THE NYERI NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC

COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS DEPARTMENT

COMPUTER NETWORKING

CHAPTER 1: CONDUCT COMPUTER NETWORK SITE SURVEY

Introduction to computer networking.

Definition.

 Computer network is a group of two or more computers or other networking devices that
are linked to share or exchange files and communicate electronically.
 Networks connect devices together to share resources and communicate electronically.

COMPUTER NETWORKING COMPONENTS

 End devices: These are the computers or other devices that are connected to the network.
Each end device has a unique address to distinguish it from other devices on the network.
 Hosts: These are the computers on the network that participate in communication. They
are also known as end devices or clients.
 Intermediary devices: These devices connect the end devices to the network. Examples
are switches, ports, cables, hubs, repeaters, wireless transmission for example radio
waves, infrared among others.
 Communications protocols: These are the rules that networked devices use to transmit
information.
 Network infrastructure: This is made up of hardware components like computers, hubs,
switches, and routers.
 Network types: There are different types of networks, including local area networks
(LANs) and wide area networks (WANs)
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ICT AND NETWORKING
 A computer network is a key component of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT), essentially forming the infrastructure that allows different
devices and systems to communicate and share data within an ICT system; in
simpler terms, ICT is a broader concept encompassing various communication
technologies, while a computer network is a specific technology used to connect
devices within that ICT system to facilitate data transfer.
Key factors to understand the relationship:
 ICT includes not only computer networks but also other communication
technologies like telephones, radio, television, and various software applications
that enable information sharing and access.
 Computer network is a core element:
 A computer network acts as the backbone for data transmission within an ICT
system, allowing devices to connect and exchange information across different
locations.
 Convergence of technologies:
 ICT represents the merging of various communication technologies, including
computer networks, to create a unified system for information exchange.

DEFINITION OF NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES

 Packet: A packet is, the most basic unit that is transferred over a network. When
communicating over a network, packets are the envelopes that carry your data from one
end point to the other
 LAN: LAN stands for “local area network”. It refers to a network or a portion of a
network that is not public. A home or office is an example of a LAN.
 WAN: WAN stands for “wide area network”. It means a network that is much more
extensive than a LAN. While WAN is the relevant term to use to describe large, dispersed
networks in general, it is usually meant to mean the internet, as a whole.
 Firewall: A firewall is a program that decides whether traffic coming into a server or
going out should be allowed. A firewall usually works by creating rules for which type of
traffic is acceptable on which ports. Generally, firewalls block ports that are not used by a
specific application on a server.
 VPN: VPN stands for virtual private network. It is a means of connecting separate LANs
through the internet, while maintaining privacy. This is used as a means of connecting
remote systems as if they were on a local network, often for security reasons.
 Router: A router is a device that passes traffic back and forth. You likely have a home
router. It’s that router’s job to pass outgoing traffic from your local devices to the
Internet, and to pass incoming traffic from the Internet to your devices.
 DHCP: The dynamic host configuration protocol allows computers to automatically
request and be assigned IP addresses and other network settings. For example, when you
connect your laptop or smartphone to your Wi-Fi network, your device asks the router for
an IP address using DHCP and the router assigns an IP address. This simplifies things —
you don’t have to set up static IP addresses manually.
 Switch: Switches manage the flow of data across a network by transmitting a received
network packet only to the one or more devices for which the packet is intended.
 IP: internet protocols
 TCP: Transmission Control Protocol.
 OSI: Open Systems Interconnection.
 SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

NETWORK REQUIREMENTS
 Business goals

 Reducing costs
 Network aims to simplify technology to lower costs while providing more flexible
collaboration options for employees.
 Improving employee engagement
 Network aims to provide employees with better access to information, flexible work
options, and more ways to participate.
 Accelerating innovation and growth
 Network aims to speed up the development of new ideas to support new products,
process improvements, or growth.
 Securing networks
 Network aims to help customers connect, secure, and automate to accelerate their digital
agility.
 Connecting everything securely
 Network aims to securely connect everything through innovation, solutions, choice, and
people.
 The Future of Networking:
 The core business is developing, manufacturing, and selling networking hardware,
software, telecommunications equipment, and other high-technology services and
products

Technical goals

 Scalability
 A network's ability to handle increased traffic and adapt to growth
 Can also refer to a network's ability to adapt to downsizing
 Security
 The confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) of a network's data
 Network security is often represented by the CIA triage
 Performance
 How well a network performs
  Meeting strict performance requirements can make it difficult to meet other goals, such as
affordability
 Reliability
 The ability of a network to provide reliable service
 Redundancy is a key factor in a network's reliability
Do research on data gathering tool prepare report and submit during CAT1 assessment
in written format.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Definition.

