International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)

Volume 9 Issue 3, May-Jun 2025 Available Online: [Link] e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470

Environmental Racism
Paul A. Adekunte1, Matthew N. O. Sadiku2, Janet O. Sadiku3
1
International Institute of Professional Security, Lagos, Nigeria
2
Roy G. Perry College of Engineering, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, USA
3
Juliana King University, Houston, TX, USA

ABSTRACT How to cite this paper: Paul A.

Environmental racism is the disproportionate impact of Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet
environmental policies, laws, and practices on certain racial or ethnic O. Sadiku "Environmental Racism"
groups (people of color and marginalized communities), often Published in
International Journal
resulting in unequal access to natural resources, exposure to
of Trend in
pollution, and denial of environmental justice. This encompasses Scientific Research
policies, practices, or directives that result in the placement of toxic and Development
waste sites, polluting industries, and other environmentally hazardous (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-
activities in areas predominantly inhabited by racial or ethnic 6470, Volume-9 | IJTSRD97091
minorities. This issue is evident worldwide, affecting various Issue-3, June 2025,
communities in different ways. This paper examines the various pp.1015-1022, URL:
issues surrounding environmental racism, the causes, effects and the [Link]/papers/[Link]
possible solutions to enhance healthy environment to man.
Copyright © 2025 by author (s) and
KEYWORDS: Environmental racism, environment, pollution, natural International Journal of Trend in
resources, environmental policies, environmental laws, racial or Scientific Research and Development
ethnic groups, environmental justice Journal. This is an
Open Access article
distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)
([Link]

INTRODUCTION
Environmental racism (also called ecological racism Racial Justice (1987) [5], which found that race was
or ecological apartheid) refers to the disproportionate the most significant factor in the location of
impact of environmental hazards on people of color hazardous waste sites in the United States. This
or marginalized communities, as shown in Figure 1. It finding brought national attention to the pattern of
is a form of racism leading to negative environmental environmental injustices affecting minority
outcomes such as landfills, incinerators, and communities, especially Black, Indigenous, and
hazardous waste disposal disproportionately Latino populations [6]. Environmental racism
impacting communities of color, violating substantive manifests in various ways, which include:
equality [1-4]. Internationally, it is also associated
 The placement of polluting industries and
with “extractivism” – which places the environmental
landfills in communities of color [7].
burdens of mining, oil extraction, and industrial
agriculture upon indigenous peoples and poorer  Inadequate access to clean water and sanitation in
nations largely inhabited by people of color [1]. This indigenous poor rural areas [8].
term highlights the systemic inequities in the  Higher exposure to air pollution and climate
distribution of environmental benefits (such as clean change risks for marginalized urban populations
air and water) and burdens (such as toxic waste, [9].
pollution, and climate-related disasters). These
inequities are often the result of historical and Environmental justice movements have emerged in
structural inequalities linked to race, class, and response, demanding equitable treatment and
political power. meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of
race or income, in environmental decision-making
The concept of environmental racism emerged processes. These grassroots movement, which are
prominently in the 1980s, particularly following a often led by the affected communities themselves,
study by the United Church of Christ Commission for aim to combat the structural inequalities embedded in

