability – the confidence that you know your instrument works correctly
According to the International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC), the purpose of
calibration is:

 To know the uncertainty that can be achieved with the measuring instrument
 To confirm whether or not there has been any alteration of the measuring instrument that
could create doubt about the results
 To improve the estimation of the deviation between a reference value and the value
obtained using a measurement instrument, as well as the uncertainty in this deviation, at
the time the instrument is actually used
How to check when equipment is calibrated?

Calibration Certificate is always provided with equipment calibrated at calibration laboratories /

centers. Each calibrated item is accompanied with a sticker printed with pertinent data such as
serial number and calibration date.

The sticker is attached to the equipment when possible. For small items like transducers with
insufficient space for stickers, the sticker is attached to the box. If no free space available on the
equipment and there is no dedicated box, the sticker is delivered together with the printed
certificate.
Why should we calibrate a new instrument that came directly from the factory?

Sometimes it will be a legal requirement and sometimes you will need to chart changes in the
instrument over time. In these cases, you will need to track calibration data from the time of the
initial purchase.

Is it sufficient to send in instruments for calibration every second year?

It depends on how accurate you want it to be. Do you want to risk months or years of
untrustworthy measurement results? This makes it difficult to pinpoint exactly when the faulty
measurements first occurred. This is why we strongly recommend annual calibration for all
devices.

How often you calibrate your instrument is a balance between risk and cost. The shorter the
period between calibrations, the lower the risk of questionable measurements. We consequently
recommend annual calibration for instruments.

Equipment used on a daily basis will have a shorter calibration cycle than equipment used, for
example, once a month.

When should we re-calibrate the instrument?

We recommend that you begin a calibration history from day one and re-calibrate once a year
(or depends on your plant philosophy). This enables you to compare your measurement results
over time.

What is the difference between accredited and traceable calibration?

Accredited national and international bodies, such as the ILAC, approve accredited calibration.
Traceable calibration is conducted according to these same standards, and ensures that
calibration results are correct, but an official governing body does not explicitly approve the
results.

Why should we choose accredited calibration? Isn’t traceable calibration enough?

If you or your customers want to publicize the measurement results or fulfil requirements in
quality processes, such as ISO certification, you must have accredited calibration. And the
certificate can be used as legally acceptable documentation.

Is it sufficient to use a calibrator?

No. A calibrator is used to verify the instrument just before and after a field measurement. This
is not a replacement for periodic calibration in a laboratory.

What is required for a calibration laboratory in order to achieve accreditation?

You will need a quality policy that fulfils the requirements of ISO 17025, including physical
premises, methodology, procedures, traceability, technical skills, and record documents.

What Does Traceability of Calibration Mean?

To provide confidence in the validity of the calibration results they must be traceable. This
means the results on the instrument’s calibration certificate need to be traceable to the standard
used, and the results on the certificate for the standard are in turn traceable to the standard
used for its calibration.
What is the recommended calibration interval?

In order to continuously perform correct measurements, utilized measuring and test equipment
must be monitored and calibrated on a regular basis. The corresponding time period is known as
the calibration interval. Users of measuring and test equipment frequently ask how often
calibration of this equipment is required.

There is no single correct answer to this question, because calibration always represents an
instantaneous snapshot of actual conditions which is dependent upon a variety of factors
including the following:

 Measured quantity and allowable tolerance range

 Level of stress to which the equipment is subjected
 Stability of past calibrations
 Required measuring accuracy
 Quality assurance requirements
In the final analysis, this means that the period of time between any two calibrations must be
determined and monitored by the user himself.

The recommended calibration interval of 1 to 3 years (may vary depends on the plant).
Companies specify a period of 1 year in our factory calibration certificates. Deviations from this
rule should be noted by the customer in the purchase order, as well as in the delivery note.

What is the difference between calibration and verification?

A calibration indicates the error of the instrument and compensates for any lack of trueness by
applying a correction. A verification indicates that the measurement error is smaller than a so-
called maximum permissible error. Users define the maximum permissible error as the largest
error that they are prepared to accept.

Is “as found/as left” data necessary?

Measurement data isn’t absolutely required but it is highly recommended for most quality
programs. This data enables the user to determine where within its respective tolerance
requirements the instrument was found and was returned to the customer.

This is especially important when the unit is found out of tolerance. One of the most important
uses of this data is that the user of the Test and Measurement Equipment (T&ME) can evaluate
the impact that Out of Tolerance (OOT) readings had on the processes where the respective
instrument were used.

Another very important use of this data is to evaluate (Trend) how the respective T&ME is
performing and shorten or lengthen the calibration interval of that instrument based on this
data.

Instrument Zero and Span Calibration

by Editorial Staff
Every instrument has at least one input and one output. For a pressure sensor, the input would
be some fluid pressure and the output would (most likely) be an electronic signal. For a loop
indicator, the input would be a 4-20 mA current signal and the output would be a human-
readable display. For a variable-speed motor drive, the input would be an electronic signal and
the output would be electric power to the motor.

Calibration and ranging are two tasks associated with establishing an accurate correspondence
between any instrument’s input signal and its output signal.

Simply defined, calibration assures the instrument accurately senses the real-world variable it is
supposed to measure or control. Simply defined, ranging establishes the desired relationship
between an instrument’s input and its output.

Table of Contents
Calibration versus Re-ranging

To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the output
accurately corresponds to its input throughout a specified range. In order to do this, one must
expose the instrument to an actual input stimulus of precisely known quantity.

For a pressure gauge, indicator, or transmitter, this would mean subjecting the pressure
instrument to known fluid pressures and comparing the instrument response against those
known pressure quantities. One cannot perform a true calibration without comparing an
instrument’s response to known, physical stimuli.

To range an instrument means to set the lower and upper range values so it responds with the
desired sensitivity to changes in input. For example, a pressure transmitter set to a range of 0 to
200 PSI (0 PSI = 4 mA output ; 200 PSI = 20 mA output) could be re-ranged to respond on a
scale of 0 to 150 PSI (0 PSI = 4 mA ; 150 PSI = 20 mA).

In analog instruments, re-ranging could (usually) only be accomplished by re-calibration, since

the same adjustments were used to achieve both purposes.

In digital instruments, calibration and ranging are typically separate adjustments (i.e. it is
possible to re-range a digital transmitter without having to perform a complete recalibration), so
it is important to understand the difference.

Zero and span adjustments

The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an instrument reliably correspond
to one another throughout the entire range of operation. We may express this expectation in the
form of a graph, showing how the input and output of an instrument should relate.

For the vast majority of industrial instruments this graph will be linear:

This graph shows how any given percentage of input should correspond to the same
percentage of output, all the way from 0% to 100%.

Things become more complicated when the input and output axes are represented by units of
measurement other than “percent.” Take for instance a pressure transmitter, a device designed
to sense a fluid pressure and output an electronic signal corresponding to that pressure.

Here is a graph for a pressure transmitter with an input range of 0 to 100 pounds per square
inch (PSI) and an electronic output signal range of 4 to 20 milliamps (mA) electric current:
Although the graph is still linear, zero pressure does not equate to zero current. This is called
a live zero, because the 0% point of measurement (0 PSI fluid pressure) corresponds to a non-
zero (“live”) electronic signal. 0 PSI pressure may be the LRV (Lower Range Value) of the
transmitter’s input, but the LRV of the transmitter’s output is 4 mA, not 0 mA.

Any linear, mathematical function may be expressed in “slope-intercept” equation form:

y = mx + b

Where,
y = Vertical position on graph
x = Horizontal position on graph
m = Slope of line
b = Point of intersection between the line and the vertical (y) axis

This instrument’s calibration is no different. If we let x represent the input pressure in units of PSI
and y represent the output current in units of milliamps, we may write an equation for this
instrument as follows:

y = 0.16x + 4

On the actual instrument (the pressure transmitter), there are two adjustments which let us
match the instrument’s behavior to the ideal equation. One adjustment is called the zero while
the other is called the span.

These two adjustments correspond exactly to the b and m terms of the linear function,
respectively: the “zero” adjustment shifts the instrument’s function vertically on the graph (b),
while the “span” adjustment changes the slope of the function on the graph (m). By adjusting
both zero and span, we may set the instrument for any range of measurement within the
manufacturer’s limits.

The relation of the slope-intercept line equation to an instrument’s zero and span adjustments
reveals something about how those adjustments are actually achieved in any instrument.

A “zero” adjustment is always achieved by adding or subtracting some quantity, just like the y-
intercept term b adds or subtracts to the product mx. A “span” adjustment is always achieved by
multiplying or dividing some quantity, just like the slope m forms a product with our input
variable x.

Zero adjustments typically take one or more of the following forms in an instrument:

 Bias force (spring or mass force applied to a mechanism)

 Mechanical offset (adding or subtracting a certain amount of motion)
 Bias voltage (adding or subtracting a certain amount of potential)
Span adjustments typically take one of these forms:

 Fulcrum position for a lever (changing the force or motion multiplication)

 Amplifier gain (multiplying or dividing a voltage signal)
 Spring rate (changing the force per unit distance of stretch)
It should be noted that for most analog instruments, zero and span adjustments are interactive.
That is, adjusting one has an effect on the other.

Specifically, changes made to the span adjustment almost always alter the instrument’s zero
point1. An instrument with interactive zero and span adjustments requires much more effort to
accurately calibrate, as one must switch back and forth between the lower- and upper-range
points repeatedly to adjust for accuracy
Smart Transmitter Calibration Tutorial Part 1

Calibration can be carried out using a handheld communicator in the field, a laptop on the
bench in the workshop, or from intelligent device management (IDM) software as part of an
asset management system.