Network Topology

 Network topology is the logical/physical arrangement of connected devices and

communication channels within a computer network. It defines how data flows between
devices and can be physical (actual layout) or logical (data flow). Different topologies
like bus, star, ring, mesh, tree, and hybrid offer varying performance, reliability, and
scalability characteristics.

Network Topology and its types

Types of Network Topology

 Bus Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Bus Topology

 In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single cable called a “bus.” Data travels
along the bus, and each device receives and processes the data, but only the intended
recipient accepts it. Terminators are placed at both ends of the bus cable to prevent signal
reflection and ensure proper transmission.
Advantages:

 Easy to set up and understand.

 Requires less cabling, making it cost-effective.
 Suitable for small networks with few devices.

Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to cable failures; if the main cable fails, the entire network can be affected.
 Limited scalability; adding more devices can degrade performance.

Star Topology

 In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central device, such as a switch or hub.
Data travels through the central device, which acts as a relay, distributing data to the
appropriate devices. Each device has its own cable connection to the central device.

Advantages:

 Centralized management and control.

 Easy to troubleshoot; failures are isolated to individual devices.
 Can handle high traffic loads without affecting other devices.
Disadvantages:

 Dependency on the central device; if it fails, the entire network may go down.
 Requires more cabling compared to bus topology, which can increase costs.

Ring Topology

 In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed loop, with each device connected to
two neighboring devices. Data travels in one direction around the ring until it reaches its
destination. Each device acts as a repeater, regenerating the signal before passing it to the
next device.

Advantages:

 Simple and easy to implement.

 Data travels in one direction, reducing collisions and improving performance.
 No central device required, reducing points of failure.

Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to cable or device failures; if one device or cable fails, the entire network can
be disrupted.
 Difficult to reconfigure or add new devices without disrupting the entire network.

Mesh Topology

 In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device in the network,
creating multiple paths for data to travel. This redundancy provides high fault tolerance
 and ensures that data can still flow even if one or more connections fail. Mesh networks
can be full mesh (every device connected to every other device) or partial mesh (only
some devices connected to others).

Advantages:

 High redundancy and fault tolerance; if one connection fails, data can still flow through
alternative paths.
 Scalable and able to handle high traffic loads.
 Provides better security and privacy as data travels directly between devices.

Disadvantages:

 Requires a large number of cables and ports, making it complex and expensive to set up.
 Difficult to manage and troubleshoot due to the large number of connections.

Tree Topology

 In a tree topology, devices are arranged hierarchically in multiple levels, resembling a

tree structure. A root node at the top connects to multiple branch nodes, which in turn
connect to leaf nodes at the bottom. Data travels from the root node down through the
branches to the leaf nodes.

Advantages:

 Scalable and provides a clear hierarchy for network management.

 Can accommodate larger networks with multiple subnetworks.
 Failure of devices in lower levels does not affect devices in higher levels.

Disadvantages:

 Dependency on the root node; if it fails, the entire network can be affected.
 Requires careful planning and design to prevent bottlenecks and ensure proper
connectivity.

Hybrid Topology

 A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies to create a customized

network design. For example, a network might use a combination of star and mesh
 topologies, or a combination of ring and bus topologies. Hybrid topologies offer
flexibility and can be tailored to meet specific requirements and optimize performance.

Advantages:

 Provides flexibility to meet specific requirements and optimize performance.

 Offers a balance between cost, scalability, and fault tolerance.
 Can leverage the advantages of different topologies while mitigating their disadvantages.

Disadvantages:

 Complex to design and implement, requiring careful planning and integration.

 Increased cost and potential for conflicts between different topology components.
 Point-to-Point Topology.

is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and receiver. It is the
simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the other one is
the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

NETWORK DESIGN
Definition.