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environmental policies and practices, as shown in characteristics of surrounding communities, as
Figures 2 and 3. shown in Figure 6.
Understanding environmental racism is crucial not  Environmental Justice Movement: The movement
only for promoting social and ecological justice but gained momentum in the 1990s, with grassroots
also for addressing the root causes of broader organizations and campaigns bringing attention to
environmental degradation and climate injustice environmental racism in policy-making and
globally, as shown in Figures 4 and 5. advocating for greater inclusion of non-white
voices in decision-making processes – with
This concept highlights the intersection of reference to the work of Robert Bullards on
environmental issues and social justice, emphasizing environmental justice.
that environmental policies and practices often
perpetrate racial and economic disparities.  Some Global Examples:
 Export of Hazardous Waste: A major concern has
HISTORY been the export of hazardous waste from
The timeline for environmental justice advocacy developed countries to developing nations, with
began around the time of the civil rights movement of examples including the dumping of electronic
the 1960s. For example, unfair treatment and waste in China and toxic waste in African
environmental justice were key messages in the countries.
Memphis sanitation workers’ strike. Environmental  Global Agreements: International agreements
justice came to national consciousness in 1982, when such as the Basel Convention and the Bamako
a Black community in North Carolina was designated Convention have been adopted to regulate the
as a site for waste known to have carcinogenic transboundary movement of hazardous waste and
compounds. The same year, civil rights leader protect vulnerable communities [11].
Benjamin Chavis coined the term “environmental  The Niger Delta region in Nigeria where oil
racism,” emphasizing the realities of environmental extraction activities have led to severe
hazards and how they disproportionately affect environmental degradation and human rights
communities of color [10]. abuses, as shown in Figure 7.
The history of environmental racism is long and The six examples of environmental racism in
complex spanning centuries. The term America are [12]:
“environmental racism” was coined in 1982 by 1. Flint, Michigan
Benjamin Chavis, previous executive director of the 2. Warren County, North Carolina
United Church of Christ (UCC) Commission for 3. Detroit, Michigan
Racial Justice, in response to the dumping of 4. Cancer Alley, Louisiana
hazardous polychlorinated biphenyl waste in Warren 5. Belle Glade, Florida
County PCB Landfill, North Carolina (his home 6. Bronx, New York
town).
Impact and Legacy:
Early Beginnings:  Health Disparities: This has led to significant
 The history of environmental racism in North health disparities in communities of color,
America dates back around 500 years to the including increased rates of asthma, cancer, and
arrival of the Europeans and their displacement of other diseases.
Native Americans from their land.  Economic Inequality: It has also perpetuated
 The environmental justice movement gained economic inequality, with communities of color
momentum in the 1970s and 1980s, influenced by often facing limited economic opportunities and
the American Civil Rights Movement [11]. investment due to environmental degradation
 Some Key Events and Milestones: [10].
 Warren County PCB Landfill (1982): The THEORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM
dumping of hazardous waste in Warren County, Environmental racism occurs because of social,
North Carolina, sparked widespread protests and economic, and political factors. For example, unfair
led to the coining of the term “environmental practices like redlining, where certain neighborhoods
racism.” or areas are marked on a map, have harmed
 United Church of Christ Study (1987): A study by communities of color, forcing individuals and
the UCC Commission for Racial Justice found a families to live in areas with few resources and more
strong correlation between the location of toxic environmental dangers [10].
waste facilities and racial and socioeconomic