Electronic Device Description Language (EDDL) is the technology used by device manufacturers
to define how the system shall display the device information and functions to the technician.
EDDL makes the calibration of smart transmitters and other intelligent devices easier.

This tutorial explains the common principles of calibration, re-ranging, and trim as they apply to
various kinds of transmitters.

The detail procedure varies slightly depending on the measurement done, sensing principle, and
each manufacturer.

Table of Contents
Calibration

By definition, the term “calibrate” means several different things:

1. Set the range (scale)

2. Trim (correct) the sensor (transducer) reading or current output against a standard
3. Simply compare the sensor (transducer) reading or current output against a standard to
see how large the error is without correcting (trim) it.
This is often done in five points, increasing and decreasing. If the error is too large, the
transmitter may be trimmed or replaced.

ANSI/ISA–51.1 Definition of Terms

Calibrate: To ascertain outputs of a device corresponding to a series of values of the quantity

which the device is to measure, receive, or transmit. Data so obtained are used to:

1. Determine the locations at which scale graduations are to be placed;

2. Adjust the output, to bring it to the desired value, within a specified tolerance;
3. Ascertain the error by comparing the device output reading against a standard.
Calibrating Smart Transmitters

The term “calibration” in the context of smart/intelligent transmitters is often misunderstood.

In the days of analog transmitters calibration meant applying a physical input and turning the
trim potentiometers to adjust the transmitter so that the analog output current becomes correct
according to the desired measurement range.

Once smart transmitters appeared, this “calibration” process was divided into three parts:

 Sensor trim
 Range setting (re-ranging)
 Current trim
The reason for separating these functions is that the range can be changed without applying a
physical input.

This was a huge time and cost saver and one of the major reasons for the rapid adoption of
smart transmitters.

However, do not confuse “sensor trim” with “range setting”. Both are part of calibration, but two
very different things.

In the view of many, range setting is more like configuration than calibration.

Sensor Trim (Digital Trim)

Over time all sensors drift. Depending on the type of sensor it may be due to extreme pressure
or temperature, vibration, material fatigue, contamination, or other factors. Sensor reading may
also be offset due to mounting position.

Sensor trim is used to correct the digital reading as seen in the device local indicator LCD and
received over the digital communication.

For instance, if pressure is 0 bar but transmitter reading shows 0.03 bar, then sensor trim is used
to adjust it back to 0 bar.

Sensor trim can also be used to optimize performance over a smaller range than was originally
trimmed in the factory.

The basic principle for calibration (sensor trim) of all transmitters is the same:

1. Apply a known input

2. Tell the transmitter what it is
3. The transmitter calculates internal correction factors
4. The transmitter uses the new correction factors to compute a new correct measurement
reading
Sensor trim requires the technician to apply a physical input to the transmitter. Therefore the
technician must either do sensor trim in the field at the process location, or the transmitter has
to be brought back into the workshop to perform sensor trim.

This applies to 4-20 mA/HART, WirelessHART, FOUNDATION fieldbus, as well as PROFIBUS

transmitters.

Sensor trim in the field is easiest done using a handheld communicator connected to the running
bus which is supported by 4-20 mA/HART, WirelessHART, and FOUNDATION fieldbus.

For PROFIBUS-PA the trim command can either be sent from the control system, or the
transmitter can temporarily be disconnected from the running bus to perform the sensor trim.
Typically there are three forms of sensor trim:

 Zero sensor trim

 Lower sensor trim
 Upper sensor trim
Zero trim requires the physical input applied to be zero, this is often used with pressure
transmitters For best accuracy perform sensor trim in two points, close to lower range value and
upper range value. This is where lower and upper sensor trim is used.

A known physical input is applied to the transmitter to perform the sensor trim, the technician
enters the applied value (on a computer or handheld communicator) communicated to the
transmitter, allowing the transmitter to correct itself.

The physical input values applied for lower and upper sensor trim respectively are stored in the
transmitter memory and are referred to as Lower Sensor Trim Point and Upper Sensor Trim Point
respectively.

Sensor trim requires a very accurate input to be applied. The factory calibration equipment is
usually more accurate than the portable calibrators at site.

Moreover, transmitters these days are typically very stable. Therefore, sensor trim of brand new
transmitters is rarely done at commissioning.

Note that sensor trim is done in firmware in the transmitter microprocessor; it is not done in the
sensor itself.

The trim is really a mathematical function, adjusting numerical bias and gain factors.

That is, it is the sensor reading after the A/D conversion which is trimmed, not the sensor
hardware

Sensor trim is the aspect of calibration which this article focuses on. That is:

 Pressure calibration
 Flow calibration
 Temperature calibration
 Level calibration
 Etc.
Sensor Trim Points

The purpose of the (CAL_POINT) parameters is to tell at which points sensor trim was last done,
and to perform sensor trim points sensor trim if needed.

If the sensor trim points parameters are 0 and 360 mbar this means these are the points at
which it was calibrated (sensor trim).

The transmitter may still be able to measure -600 to +600, but remember the transmitter is now
extrapolating so it may not be full accuracy, but it may be OK anyway.

This is not uncommon. If sensor trim is performed at -600 and +600 greater accuracy may be
achieved.

Note that the sensor trim points are not just “set”; they are NOT range configuration parameters.
These two parameters are written when sensor trim is performed.
The transmitter then remembers these points were the trim was made. Typically there is a
sensor trim wizard (“method”) that takes the technician step by step through the calibration
process and it is this sensor trim wizard that writes the sensor trim point parameters.

Smart Transmitter Calibration Tutorial Part 2

Range Setting (Re-range)

Range setting (re-ranging) refers to setting the scale for the 4 mA and 20 mA points. This scale is
usually referred to as “calibrated range” or “calibration range”. That is, at what input shall the
transmitter analog output be 4 mA; Lower Range Value (LRV) often referred to as “zero”
meaning 0%, and at what input shall it be 20 mA; Upper Range Value (URV), sometimes called
“full scale” meaning 100%.

Note that the term “span” is not the same as URV. Span is the magnitude of difference between
URV and LRV. For instance, if LRV is 20 and URV is 100, the span is 80. Since Fieldbus,
PROFIBUS, and WirelessHART do not use 4-20 mA, range setting is not required for such devices
in most applications.

Note that calculating what the output current value should be is done in firmware in the
transmitter microprocessor. It is a mathematical function.

Internally the 4-20 mA/HART transmitter computes:

Percentage = (PRIMARY_VARIABLE – LRV) / (URV – LRV) * 100 …..in [%]

Analog Current = (PRIMARY_VARIABLE – LRV) / (URV – LRV) * 16 + 4 ….in [mA]

Internally the 4-20 mA control system, recorder, or indicator computes:

Percentage = (Current – 4) / 16 * 100 in [%]

PV = (Current – 4) / 16 * (URV – LRV) + LRV in [E.U.]

The analog 4-20 mA output of a transmitter is limited to the LRV to URV range. Thus the analog
output does not benefit from the full LSL to USL capability of the sensor.

Fig : In an analog signal system the measurement is confined within range values

However, FOUNDATION fieldbus, PROFIBUS, and WirelessHART transmitters as well as the digital
output of 4-20 mA/HART transmitters are not limited to the LRV to URV range, but can benefit
from full LSL to USL capability of the sensor.

Fig : In a digital bus signal system the measurement enjoys the full sensor limits

Transmitter range setting is done without applying input, and therefore can be done remotely
from a central location. For instance, set range of pressure transmitter to get 4 mA when input is
0 bar and 20 mA when pressure is 40 bar.
Range must be set within the Lower Sensor Limit (LSL) and Upper Sensor Limit (USL).
Transmitters usually also have a minimum span to be observed.

The difference between URV and LRV must exceed the minimum span, or else the analog output
resolution and percentage accuracy is too poor since with a small span the quantization error
from the sensor A/D converter gets amplified too much. The transmitter will reject range setting
and sensor trim attempts not observing the LSL, USL, and minimum span limits.

The sensor limits depend mostly on physical restrictions of the sensor. The sensor limits cannot
be changed, therefore they are always read-only. Different sensors have different sensor limits.

For example, various RTDs and thermocouples have different sensor limits. In temperature
applications, a sensor type with sufficient sensor limits has to be selected to accommodate the
range of the application.

Since the range limits are physical and cannot be changed, to get wider sensor
limits accommodate a wider range, it is necessary to purchase a new sensor.

Similarly, pressure transmitters have a selection of sensor modules with different range limits
from the lowest “draft” up to very high pressures. To get wider sensor limits to accommodate a
wider range, it is necessary to purchase a new sensor.

ANSI/ISA–51.1 Definition of Terms

zero elevation:

For an elevated-zero range, the amount the measured variable zero is above the lower range-
value.

zero suppression:

For a suppressed-zero range, the amount the measured variable zero is below the lower range-
value.

Range setting is only applicable to transmitter with 4-20 mA analog output. That is, for 4-20
mA/HART transmitters, not for pure digital solutions like FOUNDATION fieldbus (FF) or
WirelessHART transmitters.

The reason being that FF and WirelessHART transmitters has no 4-20 mA analog output,
therefore there is no need to set 4 mA and 20 mA range points. For 4-20 mA systems the range
is set in both the transmitter and controller.

For FF and PROFIBUS the range is set in the controller, and need not be set in the transmitter
which can lead to some confusion for beginners. The only exception for FF, WirelessHART, and
PROFIBUS transmitters may be for differential pressure (DP) flow and level measurement where
the end-points of the DP scale (e.g. 0250 inH2O in XD_SCALE) and corresponding flow or level
scale (e.g. 0-400 bbl/day in OUT_SCALE).

