.
Energy Band Theory
• Valence Band: Outermost electron band where electrons are bound to atoms.
• Conduction Band: Higher energy band where electrons move freely, enabling
conductivity.
• Band Gap: Energy difference between valence and conduction bands.
o Insulators: Large band gap (>5 eV).
o Semiconductors: Small band gap (~1 eV).
o Conductors: No/negligible band gap.
2. Semiconductor Materials
• Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
• Properties: Conductivity between conductors and insulators, controllable via
doping.
3. Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Pure semiconductors (undoped).
• Electron-hole pairs generated by thermal energy.
• Conductivity depends on temperature.
4. Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Doped with impurities to enhance conductivity.
o N-type: Doped with pentavalent atoms (e.g., Phosphorus), increases free
electrons.
o P-type: Doped with trivalent atoms (e.g., Boron), increases holes.
5. Majority & Minority Charge Carriers
• N-type: Electrons (majority), holes (minority).
• P-type: Holes (majority), electrons (minority).
6. The PN Junction
• Formed by joining P-type and N-type materials.
• Depletion Region: Barrier forms, preventing further diffusion.
• Barrier Potential: Voltage (~0.7V Si, ~0.3V Ge) preventing current flow.
7. Conventional Diodes
• Function: Allows current in one direction (forward bias), blocks in reverse.
• Forward Bias: P (+), N (-) – conducts when voltage > barrier potential.
• Reverse Bias: P (-), N (+) – minimal current (leakage current).
8. Diode Operating Characteristics
• I-V Curve: Non-linear, sharp turn-on at threshold voltage.
• Breakdown Voltage: High reverse voltage causes avalanche breakdown.
9. Diode Applications
• Rectification (AC → DC).
• Clipping & Clamping circuits.
• Switching circuits.
10. Zener Diode
• Operates in reverse breakdown (Zener effect).
• Used for voltage regulation.
11. Zener Breakdown Voltage
• Fixed voltage where reverse current increases sharply.
12. Zener Diode Applications
• Voltage regulators.
• Overvoltage protection.
13. BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)
• Construction: Three layers (NPN or PNP).
• Terminals: Emitter (E), Base (B), Collector (C).
14. BJT Biasing
• Active Mode (Amplification):
o NPN: B-E forward, B-C reverse.
o PNP: Opposite polarities.
15. BJT Current Flow
• NPN: Electrons flow E → B → C.
• PNP: Holes flow E → B → C.
16. Transistor Operating Characteristics
• Current Gain (β): IC=βIBIC=βIB.
• Modes: Active, Cutoff, Saturation, Reverse-Active.
17. BJT Gain & Configurations
• Common Emitter: High voltage & current gain.
• Common Base: High voltage gain, low current gain.
• Common Collector (Emitter Follower): High current gain, low voltage gain.
18. BJT Applications
• Amplifiers.
• Switching circuits.
• Oscillators.
19. Thyristor (SCR - Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
• Structure: 4-layer (PNPN), 3 terminals (Anode, Cathode, Gate).
• Function: Acts as a controlled switch.
20. Thyristor Operating Modes
• Forward Blocking: Off state (no gate trigger).
• Forward Conduction: Triggered by gate pulse.
• Reverse Blocking: Blocks reverse current.
21. SCR Ratings
• Breakover Voltage, Holding Current, Gate Trigger Voltage.
22. SCR Applications
• Power control (motor speed, dimmers).
• Protection circuits.
23. Photo-Sensitive Devices
• Light Detectors:
o Photodiodes: Convert light to current (reverse bias).
o Phototransistors: Light-controlled BJT.
• Light Sources:
o LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes): Emit light when forward-biased.
o Laser Diodes: Coherent light emission.