 Computer network design is the process of planning and arranging/organizing the devices
and infrastructure that forms a computer network.
 It can also be expressed as the physical, virtual, and logical arrangement of an IT
network's infrastructure.
 It involves the process of selecting hardware, software, and vendors, and creating
diagrams.
Network design goals.

Definition

computer network design goals are processes meeting an organization's needs for communication
and resource sharing. A well-designed network is essential for efficient data transfer and overall
business operations.

Goals

 Scalability: The network's ability to grow and handle increased traffic.

 Redundancy: The use of redundant connections to ensure network reliability.
 Resilience: The network's ability to work under normal and abnormal circumstances.
 Security: The protection of sensitive data from unauthorized access.
 Performance: The network's ability to meet performance standards for seamless business
functionality.
 Manageability: the use of network segments or masks to ensure that the network is very
easy to manage since it is divided into smaller parts.
 Availability: the use of the right transmission protocols, applications among other
resources to ensure that the network is available whenever it is needed.

Network design methodologies

Definition
Is a process for designing the physical, logical, and virtual arrangement of an IT network. It
involves identifying customer needs, analyzing the current network, and designing the network.

Life cycle in the network design methodology [PPDIOO]

STEP 1 PREPARE

STEP 2 PLAN

STEP3 DESIGN

STEP 4 IMPLEMENT

STEP 5 OPERATE

STEP 6 OPTIMIZE

Step 1, planning: involve process of planning your network design methodology based on the
organizational needs and requirements. In this process you need to do a research and gather
enough information. Data gathering tools like questionnaire, surveys and observation among
others can be used in this process.

Step 2, Preparing: after planning you are required to settle down and prepare the network
design methodology. Based on the first process here you are able to identify the network design
methodology that you will use for example flat model design or hierarchical model design.

Step 3, Design: this process involves designing organization design model. You are required to
undertake prototypes before you proceed on to implementing your prototype. During this time if
there is any organization need that is not met you are required to repeat step 1 and 2.
Step 4, Implement: in this step implement the design model that you have generated through
prototyping.

Step 5, Operate: after implementation the network design model will start operating as
expected.

Step 6, Optimize: this is the final stage and involves processes of optimizing the network design
model in order achieve its maximum productivity.

Key elements to consider.

Identify needs: Understand the customer's requirements, such as organizational goals,

applications, and technical constraints

Analyze the current network: Gather documentation and perform a network audit to
understand the existing network

Design the network: Choose hardware and software, design the IP addressing scheme, and
create a network security plan

Implement and optimize: Follow the PPDIOO methodology, which stands for Prepare, Plan,
Design, Implement, Operate, and Optimize

TYPES OF NETWORK DESIGN METHODOLOGIES

 Hierarchical network design

 A common model that divides a network into layers, or tiers, with each layer performing
a specific function
 Cisco first proposed the hierarchical internetworking model in 1998, which divided
enterprise networks into three layers: core, distribution, and access
 This model can be used for both LAN and WAN design
Core layer.

 The high-speed backbone of the network

 Transports data to the distribution layer

Distribution layer.

 Connects the access layer to the core layer

 Routes traffic from one block to another through the core layer
 Acts as an additional security layer

Access layer.

 tailored for end-user access and can have robust security measures.

Benefits of hierarchical network design

 Improved performance: The core layer's high-speed backbone improves network

performance.
 Enhanced security: The distinct segmentation of network layers allows for more precise
security policies.
 Improved cost management: Hierarchical network design can improve cost
management.
 Faster detection of security breaches: The layered approach can help organizations
detect security breaches faster
 Flat network design
 A flat network design connects all devices to a single switch or hub, reducing the
need for routers and switches.
 This design is intended to lower costs and administration.

How it works
 All devices are on the same broadcast network
 Devices can communicate with each other without intermediaries
 There is no hierarchy or central control
Benefits
 Reduces costs and administration.
 reduces the number of routers and switches.
Comparison to hierarchical network design
 In a hierarchical network design, the network is physically separated into layers
 Hierarchical networks are easier to scale, manage, and troubleshoot
 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Classification of Computer Networks.

a) Based on Transmission Mode.

Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are
three types of transmission modes.

Simplex.

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Among the stations only one can transmit
and the other can only receive.

Half-Duplex.

In half-Duplex mode, the communication is bidirectional. In this both station can sent and
receive but not at the same time.

Full-Duplex.

In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

b) Based on Time in Transmission Type.