This also enables DP transmitters to locally indicate in flow or level units. FF and PROFIBUS
devices have provision for setting a range in the transmitter even though it may not be used for
the application.
Fig : An analog signal system requires range, current trims, and scaling. A digital bus system
does not.

However, the nominal operating range has to be specified also for FOUNDATION fieldbus and
WirelessHART transmitters for sizing purposes when purchasing, such that the device supplier
can pick the appropriate sensor model. There is also a need to select the desired engineering
unit in the device.

The DCS may need a range set in database as scaling end-points for bar graphs and trend and
will also need a range for PID control even though there is no range in the FOUNDATION fieldbus
or WirelessHART device. In control applications, level is usually expressed in percentage of full
tank.

The output of both the FF transducer block and the AI function block is engineering unit. For
most applications there is no need to set range in either block in order to get the PV. However,
many systems use the range in the FF transmitter AI block to scale the faceplates bargraphs.

A narrower range may optionally be set to increase the resolution of the faceplate bargraph. If a
range is set in the AI block, the percentage of range can be seen from the FIELD_VAL parameter.

Fig : Digital transmitters internally operate in engineering units

There are typically two ways to set the range of the transmitter:

 Direct numeric value entry

 To applied input
Direct numeric value entry

Direct numeric value entry means the desired lower and upper range values are simply
entered in from device software or handheld field communicator, and sent to the transmitter, for
instance, entering the 20 to 100 kPa.

To applied input

Range setting to applied input requires a physical input corresponding to the desired range
value to be applied to the transmitter. This is sometimes used in level measurement
applications.

Because the mounting (datum) of the level transmitter plays a part in the range, the range shall
be adjusted at site, it cannot be done in a lab. Basically it is a zero cancelation such as DP wet
leg.

For instance, first the tank is emptied to its lower level and then the “set PV LRV command” is
sent to the transmitter to set the lower range value to whatever the input happens to be.

For instance for a DP level transmitter, if the pressure is 20 kPa when the tank is empty (the
pressure tap is slightly below the datum), this becomes the new lower range value, thus
ensuring the reading is 0% and analog output current is 4 mA whenever the tank is empty.

Conversely, next the tank is filled to its upper level and then the “set PV URV” command is sent
to the transmitter to set the upper range value to whatever the input happens to be.
For instance, if the pressure is 100 kPa when the tank is full, this becomes the new upper range
value, thus ensuring the reading is 100% and analog output current is 20 mA whenever the tank
is full. In between the reading is linear.

Note that the technician need not know what the physical input is, just that the tanks is full and
empty respectively.

The set PV LRV command is also common to cancel wet-leg for DP transmitters in all kinds of
application including flow. The set PV LRV and set PV URV commands are equivalent to pushing
the ‘zero’ and ‘span’ buttons respectively found on some transmitters.

ANSI/ISA–51.1 Definition of Terms

range: The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received, or
transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper range-values.

For example: a) 0 to 150°F b) –20 to +200°F c) 20 to 150°C

range-value, lower (LRV) : The lowest value of the measured variable that a device is
adjusted to measure.

range-value, upper (URV) : The highest value of the measured variable that a device is
adjusted to measure.

range-limit, lower (LSL) : The lowest value of the measured variable that a device can be
adjusted to measure.

range-limit, upper (USL) : The highest value of the measured variable that a device can be
adjusted to measure.

span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range-values. For example: Range
0 to 150°F, Span 150°F Range –20 to 200°F, Span 220°F Range 20 to 150°C, Span 130°C

Smart Transmitter Calibration Tutorial Part 3

Transmitter Output Current Trim (Analog Trim)

It is rare for the analog output current circuitry of a 4-20 mA transmitter to drift. However,
should the analog output current be incorrect, use current trim to correct the analog output
signal. For instance, if the analog output current is 4.13 mA when it should be 4.00 mA, then
current trim is used to adjust it to 4 mA.

Current trim is used to match the transmitter analog output current to the current input of the
analog input (AI) card channel on the DCS.

For instance, the transmitter may be reading 0.00% but the DCS may show 0.13% because of
differences in current calibration. The DCS may not support current trim of channels in the AI
and AO cards. If there is drift in the DCS input circuitry A/D conversion or D/A conversion and
output circuitry, current trim has to be done in each device instead.

Current trim is only applicable to transmitter with 4-20 mA analog output. That is, for 4-20
mA/HART transmitters, not for FOUNDATION fieldbus (FF), PROFIBUS-PA, or WirelessHART
transmitters, the reason being pure digital transmitters have no 4-20 mA analog output.
Current trim requires the technician to measure the physical output current from the transmitter.
Therefore the technician must either do current trim in the field at the process location by
connecting a multimeter to the transmitter test terminals, or the transmitter has to be brought
back into the workshop to perform current trim. Current trim in the field is possible using a
handheld communicator.

Smart Transmitter Trim Quick Reference

The difference between sensor trim, range setting, and current trim are summarized in the table
below:

* Range setting in transmitter with digital output only done for DP-flow and DP-level
measurement

Range Values and Limit Summary

The relationship between range values and limits are summarized in the table below

Valve Positioner Setpoint Current Trim

Similarly, it is rare for the setpoint input current circuitry of a 4-20 mA positioner to drift.
However, should the input current sensing be incorrect, use current trim to correct the input
signal. For instance, if the current input reads 4.13 mA when it should read 4.00 mA, then
current trim is used to adjust it so that the setpoint reads correctly.

Current trim is used to match the positioner current input to the analog output current of the
analog output (AO) card channel on the DCS. For instance, the DCS PID output may be 0.00% but
the positioner setpoint may show 0.13% because of differences in current calibration.

Current trim is only applicable to positioners with 4-20 mA input. That is, for 4-20 mA/HART
positioners, not for FOUNDATION fieldbus (FF) positioners, the reason being pure digital
positioners have no 4-20 mA input.

Current trim requires the technician to connect a precision current source or to measure the
physical input to the positioner.

Therefore the technician must either do current trim in the field at the valve by connecting a
multimeter to the positioner test terminals, or the valve has to be brought back into the
workshop to perform current trim. Current trim in the field is possible using a handheld
communicator.

Valve Positioner Travel Stroking (Position Feedback Sensor Trim)

Stroking a valve positioner to find its fully opened and fully closed positions is in fact an
automated procedure to among other things trim (calibrate) the position transmitter feedback
sensor.

That is, it is just like sensor trim for a pressure or temperature transmitter, only that a known
reference need not be connected, the positioner will automatically stoke the valve over its full
travel to discover the open and closed end-positions.
Likewise, the analog 4-20 mA actual valve position feedback current output of a 4-20 mA
positioner is calibrated just like a 4-20 mA transmitter.

Again, this process is not required for FOUNDATION fieldbus positioners or for position feedback
transmitters based on WirelessHART.

Sensor Trim Procedure

Plants have a great mix of transmitters for different kinds of measurements from different
manufacturers. Since all sensors drift, at some point in time all sensors need a trim. The
procedure for calibration depends on the type of transmitter:

 Pressure transmitter: apply pressure from calibrator or dead weight tester or the manifold
can be equalized for zero trim
 Temperature transmitter: apply milli-voltage or resistance from calibrator or resistance
decade box
 Flowmeter: has to be calibrated against a prover or master meter
 Valve position transmitter: stroke the valve fully opened and fully closed
 pH transmitter: put the pH sensor in buffer solutions
The procedure for sensor trim may also vary slightly from one manufacturer to the next
depending on the requirement for the particular sensor technology.

Some calibration is easier in the workshop, such as pH sensor buffering where the pH sensor has
to be put into with buffer solutions and distilled water. This is easier in the lab.

Smart pH sensors have a memory chip inside making it possible to calibrate the sensor in the lab
and bring it to the field, carrying the calibration offset and slope data inside its memory chip.
Once connected, the pH transmitter/analyzers upload the calibration data from the sensor
memory.

Sensor Zero Trim Calibration

Typical steps in a sensor zero trim calibration for a pressure transmitter are: (Assume HART
operating from Remote System)

 Instruct technician to tell operations to put the associated control loop in manual so
control is not upset when PV changes when sensor reading changes.
 inform the technician the sensor reading will change.
 Instruct the technician to apply zero physical input (e.g. by isolate, equalize, and vent the
manifold).
 Instruct the technician to wait while the sensor reading stabilizes and is corrected by the
transmitter.
 Inform the technician the zero sensor trim was successful.
 Instruct technician to tell operations the associated control loop can be put back in
automatic.

Instrumentation and Control (I&C) systems:

 are integral to the operation of many industrial processes, including power generation, oil and
gas production, manufacturing, and more. During the Detail Design phase of a project, a lot of
focus is given to the I&C systems to ensure their efficient and safe operation.

Table of Contents
Instrumentation Engineer Activities

Instrumentation Design Engineers play a crucial role in designing, implementing, and

maintaining instrumentation and control systems in a variety of industries.