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Causes of environmental racism: Some the factors example is that of Camp Lejeune, a military base
which lead to environmental racism include: in North Carolina, where between August 1953
 Lack of affordable land and December 1987, Camp Lejeune water supply
 Lack of political power to fight corporations was contaminated with carcinogenic chemical.
 Lack of representation These chemicals are known to cause:
 Lack of accountability  Parkinson’s disease
 Lack of mobility, and  Cancers of the bladder, esophagus, kidneys, and
 Poverty. liver.
Cheap land is sought by corporations and  Multiple myeloma
governmental bodies. Due to this, communities that  Female infertility
cannot effectively resist these corporations and  Miscarriage
governmental bodies and cannot access political  Birth defects, such as cleft palettes
power are unable to negotiate just costs [13]. The  Neurobehavioral complications.
communities with minimized socio-economic Higher rates of air pollution: High air pollution
mobility cannot relocate. In addition, the lack of contributes to many diseases, as well as deaths from
financial contributions also reduces the communities’ lung cancer, respiratory infections, strokes,
ability to act both physically and politically. pulmonary disease, and others as reported by the
Chavis defined environmental racism in five World Health Organization (WHO).
categories: Lead Poisoning: Children of color are more likely to
1. Racial discrimination in defining environmental suffer from lead poisoning. As per the Public Health
policies. Post, the blood vessels of lead in non-Hispanic Black
2. Discriminatory enforcement of regulations and children are almost double those found in white
laws. children. Lead poisoning can cause many health
3. Deliberate targeting of minority communities as conditions and medical problems, including anemia,
hazardous waste dumping sites. weakness, kidney damage, and brain damage,
4. Official sanctioning of dangerous pollutants in according to the Centers for Disease Control and
minority communities, and the Prevention (CDC). Extremely high lead exposure can
5. Exclusion of people of color from environmental cause death.
leadership positions [4].
Exposure to Hazardous Waste and Industrial
The minority communities most often do not have the Facilities: According to the Center for Effective
financial means, resources, and political Government, more Blacks, Latinos, and people in
representation to oppose hazardous waste sites [14, poverty live close to industrial facilities with toxic
15]. Known as locally unwanted land uses (LULUs), chemicals. Communities close to hazardous facilities
these facilities that benefit the whole community are likely to suffer the greatest impact in the event of
often reduce the quality of life of minority an explosion or leak of toxic substances. People of
communities [16]. However, these neighborhoods color effectively live closer to “ticking time bombs,”
also may depend on the economic opportunities the such as toxic waste processing plants and industrial
site brings and are reluctant to oppose its location at facilities than other population groups. There are
the risk of their health [4]. other cases like natural disasters e. g. hurricanes and
Some examples of environmental racism: Some of the climate change that can affect minority communities
examples of racial inequality due to environmental disproportionately – highlighting the importance of
hazards are: environmental justice [17, 18].
CHALLENGES FACING ENVIRONMENTAL
• Water contamination – This according to
RACISM
Environmental Health, water contamination
Some of the challenges facing environmental racism
disproportionately affects low-income
include [19]:
communities of color, as some minority
1. Disproportionate Exposure: Marginalized
communities lack piped water and rely on wells
communities face higher levels of pollution and
or shared water systems that may supply them
environmental hazards, such as toxic waste
with contaminated water. This leads to illnesses
facilities and contaminated water.
from waterborne diseases to cancer, as well as
others. Water issues are at the forefront of issues 2. Health disparities: Communities of color
of injustice, as evidenced by Flint, Michigan – an experience increased rates of respiratory illnesses,
environmental racism case study. Another cancer, and developmental issues due to