• Synchronous Transmission. In synchronous Transmission both the sender and the receiver
use the same time cycle forth transmission. We send bits one after another without start/stop bits
or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits. Bit stream is delivered with a
fixed delay and given error rate. Each bit reaches the destination with the same time delay after
leaving the source.

•Asynchronous Transmission. In Asynchronous Transmission we send one start bit at the

beginning and one stop bit at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte. Bit
stream is divided into packets. Packets are received with varying delays, so packets can arrive
out of order. Some packets are not received correctly.

c) Based on Authentication.
• Peer to Peer Connection. In peer-to-peer networks, there are no dedicated servers. All the
computers are equal and, therefore, are termed as peers. Normally, each computer functions as
both a client and a server. No one can control the other computers.

• Server Based Connection. Most networks have a dedicated server. A dedicated server is a
computer on a network which functions as a server, and cannot be used as a client or a
workstation. A dedicated server is optimized to service requests from network clients. A server
can control the clients for its services.

d) Based on Geographical location.

• Local Area Networks (LAN). LAN is a small high-speed network. In LAN few numbers of
systems are interconnected with networking device to create network. As the distance increases
between the nodes or system it speeds decreases. So, it is limed to few meters only. Networks
which cover close geographical area. LAN used to link the devices in a single office, building or
campus. It provides high speeds over short distance. Systems are connecting directly to Network.
The LAN is owned by private people.

• Wide Area Network (WAN). WAN is collection of networks (or LAN). This network speed is
less than the LAN network speed. WAN network connect systems indirectly. WAN spread over
the world may be spread over more than one city country or continent. Systems in this network
are connected indirectly. Generally WAN network is slower speed than LAN’s. The WAN
network is owned or operated by network providers. If it is owned by a single owner then it is
called Enterprise network. Often these types have combination of more than one topology.

• Metropolitan Area Network. Metropolitan area network is an extension of local area network
to spread over the city. It may be a single network or a network in which more than one local
area network can share their resources.

• Personal Area Network. It is a type of network that connect electronic devices that are closer
to the user for example; wireless mouse, headphones, WIFI among others.

e) Based on Reliability.
• Connection-oriented. This type of communication establishes a session connection before data
can be sent. This method is often called a "reliable" network service. It can guarantee that data
will arrive in the same order.

• Connection less. This type of communication does not require a session connection between
sender and receiver for data transfer. The sender simply starts sending packets to the destination.
A connectionless network provides minimal services.

ASSIGNMENT TO BE PRESENTED BY TRAINEES IN GROUPS

Apart from the types of networks discussed above. Research in groups any other types of
networks.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Definition.

It is defined as communication channel that transmit data or information from the source
(transmitter) to receiver. Basically, it is the physical/none-physical path or link between the
networking nodes in which data is being transmitted through in form of electromagnetic signals.

physical transmission medium(Guided medium)

PC 1 PC 2

wireless medium (Unguided medium)

PC 1 PC 2
 CLASSIFICATION

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
GUIDED UNGUIDED
 Fiber optic cable.  Radio waves
 Twisted pair.  Microwaves
 Shield twisted pair. (STP)  Infrared radiations
 Unshielded twisted pair. (UTP)  Light waves
 Coaxial Cable

Guided Transmission media.

 It is the type of transmission media where there is existence of physical link for example
cables between the nodes (devices). It is also known as wired bounded transmission
medium.
 It consists of wires through which data/information is transferred through.

Types of guided transmission medium

a) Twisted pair cable

 It consists of insulated conductors which are to improve electromagnetic compatibility.
However, they commonly used transmission medium.
 They are subdivided into two main categories.
 Unshielded twisted. Consist of two copper wires coiled together. They affordable and
very cheap to acquire.
Advantages of the UTP:

i. It is a less costly and less expensive unshielded wire from another network medium.
ii. It is designed to reduce crosstalk, RFI, and EMI.
iii. Its size is small, and hence the installation of the UTP is easier.
iv. It is mostly useful for short-distance network connections like home and small
organizations.
v. It is the most commonly used networking cable in the market. It is considered as faster
copper-based data transmission cable.
vi. It is suitable for transmitting both data and voice via UTP cable.