Here’s a general view of instrument engineers’ typical activities:

1. System Design: This involves designing the complete instrumentation system for a
project. This includes the selection of appropriate instruments, defining their locations,
identifying the connection details, etc.
2. Instrument Selection: The engineer selects the appropriate instruments based on
process parameters, system requirements, and industry standards. These can include
sensors, transmitters, control valves, switches, etc.
3. Preparation of Specifications: Engineers prepare detailed technical specifications for
each instrument. This includes technical details, operational conditions, maintenance
requirements, etc.
4. Creation of Design Documents: These can include P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation
Diagrams), loop diagrams, instrument data sheets, wiring diagrams, installation details,
etc.
5. Interface with Other Disciplines: Engineers need to coordinate with other disciplines
like process, mechanical, electrical, etc., to ensure that the design is integrated and
conflicts are resolved.
6. Hazard Analysis: They may be involved in HAZOP (Hazard and Operability) studies to
identify potential safety and operational issues.
7. Vendor Coordination: This involves coordinating with instrument vendors to ensure that
the instruments meet the specifications. It may also include activities like attending FATs
(Factory Acceptance Tests).
8. Supporting Procurement: Engineers assist procurement teams in the ordering process.
This can involve activities like technical bid analysis.
9. Testing and Commissioning Support: Engineers provide support during system
testing, commissioning, and startup. They may also be involved in resolving any issues
that arise during these stages.
[Link] Training: Instrumentation Design Engineers may provide training to the
operation and maintenance staff to help them understand how the instrumentation
system operates and how to maintain it.
[Link] Improvement: They monitor the performance of the instrumentation
system and suggest improvements. They also stay up-to-date with the latest technology
trends and industry standards.
These activities can vary depending on the industry, the specific project requirements, and the
organization’s structure and processes.

Instrumentation Engineer Documents

An Instrumentation Design Engineer is responsible for creating, reviewing, and managing several
important documents throughout the project lifecycle. These instrument documents serve as
technical guidelines, project records, and communication tools.

Below are some key documents typically prepared by an Instrumentation Design Engineer:

1. Instrument Data Sheets: These documents provide detailed specifications for each
instrument, including its type, size, range, accuracy, material of construction,
manufacturer details, etc.
 2. Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs): These diagrams depict the process
flow and show the detailed instrumentation control scheme.
3. Instrument Index: An instrument index lists all the instruments involved in the project,
along with their key details like tag number, type, location, function, etc.
4. Loop Diagrams: These diagrams show the detailed wiring connections between field
instruments, junction boxes, marshalling cabinets, and system cabinets.
5. Instrument Location Layouts: These layouts show the physical location of the
instruments in the plant, aiding in installation and maintenance.
6. Hook-up Diagrams: The hook-up diagrams depict the detailed installation process for
each instrument, including all the necessary accessories.
7. Bill of Materials (BOM): This includes a list of all instruments and accessories required
for the project.
8. Cable Schedules: These provide details about the type, size, length, and route of the
cables used for each instrument.
9. Functional Design Specifications (FDS): These define the expected performance and
functional requirements of a control system.
[Link] and Effect Matrix: This document outlines how the control system should react
to each possible input signal, effectively depicting the control philosophy of the system.
[Link] Acceptance Test (FAT) and Site Acceptance Test (SAT)
Procedures: These provide detailed procedures for testing the systems at the vendor’s
and the customer’s site, respectively.
[Link] Operating Procedures (SOPs) and Maintenance Manuals: These are
prepared to provide guidance to operators and maintenance personnel.
[Link] and Operability Study (HAZOP) Reports: These reports identify potential
safety and operational issues.
The type and detail of these documents can vary based on the specific project requirements and
industry standards.

Instrumentation During the Detail Design Phase

Below is a general view of I&C engineer activities and documents during the Detail Design
phase:

1) Input Analysis

As the first step of doing a process project during Detail Design, some data shall be gathered
and analyzed for finding the project requirements, limitations, and considerations.

Normally these inputs include (Technical) Contract (as a basis for defining the scope of work and
supply and following responsibilities, further to defined Customer/ User Requirements), Design
Basis (Documents and data provided by licensor or Basic Design Contractor), Business
Requirements (based on commercial items/limitations of contract and customer approach on
supplying of budgets), Approved Vendor Lists (and available technologies), Standards/ Codes/
Governmental or Local Rules.

Further to these inputs, all stockholder’s concerns and also company procedures/ practices are
the main inputs of doing the first step of (I&C) detail design.

2) Preparing Specifications and Datasheets

By studying the mentioned inputs further to some activities (including participation in meetings,
conversations/discussions with other technical disciplines, and doing some calculations) I&C
specialists shall prepare required project specifications, data sheets, and requirements for some
following required documents/ materials/ equipment.

The main items in these steps are

  P&ID’s Preparations/ Finalization
 Overall I&C Requirements Concepts (considerations)
 Plant Process Data
 HAZOP/SIL Studies & Safety Requirements
 Hazardous Area Classification
 Plant Layout/ Project Area (Boundaries/ Limitations/ Locations), and also
 Power/ Utility Requirements.
3) Preparing Documents for Procurement/ Supplying of Materials

I&C Specialists shall prepare all required documents for Procurement / Supplying of Required
Instruments, Auxiliary items required for Instrumentation & Signaling (including Cables,
Tubes, Fittings, Junction Boxes, Cable Trays, and Ladders, …), required Project Packages/
Equipment (in the scope of other disciplines), and also All required systems and sub-systems
(including DCS, ESD, F&G, PLC, …).

Of course, the Procurement phase is very complicated and shall be done based on exact
planning and assigning man-hours at suitable times. It shall be mentioned here that some of the
items in each project are considered as Long-Delivery items which need more notices and
activation at the preliminary times of the project.

4) Reviewing of Vendor Documents

During Purchasing of Packages/ Equipment/ Instruments /Auxiliary Items, relevant vendors shall
submit required documents that are monitored and studied by I&C specialists for any probable
comments or approvals (via comparison with project requirements).

Proceeding with each purchase requestion /order will be done by company procedures in
different ways and via project planning and in some cases, it may include other probable
activities (for example actual tests).

5) Preparing Documents for Site Construction & Equipment Installations

Of course, some I&C documents are needed during Site Construction & Equipment Installations,
and such items are prepared during the project progress and planned schedule.

In fact, such documents shall be ready at suitable times, and any fault or disturbance on such
documents may hold the site activities.

6) Core Activities

Some of the I&C activities and documents can be mentioned as core items due to their
importance and extensive action domains.

I&C Project database (Instrument Index) and implementing project safety requirements,
further to the overall control system block diagram(philosophy) are some examples that have
relations to approximately all I&C activities/ documents (or domains).

7) Different Size of Scope based on Project Execution Types

Based on different applicable contracts between the client and Detail Engineering company the
size and some types of activities of I&C scope can be changed. As an example, the mentioned
scope may be found differently if the project is EPC, EPS, Turn-Key, or other possible cases.

One of the major changes in different project types can be seen in engaging I&C specialists
(from Detail Engineering Company) in Commissioning & Start-Up phase.
I&C Engineer Activities on Systems & Sub-Systems

If we make focus on the title of I&C, we can find two main goals as Instrumentation and Control.
In the Instrumentation part of activities, the relevant specialists shall provide all suitable
instruments with all related site installation considerations, while in the part of Control, they
shall follow suitable systems (including Hardware & Software) for best performance operations
and all required Interlocks and Safety Logics.

Already we have mentioned that one of the core activities set of I&C specialists is related to
project requirements on the subject of Systems and Sub-Systems. In such activities and
documents, I&C specialists shall provide suitable systems with all documents to satisfy the
project requirements on functions and communication links.

For implementing such targets, I&C design engineers shall follow the sequences shown in
Figure-1 to provide some documents by themselves to help the system vendors in order to
provide the correct documentation.

In fact, the I&C specialists have vital roles to guide the system vendors on configuring the best
arrangement for project requirements in compliance with other systems and control & safety
functions considered in the project control philosophy.

Just to show such complexity, it should be mentioned that the brands and models of different
systems and sub-systems are not the same, and in spite of the sizes and their capabilities, all
shall follow the same harmony in the whole project control philosophy.

However, the documentation produced by the system vendor shall have the same frames,
formats, and assignments as other project documentation and I&C specialists have a serious role
in such target.

Figure -2 shows one model on the main sequences of provision of required documents by
the system vendor. By reviewing this model, it may be clear that the provision of documents
shall follow the logical routes at the right times, and in some feedback routes the documents
need new revision to satisfy some items.

Figure-2: Issue Model of System RFD (Required For Documents)

Figure-2 also shows different required information and data which shall appear in different
document titles. Such settings normally are done during a kick-off meeting in which all
participants make agreements for the production of different document titles (which are usually
known as VDIS).

As it is clear in the model, the Detail Design company may inform the system vendor of
project requirements by some predefined codes and finally, they agreed to the inclusion of codes
in each document title.

I&C Engineer Activities on Purchasing

Some I&C engineer activities and documents are related to Purchasing sequences which are
used for Instruments, Systems, and Packages (Equipment) in approximately similar ways.

Figure-3: Procurement Service Cycle

Figure-3 shows a model of Purchasing Sequence and by studying it the role of specialists in the
preparation of initial documents and following activities for vendor document checking and
approval of made items are clear.

Instrumentation Detail Design Phase:

 I&C Engineer Roles & Responsibilities

 I&C Engineer Project Packages & vendors

Quality Control Inspector Questions

What is an Inspection?

It is a process of verifying the method and application utilizing by means of following certain
documented and authenticated instruction standards are known as inspection

What are the responsibilities of the QC Inspector?

The following are the extraordinary responsibilities that any QC Inspector is supposed to execute
at the time of carrying out any inspection.

 Knowledgeable with the technology for which the inspection is carried out.
 Should have the reasoning capability to analyze the method.
 Should have in-depth knowledge about the procedure to be adopted for inspection i.e.
adopted standards.
 Should be able to convey the irregularities found to the concerned authorities such as QC
Engineer or QC Manager.
 Should be sincere about the job execution.
 Should be vigilant all the time.
What are the various inspection records, a Quality Control Inspector should be familiar with?