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proximity to industrial sites and waste facilities, e. those in the 14 US states, to advise policymakers
g. where Black children are more exposed to lead on the impact of policies on minority populations.
than children of other racial groups, contributing
5. Litigation and Civil Rights Law: This is the use of
to higher body burdens of toxins.
civil rights law to challenge discriminatory
3. Lack of Representation: People of color are often environmental decisions and policies, and
excluded from environmental leadership positions enforcing federal environmental statutes like the
and decision-making processes, perpetuating Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act.
environmental injustices.
6. Inclusive Decision-making: This ensures diverse
4. Systemic and Institutionalized: In this case, representation in environmental decision-making
environmental racism is embedded in policies, processes to create more equitable solutions.
laws and practices that concentrate environmental
7. Education and Awareness: This has to do with
harms along racial lines. Discriminatory zoning,
educating the public about environmental racism
inadequate regulatory enforcement, and unequal
and its impacts on marginalized communities, and
infrastructure investment contribute to this issue.
promoting communal practices that address these
5. Intersectional Vulnerabilities: Environmental injustices.
racism intersects with socioeconomic factors,
8. Community Monitoring: This is involving local
such as poverty and housing discrimination, to
stakeholders in systematically observing and
create unique vulnerabilities in marginalized
assessing environmental conditions to support
communities.
sustainability initiatives.
6. Global Impact: Environmental racism affects not
9. Participatory Design: Community members are to
only local communities but also has global
be involved in the design and testing of
implications, such as the export of hazardous
environmental apps and platforms to ensure
waste to developing nations and the
usability and relevance.
environmental burdens of extractivism on
indigenous peoples. 10. Contestability Mechanisms: This entails
establishing clear pathways for communities to
SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGES TO
challenge algorithmic decisions they deem unfair
ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM
or inaccurate.
Finding solutions to environmental racism requires a
multi-faceted approach that involves policy reforms, 11. Investing in Infrastructure: investing in affordable
community engagement, and technological broadband infrastructure and digital literacy
innovations. Some of the feasible solutions include training in underserved areas to support
[4, 20, 21]: community engagement.
1. Policy Reforms: This is by strengthening CONCLUSION
environmental regulations and enforcing laws to Environmental racism is a pervasive issue that
prevent discriminatory practices. For example, the disproportionately affects marginalized communities,
Justice40 Initiative aims to direct 40% of federal particularly communities of color, with environmental
environmental program benefits to marginalized hazards, pollution, and lack of access to natural
communities. resources. The history of environmental racism is
complex and deeply rooted in systemic and
2. Community Engagement: Supporting grassroots
institutionalized practices that perpetuate inequality
activism and community-led initiatives to raise
and discrimination. There is the urgent need to work
awareness and push for change. This would
together to create a more just and equitable society
involve participatory design and auditing of
that prioritizes the health, well-being, and
environmental algorithms to ensure they align
environmental quality of all communities, regardless
with community values.
of race or socioeconomic status. More information
3. Technological Innovations: Need to leverage about environmental racism can be found in the books
technology to identify hotspots, gather in [22-24], and also from the following related
community data, and model the effects of policies journals:
i. e. the use of sensors, GIS mapping, and citizen  Journal of Public Health Policy and Planning
science initiatives to empower communities.  New England Journal of Medicine
4. Environmental Justice Offices: Establishing  Environmental Health Perspectives
offices focused on environmental justice, like  Frontiers in Epidemiology

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Figure 1. Environmental racism

Source:[Link]
kyErUdyFtg:1749565185574&q=images+on+environmental+racism+by+wikipedia&udm=2&fbs=AIIjpHx
U7SXXniUZfeShr2fp4giZ1Y6MJ25_tmWITc7uy4KIejIPgyyGM1YJJNzu26A7UQjdzW_3QjQoz5M3kGx
MbPItxGfm59wttyL3pmrgM03Xbwv9VB3RKvniElRiYhWGQ9rELH1qGyhROZuVJ5kG_xWVwRgiFu_r
a6lCkyw3EIRaisLfSQbmocMWUE3uRXJQ9bd8IrMWqoY3vmYZoNKsiRzY0UNw&sa=X&ved=2ahUKE
wiA7ZabhueNAxVqxzgGHSCOKcsQtKgLegQIEhAB&biw=1036&bih=539&dpr=1#vhid=QbsLLyefxjiq
MM&vssid=mosaic

Figure 2. Climate justice

Source: [Link]

Figure 3. Environmental justice

Source:[Link]
0Okv0lF8JUNg:1749565563549&q=images+on+environmental+racism+by+wikipedia&udm=2&fbs=AIIjp
HxU7SXXniUZfeShr2fp4giZ1Y6MJ25_tmWITc7uy4KIejIPgyyGM1YJJNzu26A7UQjdzW_3QjQoz5M3k
GxMbPItxGfm59wttyL3pmrgM03Xbwv9VB3RKvniElRiYhWGQ9rELH1qGyhROZuVJ5kG_xWVwRgiF
u_ra6lCkyw3EIRaisLfSQbmocMWUE3uRXJQ9bd8IrMWqoY3vmYZoNKsiRzY0UNw&sa=X&ved=2ahU
KEwiUyrTPheNAxXp1AIHHSqgBtIQtKgLegQIFBAB&biw=1036&bih=539&dpr=1#vhid=8Ggy8pLBKQ
p4UM&vssid=mosaic