Disadvantage of the UTP:

i. It can only be used in length segment up to 100 meters.

ii. It has limited bandwidth for transmitting the data.
iii. It does not provide a secure connection for data transmitting over the network.
 Shielded twisted. It consists of aluminum foiled shield to block external interference.

Features of Shielded twisted pair cable:

 Frequency: It has higher frequency data transmission as compared to the UTP.

 Thickness: It is a thick shielded twisted pair cable as it contains the wrapping of plastic
material to the copper conductor.
 Grounding practices: The uses of shielded twisted pair cable are underground for a
longer distance.
  Installation of the shielded wire is more difficult than the UTP (Unshielded twisted pair)
cable.

Advantages of the STP cable

i. It has lower noise and attenuation than UTP.

ii. It is shielded with a plastic cover that protects the STP cable from a harsh environment
and increases the data transmission rate.
iii. It reduces the chances of crosstalk and protects from external interference.
iv. A modular connection helps to terminate the connection of the STP cable.

Disadvantages of the STP cable

i. It is the most expensive wire from UTP cables.

ii. It requires more maintenance to reduce the loss of data signals.
iii. There is no segment improvement in length despite its thick and heavier connection.
iv. It is used only as a grounded wire

NB. The twisted pair when get terminated becomes an ethernet cable. Therefore, let us move
on and discuss ethernet cable termination.

ETHERNET CABLE TERMINATION

TOOLS NEEDED TO TERMINATE A CAT5/CAT6 CABLE.

a) Cable tester: An electronic device that checks for continuity in an Ethernet cable. It is an
essential tool that can be used to troubleshoot and fix a faulty cable. Not only will the
cable tester tell you if a cable is wired incorrectly, it will also indicate what you need to
do to fix it.
b) RJ45 Connector: RJ45 modular connectors with 8-pin jacks that make a close
connection with both ends of the Ethernet cable. The RJ45 connector is used almost
universally on twisted pair cables and is thus the most common type you’ll find in the
wild.

c) RJ45 Connector Boot: The connector boot provides strain relief and prevents cable
fraying.

d) Side Cutter or Electrical Scissors: The cutting blade on the crimping tool is not always
reliable. Getting yourself a side cutter or electrical scissors to trim your Ethernet cable
will come in handy.

e) RJ45 Crimping Tool: The tool used to crimp the RJ45 modular connector onto the
cable.
 f) Mini-Cable Stripper: This mini tool will make sure your Ethernet cable is carefully
stripped without cutting through the twisted wires.

STEPS TO FOLLOW TO TERMINATE ETHERNET CABLES.

 Before we dive into the termination process, it is important to note that there are two
standard color codes used in wiring RJ45 eight-position modular connectors, namely
T-568A and T-568B.
 The only physical difference between the T568A and T568B wiring is that the positions
of the orange and green pairs in the wire configuration are interchanged.
Both T568A and T568B are straight-through, and should not be used interchangeably. We will be
using T568B in this article because it is the most widely used wiring schematic, and it is popular
among networking professionals. You will rarely have to work with a T568A connector.

STEPS TO FOLLOW.

1. Measure the required distance so that you know the cable length needed.
2. First, slide the connector boot onto your cable and push it down so you can still handle
the end of the cable without it being a distraction.

3. Use a ruler to measure 5cm on the LAN cable. Then use the first hole on your mini-cable
stripper to gently peel off the outer PVC jacket.
4. Carefully separate and cut off the spline and ripcord without damaging the twisted wires.

5. Untwist the pairs and straighten them by holding each wire with your thumb and index
finger.

6. Arrange the wires by using the T568B color code.

7. Use your crimping tool or side cutter or electrical scissors to reduce the length of the
wires if they are too long, and make sure they all have equal length:

Alternatively, RJ45 crimping tool can be used here.

8. Insert and push the wires into the RJ45 modular connector, making sure the connector
locking clip is facing down, and away from you.
9. Verify that all the wires are firm, and crimp with your RJ45 crimping tool by squeezing
hard.

10. At the other end of the cable, insert the RJ45 connector boot and repeat the above step 1-
8:
11. Finally, slide the boot onto the modular connector.

Use the LAN cable tester to test the Ethernet cable for continuity. Insert one end of the
cable to the transmitter and the other to the receiver. The LED indicators should light up
from 1 to 8:
 Types of ethernet cable termination

 Straight through cable.