The following are the inspection records

 Receipt inspection records.

 Storage records.
 Installation records
 Construction Testing and calibration records.
 Training/Qualification records.
 Non-conformance and deviation records.
What should be the frame of mind of a QC Inspector while carrying out an Inspection activity?

Following are the characteristics of a perfect inspector:

 Should never compromise with the quality at the time of performing the inspection.
 Should be sincere towards performing the responsibilities.
 Should be punctual.
 Should be exemplary in approach while carrying out the inspection.
 Should have the capabilities to convince the authorities about the inconsistency with
knowledgeable representation.
What are the requirements for carrying out installation inspection of any instrument?

The following are the requirements at the time of execution of an inspection.

 Instrument datasheet.
 Instrument Test Certificate.
 Vendor instruction manual.
 Test Instrument instruction manual.
What is a Cable tray and how is it identified separately for Electrical and Instrumentation?

Cable tray is made of corrosion-resistant metal such as aluminum alloy, Stainless steel, and low
carbon steel, and is used to provide support and protection to the laid cables inside the building
or outside pipe rack.

What items to be checked for instrument impulse tubing?

The material used according to specification.

Steam tracing and insulation as per hookup.

Seal fitting installed and filled.

Isolation and equalization valves or manifold installed.

Vent and drain manifold installed.

Tubing slope checked.

Verifying tubing connection to HP, LP side.

The leak test is done.

Pressure test of impulse tubing.

What kind of materials being used for impulse tubing pressure leak testing?

 Nitrogen
 Water.
What items are to be checked for instrument device installation?

Instrument calibration before installation and documentation checked.

Instrument mounted as per the hookup drawing.

Check the instrument as per P&ID drawing.

Check for the Instrument securely installed on a stand.

Check the correct elevation relative to process tapping.

Check for stand and support.

Sunshade installation.

What items inspection to be done for instrument Stand and supports?

Fabrication of stand as per the drawing

Deburred, primed and painted.

Stand and support are secure.

Stand ground point.

Access to stand is unobstructed and clear for maintenance.

What are inspection points for field instruments such as pressure transmitters, differential
pressure transmitters with impulse tubing?

Materials inspection as per approved specifications, material, type and size, Installation as
per Hook-up, check impulse line route to avoid any obstruction, check tube bending, and check
tube support, compression fitting, or ferrules, and then pressure test (hydro test) shall be done.

What is the test procedure for the pressure transmitter?

 The transmitter process connection should be connected to a deadweight tester.

 Output connection to be connected to electronic indicator.
 Check for zero and align the transmitter position if not.
 Apply actuating pressure for full range and check for leakages if any. Tighten accordingly.
 Reset to zero
 Apply actuating pressures in 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%, and note down readings.
 Reduce the actuating pressures in 75%, 50%, 25% and note down readings.
 Do the necessary zero, span adjustments as per the instruction manual, and repeat the
process till accuracy is obtained.
What are the inspection points for a cable tray installation?

Check the cable material as per approved specifications, size, and type, tray’s hook-up, and a
proper tray to tray distance. I.e. power cable, control cable signal cable, low voltage and high
voltage, support and fixed strongly free from shaking.

What are inspection points for a cable laying?

Cable inspection as per the approved materials, types and size, meggering data, cable routing
drawing, completion of cable routing of the tray, conduit or trench, etc. and cable numbering
(Tag), cable bending,

Ensure the use of proper tools and equipment for cable pulling.

What are the inspection points for Junction Box and Marshalling cabinets?

JB to be checked for IP rating, type, size as per the approved specification, installation hook-up
for the frame, bracket or stands, fixed properly for shaking free, Name Plate, and tag number.
What is the final RFI? When it shall be raised?

When the QA/QC department of a contractor is satisfied that the comprehensive work in the
construction RFI is completed, then request shall be submitted for inspection to the QA/AC
department of the client.

What is document marking? Brief it’s color-coding.

In case any change occurs to the standard approved drawing while the project is being
constructed or tested the relevant drawing will be redlined.

The following color coding shall be used for this purpose.

Red: if any addition is required in the existing document.

Green: if any deletion required from the existing document

Blue: if any comment is added.

What is the difference between inspection, witness, and hold point?

Inspection: work can be executed without the client’s inspection and it can be inspected the
same part of them.

Witness: work can be carried out without client inspection, and then it can be inspected upon the
completion of work.

Hold point: work cannot be executed without client inspection.

What are the different kinds of certifications?

 Waterproof
 Weatherproof
 Dustproof
 Explosion-proof
 Intrinsically safe proof.
Explain the differences between QA & QC activities?

The QA activity means adopted method for verification of the execution of QC activity in turn it
focuses on the importance of implementation of QC role in the industrial and other sectors
related to maintenance, production, and construction especially.

The QC activity means the direct involvement in maintaining quality standards as per the
adopted standard by the way of carrying out inspection and making the documentation related
to that. It also involves the activity involving the project’s quality maintainability and process
execution.

What are QCP, QMP, and ITP?

QCP – Quality Control Procedure.

QMP – Quality Management Procedure.

ITP – Inspection and Test Plan.

Control Valve Stroke Test Procedure
by Editorial Staff

What is Control Valve?

Control valves are used to automatically/manually regulate process variables (pressure

(Pressure, Flow, Level, Temperature, etc.) in the process area.

They are available in various classes as per requirement from PN16 to 1000. The Control Valve is
the Final control element that is responsible for controlling the process parameters.

Symbol of Control Valve

Control Valve Consists of the following elements:

1. Actuator

2. Positioner

3. Valve Body

Actuator:

The Actuator is the Upper Portion of the Cylinder, which allows the diaphragm to move the valve
steam upward and downward.

Positioner:

The Positioner is nothing but an advanced I to P converter, which converts the 4-20mA signal to
Pneumatic 3-15Psi, and allows the stem of the actuator for the movement to and fro.

Valve Body:

Valve body manufacturing depends on the temperature and pressure in the line. The material of
the valve body may be Forged carbon, SS316, SS314, Casting, etc.

Master Equipment:

 Universal Calibrator
 Wire
 Multimeter
Table of Contents
Equipment Setup:

Control Valve Stroke Test Procedure

1. Assume the valve is a 4-20mA operated pneumatic valve. It also has a 4-20mA valve position
feedback output.

2. Connect the universal calibrator (or source) to the input of the valve.

3. Connect the multimeter at the valve position feedback output as shown in above the setup
figure.

4. Select the Source function in universal calibrator and the knob will help to vary the mA (4 to
20mA).

5. Select 4mA in the calibrator (also called as source meter). The control valve will show a 0%
valve position. We can verify the valve position on the scale provided on the control valve.

Also, the valve has 4 – 20mA output which indicates valve position feedback. We connected a
multimeter to measure this valve position feedback. The valve position feedback range is 0 to
100 percent which is equivalent to 4 to 20mA. In this case, the multimeter will show 4mA.

6. Now increase the current (mA) in the calibrator from 4mA to 8mA. Now the valve will travel
from 0% to 25%. The multimeter will show 8mA valve travel position feedback (25%).

7. Now increase the current (mA) in the calibrator from 8mA to 12mA. Now the valve will travel
from 25% to 50%. The multimeter will show 12mA valve travel position feedback (50%).

8. Now increase the current (mA) in the calibrator from 12mA to 16mA. Now the valve will travel
from 50% to 75%. The multimeter will show 16mA valve travel position feedback (75%).

9. Now increase the current (mA) in the calibrator from 16mA to 20mA. Now the valve will travel
from 75% to 100%. The multimeter will show 20mA valve travel position feedback (100%).

10. Now we tested the control valve from 4mA to 20mA upward direction. Now repeat the same
in downward direction i.e. from 20mA to 4mA in steps.

11. Note: While sourcing you can view the Feedback on multimeter these will be nearby reading
to source mA.

12. Now we completed the upward test from 4mA to 20mA. Repeat the same steps in a
downward direction also i.e. from 20mA to 4mA in steps.

Calibration Certificate of Control Valve

Find the Calibration Certificate for your reference.

Instrumentation Project Packages

The originator of these packages (for purchasing) usually are other technical departments
(Rotary Equipment, Process, Mechanic, …) but they need the Instrumentation and Control (I&C)
help for part of the package. Since different packages have different I&C blocks, the size and
type of required activities are changing in many items.

In fact, I&C specialists shall specify different packages of projects at the initial stages by
studying them and preparing suitable models for each.
Figure-4 shows one of the complex models for complicated packages (Turbo-Compressor)
which may be used for defining a general overview of the package scope of supply of
items and interfaces to project I&C blocks. It should be noticed that the package will be installed
in one location of the plant (and maybe on the skid) while it shall be in accordance with other
equipment or devices in the project.

On the other hand (usually) all required utility items of the package (including electrical power,
instrument air, steam, water, …) shall be supplied by the project plan while the package
vendor has no responsibility for them or the required paths outside of the package (skid) are
out of scope of them.

In a similar case (usually) all required cabling and relevant routes for transferring the signals
or communication links are outside of the package vendor. So, if the battery limits of scope
were clear on the provided model (at the first stages), the project progress will be easily/
smoothly accessible without any ambiguity or discussion on possible claims.

Sometimes the battery limits of scopes will be discussed during the kick-off meeting and
finalized results will be reflected on the proposed model.