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Figure 4. Climate change

Source:[Link]
0Okv0lF8JUNg:1749565563549&q=images+on+environmental+racism+by+wikipedia&udm=2&fbs=AIIjp
HxU7SXXniUZfeShr2fp4giZ1Y6MJ25_tmWITc7uy4KIejIPgyyGM1YJJNzu26A7UQjdzW_3QjQoz5M3k
GxMbPItxGfm59wttyL3pmrgM03Xbwv9VB3RKvniElRiYhWGQ9rELH1qGyhROZuVJ5kG_xWVwRgiF
u_ra6lCkyw3EIRaisLfSQbmocMWUE3uRXJQ9bd8IrMWqoY3vmYZoNKsiRzY0UNw&sa=X&ved=2ahU
KEwiUyrTPheNAxXp1AIHHSqgBtIQtKgLegQIFBAB&biw=1036&bih=539&dpr=1#vhid=JW1H7VlSnM
-mHM&vssid=mosaic

Figure 5. ExxonMobil climate change denial

Source:[Link]
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HxU7SXXniUZfeShr2fp4giZ1Y6MJ25_tmWITc7uy4KIejIPgyyGM1YJJNzu26A7UQjdzW_3QjQoz5M3k
GxMbPItxGfm59wttyL3pmrgM03Xbwv9VB3RKvniElRiYhWGQ9rELH1qGyhROZuVJ5kG_xWVwRgiF
u_ra6lCkyw3EIRaisLfSQbmocMWUE3uRXJQ9bd8IrMWqoY3vmYZoNKsiRzY0UNw&sa=X&ved=2ahU
KEwiUyrTPh-eNAxXp1AIHHSqgBtIQtKgLegQIFBAB&biw=1036&bih=539&dpr=1#vhid=S0l-
LkD2oITUFM&vssid=mosaic

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Figure 6. Race (human categorization)

Source:[Link]
0Okv0lF8JUNg:1749565563549&q=images+on+environmental+racism+by+wikipedia&udm=2&fbs=AIIjp
HxU7SXXniUZfeShr2fp4giZ1Y6MJ25_tmWITc7uy4KIejIPgyyGM1YJJNzu26A7UQjdzW_3QjQoz5M3k
GxMbPItxGfm59wttyL3pmrgM03Xbwv9VB3RKvniElRiYhWGQ9rELH1qGyhROZuVJ5kG_xWVwRgiF
u_ra6lCkyw3EIRaisLfSQbmocMWUE3uRXJQ9bd8IrMWqoY3vmYZoNKsiRzY0UNw&sa=X&ved=2ahU
KEwiUyrTPheNAxXp1AIHHSqgBtIQtKgLegQIFBAB&biw=1036&bih=539&dpr=1#vhid=kBBFtCGGYr-
XnM&vssid=mosaic

Figure 7. Exploitation of natural resources

Source:[Link]
0Okv0lF8JUNg:1749565563549&q=images+on+environmental+racism+by+wikipedia&udm=2&fbs=AIIjp
HxU7SXXniUZfeShr2fp4giZ1Y6MJ25_tmWITc7uy4KIejIPgyyGM1YJJNzu26A7UQjdzW_3QjQoz5M3k
GxMbPItxGfm59wttyL3pmrgM03Xbwv9VB3RKvniElRiYhWGQ9rELH1qGyhROZuVJ5kG_xWVwRgiF
u_ra6lCkyw3EIRaisLfSQbmocMWUE3uRXJQ9bd8IrMWqoY3vmYZoNKsiRzY0UNw&sa=X&ved=2ahU
KEwiUyrTPheNAxXp1AIHHSqgBtIQtKgLegQIFBAB&biw=1036&bih=539&dpr=1#vhid=Fk9HhZaZ8fM
3oM&vssid=mosaic

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