 It is a type of termination where the color code of the same kind is implemented on both
ends i.e. T568A on both ends or T568B on both ends. Note that T568B is the most
commonly used.
 This type of cable is commonly being used to connect networking devices which are not
similar for example for one connect a computer and a switch, he/she is required to
terminate T568B on both ends.
 Crossover cable
 It a type of cable where the color code of different kinds are implemented on both ends
for example T568A on one end and T568B on the other end.
 It is a cable that is used make a connection between similar devices for example from one
computer to another computer. However, it can be used to transfer files or access
resources between two connected by undertaking configurations that are required.
 Rollover cable
 A rollover cable is a type of null-modem cable that connects a computer to a router's
console port. It's used to make programming changes to the device.

How it works
  The order of the wires on a rollover cable is reversed from one end to the other. For
example, pin 1 on one end connects to pin 8 on the other end.
 Rollover cables are not intended to carry data, but instead create an interface with the
device.

How it's used

 Rollover cables are used to connect a computer to a router's console port for
configuration.
 They are often used to console into a Cisco router or switch.

What it looks like

 Rollover cables are usually flat and light blue in color to distinguish them from other
types of network cabling.

Other names

 Rollover cables are also sometimes called Yost cables.

Coaxial cable

It is a guided transmission media that contains insulation layer that transmit data/information.
However, conductors are separately insulated.

Coaxial cables have four main parts:

  Inner conductor
 The central wire that carries the electrical signal
 Dielectric insulator
 The layer that surrounds the inner conductor and prevents the signal from escaping
 Metallic shield
 The outer layer that protects against external electromagnetic interference
 Outer insulating layer
 The final layer that protects the cable from physical damage and environmental factors

How do these parts work?

 The inner conductor carries the data.

 The dielectric insulator separates the core conductor from the outer layers and provides
some insulation.
  The metallic shield protects the core from electrical noise and acts as a ground.
 The outer insulating layer protects the cable from environmental factors and physical
damage.
 Coaxial cables are used to transmit radio frequency (RF) signals. They are able to carry
many channels simultaneously, which eliminates the need for many separate wires.
Types of coaxial cables

Hardline Coaxial. It is used for high signal strength transmission that requires long distance
travel.

RG6 coaxial. This cable is mainly used for satellite transmission.

Triaxial Coaxial. It is an electrical coaxial cable.

Fiber optic Cable

 A fiber optic cable is a cable that transmits data over long distances using light pulses.
They are made of glass fibers inside a protective casing and are used for
telecommunications and data networking.

Parts and functions

Core

 The core is the inner part of the fiber optic cable that carries light.
 The core is made of glass or plastic and has the highest refractive index in the cable.

Cladding

 The cladding is the layer that surrounds the core and has a lower refractive index than the
core.
 The cladding's lower refractive index causes light to reflect within the core, allowing it to
travel through the fiber.

Buffer

 The buffer is a moisture-based substance that coats the cladding.

 The buffer provides flexibility to the core and cladding.
Jacket

 The jacket is the outer surface of the fiber optic cable that protects the inner layers.

How it works

 Light pulses
 Fiber optic cables use light pulses from lasers or light-emitting diodes to transmit data.
 Core
 The core of the fiber is the physical medium that carries the light signals.
 Cladding
 The cladding is a material that surrounds the core and reflects light back into it.

Total internal reflection

 The fiber optic cable works on the principle of total internal reflection.

Types of fiber optic cables

 Single-mode: This type of fiber has a small core and can transmit data over long
distances.
 Multimode: This type of fiber can carry multiple light rays at the same time.

Uses

 Fiber optic cables are used for internet, cable television, and telephone systems.
 They can carry large amounts of data, such as hundreds of phone calls, over long
distances

UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA.

 also known as wireless media, are methods for transmitting data without physical
conductors or cables. They use electromagnetic waves to send information over the air.

Examples
  Radio waves:
 Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned.
 AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

 Microwaves:
 It is a line-of-sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna.
 Micro waves are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television
distribution.
 Infrared:
 Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. It is used in TV remotes,
wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
 Satellite communication:

Advantages

i. flexible
ii. mobile communication.

Disadvantages

i. prone to interference
ii. limited bandwidth
iii. security risks.

How it works

Unguided transmission media transmit electromagnetic waves without a physical medium to

direct them.