Figure-4: Package Interfacing Diagram (For Turbo-Compressor)

Further to battery limits clarification the required documentation and sequence of producing
them shall be clarified during the kick-off meeting. The requested information and data by the
client shall be reflected in vendor documentation accordingly. In order to receive the results
quickly, using some diagram models can be very useful.

Package Instruments Documentation

Figure-5 shows one issue model of package documentation (RFD = Required For
Documentation) which makes an easy tool for reaching common understandings on the target
of required documents for all parties.

Figure-5 : Issue Model of Package I&C RFD (Required For Documentation)

As it is clear from Figure-5 the model can be provided generally for all packages and to be
finalized during the kick-off meeting. As an example, it was clear on the model that generally all
packages don’t have Machine Monitoring or Overspeed Protection Systems, and such items on
the case of existence are to be discussed.

During the kick-off meeting both parties (Detail Engineering Company as client or purchaser and
Vendor) shall make a common understanding of project requirements as much as possible and in
this regard, some complementary diagrams or sketches can help such a goal (even the
complementary items may seem very evident.

Package Vendors

Figure-6 shows one of such simple diagrams to show a model for transferring interactions/
information between both parties and logically describes the required inputs for following project
steps.

Figure-6: Overview Sequence of Information Flow for producing Detailed Documents by Package
Vendor
 Usually in providing the documentation some abbreviations are used which may produce big
problems in some cases (especially if the domain of using the abbreviations is similar).

Abbreviations

For example, MMS can be used for Machine Monitoring System or for Maintenance
Management System, and both are applicable for rotary equipment packages while they refer to
two dedicated separate subjects. If such abbreviations were not defined clearly, may cause
some claim discussions during the project’s progress. So, defining any abbreviations or company
codes shall be done. Figure-7 shows a sample of defining abbreviations and company codes.

Figure-7: Sample of Abbreviations Definitions and Company Document Codes

Figure-7 shows some predefined checklists as samples that can help the I&C engineer
responsible for the package.

I&C Engineer in Detail Engineering Company

The I&C engineer (of Detail Engineering Company) first of all shall be very familiar with project
requirements and consider conditions for process control and safety systems in order to
caring uniformity/ similarity of package I&C parts with project ones. On the other hand, he/she
shall make uniformity in function operations further to consider instruments as much as possible.

In this regard, HMI graphic displays, Logic Interlocks, and some special considerations (like
RESET, Maintenance Override Switches, Emergency philosophy, MCC signal interfacings, …) shall
be discussed with the package vendor to reach the project approach as much as possible.

Secondly, the I&C engineer who is responsible for the package shall have enough information
and knowledge about that, in order to understand all special cases of that package. Otherwise
requesting or insisting on some items which are not applicable to that package may cause some
problems, or in the reverse case, missing the available facilities of the package may produce
unconformity with the project approach.

Phase Activities Documents

Requirement analysis, feasibility studies, initial Requirement analysis, feasibility studies, and
Conceptual Design
control system design. initial control system design.

Conceptual design reports, initial project plans, Detailed design of the control systems, safety
Preliminary Design
and feasibility study reports. analysis, and cost estimates.

Preliminary design reports, process and Finalizing control system design, selecting
Detailed Design instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), safety and sizing instruments, creating detailed
analysis reports, and initial cost estimates. P&IDs, and programming control logic.

Detailed design reports, finalized P&IDs,

Overseeing installation of control systems,
instrument data sheets, control logic diagrams,
Construction/Installation collaborating with suppliers and contractors,
interconnection diagrams, and instrument
and initial system testing.
location plans.
Phase Activities Documents

Conducting comprehensive system testing,

Installation plans, vendor documentation, testing system tuning, training operators, and
Commissioning
protocols, and field inspection reports. resolving any installation or functioning
issues.

Operation and Continuous system monitoring, troubleshooting, Documenting lessons learned, final project
Maintenance system upgrades, and maintenance. reporting, and decommissioning.

Operation and maintenance manuals, incident

Commissioning reports, system testing results,
Project Closure reports, system upgrade plans, and
and operator training manuals.
maintenance records.

The third, I&C engineer who is responsible for the package shall be familiar with available
technologies and different approaches of vendors on that dedicated package. In fact, I&C
engineer shall know that some package vendors hire sub-vendors for their I&C parts, while some
others have their own I&C specialists for implementing I&C parts. Some of them are using
special dedicated I&C parts, while some others have the facility of selecting I&C parts from
different sub-vendors.

There are many other items that may be counted for skills of the I&C engineer responsible for
the package, but in order to wrap up this subject and as a summary such specialists shall be
good knowledge of I&C parts of the project and package, and also have enough experience.

In fact, such I&C specialist shall follow some training for package requisitions and also uses some
company-prepared checklists to take care of preventing missing any required items.

Figure-8: Sample Checklist for I&C Engineer responsible for Package

Instrumentation Project

Conclusion

At the end of this article, it is reminded again that I&C specialists have different roles and
positions in project executions, and by their activities, documents, and co-ordinations a vital part
of the project will be followed.

However, most of these roles and positions shall have some common abilities and some special
ones and in order to study their actions, I&C engineer of Detail Engineering Company is a good
choice.

Industrial Automation Engineers Interview Questions

1. What is Automation?
Automation is delegation of human control functions to technical equipment for increasing
productivity, better quality, reduced cost & increased in safety working conditions.

2. What are the different components used in automation?

The components of automation system include

 Sensors for sensing the input parameters (RTD, Thermocouple, Pressure, Flow, Level; etc)
 Transmitters for transmitting the raw signal in electrical form
 Control system which includes PLC, DCS & PID controllers
 Output devices / actuators like drives, control valves.
3. What are the different control systems used in Automation?

 PID Controller based control system

 PLC based control system
 DCS based Control system
 PC Based automation system
4. Explain PID based control system.

PID (Proportional Integral Derivative) is the algorithm widely used in closed loop control.

The PID controller takes care of closed loop control in plant. A number of PID controller with
single or multiple loop can be taken on network.

PID Controllers are widely for independent loops. Although some logic can be implemented but
not much of sequential logic can be implemented in PIDs.

5. Difference between PLC & Relay ?

 PLC can be programmed whereas a relay cannot.

 PLC works for analog I/Os such as PID loops etc. whereas a relay cannot
 PLC is much more advanced as compared to relay.
 Modifications in relay base circuit is difficult compared to PLCs
6. Difference between PLC and DCS ?

DCS:

The system uses multiple processors, has a central database and the functionality is distributed.
That is the controller sub system performs the control functions, the history node connects the
data, the IMS node gives reports, the operator station gives a good HMI, the engineering station
allows engineering changes to be made.

PLC:

The system has processor & I/O’s and some functional units like basic modules, communication
modules and so on. Uses a SCADA for visualization. Generally the SCADA does not use a central
database.

DCS is often used in the big plants where the redundancy level needed is more and the analog
input used are high.

7. What is PC based control system ?

In PC based control system, the CPU of computer acts as processor, the PCI based cards are
used for connecting Input and Output. The RAM acts as memory. Hard disk is used as storage
device.
Currently this systems are very useful when the large data is to be proceed with very high
speed. In many cases for greater accuracy we can use the real-time operating system.

8. What is Encoder ?

A feedback device which converts mechanical motion into electronic signals. Usually an encoder
is a rotary device that outputs digital pulses which correspond to incremental angular motion.

The encoder consists of a glass or metal wheel with alternating clear and opaque stripes that are
detected by optical sensors to produce the digital outputs.

9. Which are the leading PLC providers ?

The leading PLC providers include

 Rockwell Automation : Allen Bradley (Micrologix, SLC, PLC, Control Logix)

 Siemens ( S7 200, S7 300 , S7 400)
 Grouppe Schneider : Modicon ( Nano, Micro, Premium, Quantum)
 GE Fanuc : Versa, Series 90-30, 90-70
 Messung : Nextgen
10. Which are the leading DCS providers ?

The leading DCS providers include

 Yokogawa : Centum VP, CS 3000 , CS 5000 (Earlier Centum Excel, Micro Excel)
 Honeywell : TDC 3000
 Fisher – Rosemant – Delta V
 ABB – Freelance 2000
 Moore – APACS
 Fox boro – I/A series
11. Which are the leading SCADA software providers ?

The leading SCADA software / MMI providers include

 Wonderware : InTouch
 Intellution iFix (Earlier FixDMACS)
 Siemens : WinCC
 Allen Bradley : RS View ( Earlier Control View)
 KPIT : Astra
12. What types of sensors are used for measuring different parameters?

 Temperature sensors – RTD, Thermocouple, Thermister

 Pressure Sensor – Borden Tube, Bellows, Strain gauge
 Flow sensor – Pitot tube, Orifice, Ultrasonic+
 Level, Conductivity, Density, Ph
13. What is transmitter?

A transmitter is an electronic device that is generally mounted in the field in close proximity to a
sensor. The sensor (also known as a transducer) measures a physical variable such as
temperature or pressure and outputs a very low level electronic signal.

The basic function of the transmitter is to provide the correct electrical power to turn on (or
excite) the sensor then to read the low level sensor signal, amplify it to a higher level electrical
signal and send that signal a long distance to a control or read-out device.

Since low-level electrical signals do not transmit long distances with great accuracy, installing a
transmitter generally gives a tremendous improvement in the accuracy of the information
delivered to a larger control system. Typically the output form the transmitter is 4-20 mA or 0-10
V

14. Why 4-20 mA preferred over 0-10 V signal ?

The 0-10 V signal has tendency to drop because of line resistance. If the distance between
sensor and input card is more the signal will not properly represent the field value.

The 4-20 mA will travel a long distance without dropping signal value.

15. Why 4-20 mA preferred over 0-20 mA signal ?

With 0- 20 mA you can not distinguish between minimum field value and connection break. With
4-20 mA, internal circuit can distinguish between connection break of minimum value.

Normally when the value is minimum the transmitter will give you 4 mA while in case of
connection breakage it will give 0 mA.

16. Difference between 2 wire, 3 wire and 4 wire transmitter.

In 2 wire transmitter the power and signal are transmitted through same cable.

In 3 wire transmitter the data signal and power are with respect to common ground.

In 4 wire transmitter two wires for power supply and two for signals. Only current transmitters
can be used as 2 wire transmitters.

17. What is a “Smart” Transmitter ?

A “Smart” transmitter is a transmitter that uses a microprocessor as the heart of the electronics.

In addition, a “Smart” transmitter will output some type of remote digital communications
allowing you to read and set-up the device from a remote position.

18. What is Field bus ?

Fieldbus is a general term for a digital only, high speed communications protocol. The key
attribute to Fieldbus communications is higher speed communications with the possibility of
addressing multiple transmitters all on the same field wiring.

The Foundation Fieldbus is a specific digital protocol that is often shortened to just be
called Fieldbus. Other digital only communications such as Profibus are also Fieldbus protocols

19. What is Actuator ?

In a closed-loop control system, the part of the final control element that translates the control
signal into action by the control device.

An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving or controlling a

mechanism or system.

An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy. The control signal is relatively low
energy and may be electric voltage or current, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or even human
power.
20. Explain Working of RTDs

Resistance Temperature Device works on the principles that the resistance of the material
changes as its temperature changes.

Temperature is determined by measuring resistance and then using the RTD Resistance vs Temp
characteristic to detect temperature.

Typical elements used for RTD are Nickel, Copper and Platinum. Platinum is widely used in RTDs
because of accuracy.

PT 100 means at 0 deg temp 100 ohms resistance. A typical RTD consists of a fine platinum wire
wrapped around a mandrel and covered with a protective coating (glass or ceramic).

21. Temperature measurement range supported by RTDs?

The RTD work on temperature range between–250 to 850 deg C.

22. Explain Working of Thermocouple

Thermocouple consists of two strips or wires made up of different metals and joined at one end.
The temperature at that juncture induces an electromotive force (emf) between the other ends.

As the temperature goes up the emf also increases. Through standard charts and tables the
corresponding temperature can be found out.

The relationship between the thermocouple output and the temperature is quite non linear.

Different metallurgies produce different outputs. The different metallurgies and different
lineararities result in different thermocouple designations such as “J”, “K,”, “N”, “L”, etc.

23. What is Cold Junction compensation?

The industry accepted standard for the temperature at open end is 0 deg C.

Therefore most tables and chart make the assumption that the temp at open end is 0 deg C. In
industry the open ends are always at actual room temperature and not 0 deg C.

The emf adjustment because of difference between the actual temp and 0 deg C is referred as
Cold Junction Correction (CJ Correction)

24. Temperature measurement range supported by thermocouple ?

The thermocouple work on broad temperature range ie –270 to 2300.

25. Can we split one T/C signal to two separate instruments?

No. The T/C signal is a very low-level millivolt signal, and should only be connected to one
device.

Splitting to two devices may result in bad readings or loss of signal.

The solution is to use a “dual” T/C probe, or convert one T/C output to a 4-20 mA signal by using
a transmitter or signal conditioner; then the new signal can be sent to more than one instrument
26. What are the flow measuring instruments used in Flow measurement ?

 Differential pressure meters

 Positive displacement
 Velocity meters
27. Explain working of differential pressure measurement ?

Suitable restriction placed in flow stream causes a differential pressure across it.

As flow depends upon differential pressure (Head) & area, so any of them or both can be varied
for varying flow.

28. What are the components of differential flow sensor ?

For creating differential pressure : Orifice plate, Venturi Tube, Flow Nozzle , pitot tube

For measuring pressure : U-Tube Manometers, Ring–Balance Manometer, D.P. Cell

29. What type of pressure sensors used in pressure measurement?

 Manometers
 Bourdon tubes
 Bellow elements
 Diaphragm elements
 DP transmitters
30. Explain working of differential pressure transmitters.

Process pressure is transmitted through isolating diaphragms and oil fill fluid to a sensing
diaphragm. The sensing diaphragm is a stretched spring element that deflects in response to
differential pressure across it.

The displacement of the sensing diaphragm, a maximum deflection of0.004 inch (0.10 mm), is
proportional to the applied pressure.

Capacitor plates on both sides of the sensing diaphragm detect the position of the diaphragm.

The transmitter electronics convert the differential capacitance between the sensing diaphragm
and the capacitor plates into a two- wire, 4-20 mA dc signal and a digital output signal.

31. What is Control Valves ?

The control valve, commonly named the final control element of control contains a pneumatic
device that converts the control signal from the controller in action, regulating the flow.

A control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the flow passage as
directed by a signal from a controller.

This enables the direct control of flow rate and the consequential control of process quantities
such as pressure, temperature, and liquid level.

32. What type of control valves used in the industry ?

 ON – OFF SERVICES :- Gate, Ball, Diaphragm, Plug, Butterfly valves.

 THROTTLING SERVICES :- Globe, Butterfly, Diaphragm, Pinch valves.
 NON – REVERSE FLOW :- Check valves.
33. What are the specifications of the control valve ?

Following specifications are used for control valve

 Flow medium and operating temperature

 Flow rate kg/hr or Nm3/hr Max/Min/Normal
 Inlet and Outlet pressure : kg/cm2 Max/Min/Normal
 Max. allowable diff. Pressure : kg/cm2
 Density of medium : kg/m3
 Viscosity
 Cv : Valve Flow Coefficient
34. What are the components of control valve ?

 Actuator, Body, Trim, Diaphragm, Diaphragm plate, Actuator stem

 Actuator spring, Seat, Travel Indicator, Valve stem, Gaskets, Yoke, Hand wheel
35. What is flow coefficient ?

It is the flow of water (G=1, T= 6 to 34 deg. C) through the valve at full lift in U.S gallon per
minute with a pressure drop across the valve of 1 psi.

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EPC Questions and Answers

Describe the datasheet development workflow process.

Start with Rev A and the discipline activity and describe all the way to Rev 0.

RevA – Process Input with client comments, RevB – Mechanical Input Required, RevC – Submit
with Inquiry for Client Approval, RevD – Submit to vendors for quotation, Rev0 – Submit with
purchase requisition after bid tab process.

When an engineering department receives a document for the first time, what is the first item
on your ‘to-do’ list and why?

You must validate the document. This process is so that you check the document to ensure it
was tagged properly and to verify that it was received on the Vendor information requirement
form.

For the client, are drawings reviewed in parallel or in series and why?

Series – To discourage similar comments made by various parties. It is engineering consultants’

responsibility to own the design on vendor data, so we must do our diligence in commenting on
vendor data per specs.
When we receive approvals from clients and experts for welding documents/inspection/
drawings, what is one thing that must be on the drawings before returning to the vendor and
Why?

Engineering Consultants’ Stamp – It signifies that the document has been reviewed and proper
approvals provided.

Do purchase requisitions need client approval before we send them to procurement?

Support your answer with an explanation.

No, the client approves them in SAP when they release the order to the winning vendor.

Why do we separate the datasheet from Inquiries when we send it to IM?

So that the datasheet lives in the server as its own entity as it is issued.

When a weld or procedure document comes in as PCERT (in other words to be certified), are you
allowed to check and stamp yourself?

Yes, provided that the comments on the original receipt documents can be easily verified by
you. If you don’t understand the comments, then you should send it back to experts.

Who is supposed to receive all Welding documents for approval on the client?

Appointed Engineering Consultants’s Engineer & Client’s Appointed engineer responsible for the
project – Specialty Engineering gets involved for high alloys

What does E+A, E+C, E stand for? Why do we use different monikers for approvals?

E+A: Electronic plus approval, E+C: Electronic plus comment, E electronic. Must hold for E+A.

If we send vendor data to the client for approval and give a 2-week turnaround…and have not
received any comments or approval, what is the proper process for returning the vendor data
back to the vendor?

You should make every attempt to call, email, contact the client to encourage comments or
timely approval, if the schedule is going to slip and all attempts have yielded no results, you are
allowed to send Engineering Consultants’ comments back to the vendor without proper client
input.

If we receive vendor data for a 2nd round, are we required Engineering Consultants’ work
processes to send to the client for approval/comments?

No, provided that there is no scope or design change, the client is expected to make all their
comments and input known on the first receipt of vendor data. From 2nd round onward,
Engineering Consultant is expected to turn around documents within 1 week’s time, unless
otherwise directed by the schedule

Calibration and Preventative Maintenance

Calibration: A comparison of two instruments or measuring devices one of which is a standard
of known accuracy (traceable to national standards) to detect, correlate, report or eliminate by
adjustment, any discrepancy in accuracy of the instrument measuring device being compared to
the standard.

Calibration Programs Required by Regulatory Authorities

 “Automatic, mechanical, or electronic equipment or other types of equipment, including

computers, or related systems that will perform a function satisfactorily, may be used in
the industries like power plant, oil & gas, cement, manufacture, processing, packing etc. If
such equipment is so used, it shall be routinely calibrated, inspected, or checked
according to a written program designed to assure proper performance.
 Maintenance at appropriate intervals to prevent malfunction & shall be “preventative” not
“reactive” maintenance.
Calibration requirements for Laboratory Instruments

 Specific Directions
 Schedules
 Limits of accuracy & precision
 Remedial Actions
 Systems to prevent usage of instruments failing calibration
• “Control, weighing, measuring, monitoring and test equipment that is critical for assuring the
quality of intermediates or APIs should be calibrated according to written procedures and an
established schedule.

Each Manufacturing / Process Area:

 Written calibration procedures that use traceable calibration standards or calibration

equipment.
 Preventive maintenance procedures and / or referenced manuals
 Qualified individuals (having the appropriate education, training, background and
experience) responsible for calibrating & maintaining instrumentation
 Second person check of all calibration and maintenance
 Qualified individuals responsible for monitoring the calibration and maintenance program.
 Ensure the calibration program and procedures are reviewed and approved by Quality
Instrument / Equipment Master List

 System for identification of all Master equipment related to instrumentation in a

manufacturing/process area or laboratory
 Include instrumentation details (serial number, model number & location)
 If automation components are tracked separately through the configuration management
then it is not necessary to include (must verify)
 Procedures must exist that identify the calibration and maintenance requirements for
each instrumentation / equipment on the master list
Retired Equipment

 Records pertaining to retired / obsolete equipment must be kept according to company’s

records retention procedures
 Records should include date the unit was retired, person responsible and the reason for
retirement / discard
Instrument Identification & Calibration Status

 Each instrument given a unique identifier

 Instrumentation details associated with this number must be documented and available
(e.g. serial number, model number, location, etc.)
 Each instrument should be labeled with the unique identifier
 Calibration status of each instrument , the date of calibration, the next calibration date
and the identification of person performing calibration should be readily available
  Appropriate systems to document calibration status include calibration logs, MAXIMO, and
calibration stickers
 System must be in place to prevent use of an instrument that is not qualified, unusable
due to damage or malfunction, or has exceeded its established calibration interval
 System must be in place that identifies instruments that do not require calibration to be
performed beyond the original or factory calibration to distinguish from those instruments

⇒Documentation required for excluding equipment

that do require scheduled calibrations

Traceability of Standards / Calibration Equipment

 Calibration reference standards / calibration equipment shall be traceable to national

standards and be accompanied by certificates of traceability / analysis
 If recognized standards are not available, an independent reproducible standard may be
used
 The calibration tolerance of a given standard should be as tight or tighter than the
tolerance of the instrument to be calibrated
 A procedure must be in place to ensure tracking and monitoring of standard’s expiration
date and re-calibration / re-certification requirements
 Re-calibration records must be retained
Instrument Calibration Tolerances

Instrument calibration tolerance limits should be established so problems are identified and
corrected in a timely manner

When assigning tolerances, considerations given to:

 Capability of the instrument being calibrated (what the manufacturer/OEM claims the
instrument can achieve).
 Parameters at which the instrument operates (ex: if testing accuracy of + 0.5% is
required, the instrument calibration tolerances should be <0.5%)
 Work environment – environmental conditions can affect the performance of the
instrumentation
Practice of using “Alert” & “Action” levels

“Alert” Tolerance (“Adjustment Limit”)

 Related to instrument performance

 Level at which the instrument is adjusted back into range
 Not required – an industry “best practice”
“Action” Tolerance (“Calibration Limit” or “Out-of-Tolerance”)

 Tied to process performance

 Level at which the potential for product impact exists
 Possible atypical investigation or reporting is required
Deviations beyond “Alert” level but not at “Action” level would not require investigation – May
require adjustment, changes to PMs

Setting of “Alert” and “Action” levels should be described in SOPs, be defendable and have
Quality review and approval

Calibration and Maintenance Frequencies

May be determined for individual instruments or groups of instruments (similarity of

construction, reliability, and stability)
Considerations when determining calibration frequency:

 Accuracy of the measurement / instrument range

 Consequences of incorrect value caused by out of calibration
 Extent & criticality of use of the instrument & tendency to wear and drift
 The manufacturer’s/OEM’s recommendations
 Environmental & physical conditions (temperature, humidity, vibration)
 Previous calibration records, history of calibration problems & repair history
 Frequency of calibration checks prior to use or in-between intervals
 Redundant / back-up systems (provides secondary source of information available from
other calibrated primary instruments)
 Results of Qualification studies
 Process requirements
 Availability of built-in / automatic calibration checks
Changes to frequency must be approved per change control SOPs

References to specific instrument procedures listed in compendium (USP, BP or EP) for

calibration tests for specific laboratory instruments

Calibration time “windows” should be established around calibration due dates

Policy for Calibration and Maintenance Intervals & Schedules Include:

 Extending Intervals
 Reducing Intervals
 Maximum Intervals
Maintenance Requirements

 Manufacturer’s/OEM’s recommendations
 Parts that wear: gaskets, seals & bearings
 Parts requiring periodic replacement: filters, belts & fluids
 Parts requiring periodic inspection and cleaning
 Parts requiring periodic adjustments, tightening and lubrication
Calibration and Maintenance Procedures

 Shall include specific directions and limits for accuracy & precision
 Shall include guidance for remedial action when accuracy & precision limits are not met
 Normally provided in the manufacturer’s/OEM’s manuals
 Some compendial requirements exist for some specific laboratory instrumentation
 Performance checks (e.g. system suitability, daily balance performance checks) are NOT
suitable substitutes for regularly scheduled calibrations
Each calibration & maintenance procedure should include the following:

 Identification of department responsible to perform the calibration or maintenance

 Step-by-step calibration instructions, reference to appropriate calibration procedures or
instrument manuals
 Methods for preventive maintenance or reference to appropriate instrumentation manuals
 Calibration equipment used in the calibration (e.g. spectroscopy filters, voltmeters,
digital thermometers, etc)
 Calibration parameter and tolerance ( ± )
Each calibration & maintenance procedure should include the following:

 Required environmental controls or conditions, where appropriate

 Provisions for adjustments, if needed
 Requirement for recording actual measurements before (“as found”) and after adjustment
or preventive maintenance (“as left”)
 Actions to be taken if instrumentation cannot be calibrated (e.g. contact appropriate
service people, label and remove from service)
  A step to record all calibration & maintenance activities.
Note : “as found” recordings are not required where routine performance checks are available to
provide evidence indicating instrument is operating properly and is suitable for use.

Use of Contractors / Vendor Service Personnel

 Must have a procedure for approving contractor activities

 Contractors must have appropriate training / qualification
 Responsible to review & approve the contractors calibration and maintenance procedures.
 Responsible to perform actions or steps not part of the contractors procedures.
Calibration & Maintenance Records

 All calibration records must be retained per document retention procedures

 Should include “as found” measurements, results of adjustments (“as left”) and
appropriate review & approval of all results
 Tolerance or limit for each calibration point
 Identification of standard or test instrument used
 Identification of persons performing the work and checking the results with dates
 Review must ensure the approved activities have been completed and all results have
passed the established acceptance criteria
 Periodic review of historic calibration & maintenance data to evaluate appropriateness of
established frequencies
Procedures for Out-Of-Tolerance Calibration Results

Actions required when critical instrument found outside of established instrument calibration
limits (“Action Limit”,Out-Of-Tolerance, OOT):

Critical Instrumentation: Any instrument employed in the production of bulk pharmaceutical

chemicals, drug or biologics product that controls and/or is used to measure a parameter that
affects the validation state of the product (Critical Process Parameters) and any other quality
parameter designated as such. Also includes laboratory instrumentation used to measure
conformance to component and/or product specifications.

Instrument Mechanic/Technician:

 Immediate review of calibration data to verify validity of OOT

 Notification to supervisor or responsible person
Instrument Services :

Corrective Action to the instrument ASAP (repair, re-calibration, replacement or removal from
service)

Investigation and documentation into root cause of OOT

 Historical review of instrument performance & factors relevant to setting calibration

frequency
 Corrective Actions to prevent recurrence
 Re-calibration after maintenance or repair
OOT Notification issued to instrument owner (after results validated)

OOT Notification should include current calibration data, magnitude of OOT error, and date of
last successful calibration

Instrument Owner :

Evaluate impact of OOT on product quality.

Impact evaluation based on SOP which is approved by Quality and defines how / when Quality
will be notified.

Ex. of OOT with impact on quality:

 Instruments used in acceptance / rejection of materials and product

 Control / monitoring of critical process parameters
 Process controls affecting the final product quality or yield
 Instruments required by regulation (e.g. gauges, RH monitors, etc.)
 Calibration reference standards
Needs complete understanding of the process requirements for the parameter measured by the
OOT instrument

Evaluate magnitude of error in the “As Found” OOT vs. process requirements to determine
quality impact

Ex. of OOT with no impact on quality:

⇒A temperature transmitter is reading 0.2 Deg C low and is OOT for that instrument. There is no
potential for quality impact if:

– Process requires temperature reading accuracy of +/- 1 DegC –

– Measures a range / CPP with max. 85 Deg C and process normally runs at 75 Deg C.

 Decisions regarding impact on quality must be documented, approved by Quality and

documentation retained
 OOT events should be tracked and trended to identify problem instruments
 Historical information on OOT events should be readily retrievable
Change Control Management

 Changes to calibration tolerances, frequency, procedures, addition to / deletion from

calibration program, changes in location and different replacement parts should be
documented in a change control program
 May also require re-calibration, re-execution / revision of instrument’s Installation
Qualification (IQ), Operational Qualification (OQ) or Performance Qualification (PQ)
 Update of qualification records: drawings, parts list, etc.
 Appropriate review and approval by responsible departments and Quality