CLIMATE SECTION

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 SCCS1624 - INTRODUCTION TO SOIL, CROP AND CLIMATE SCIENCES

AGROMETEOROLOGY
Despite all our technological advances, the weather still plays a dominant role in agriculture

This section of the module will concentrate Agricultural meteorology (or Agrometeorology in short) ‐
a branch of applied meteorology which investigates the relationship between weather/climatic
conditions and agricultural production. In this introductory module we will look at:
1) Weather and climate basics: terminology and scope of Agrometeorology;
2) Climatic elements, their importance in agricultural production and their
measurement;
3) Climate controls and climate classification; and
4) Climate regions of southern Africa.

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 PART 1: WEATHER AND CLIMATE BASICS

1.1 DEFINING WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Too often the terms “weather” and “climate” are used interchangeably as if
there’s no difference between them. This section aims to highlight the
differences between these two concepts.

WEATHER
 The state or condition of the atmosphere at a given time and place
 It is always changing – either quickly or slowly
 The short-term variations of different conditions of the atmosphere
 Measured and observed in terms of the climatic elements, e.g.:
 air temperature
 air pressure
 humidity
 cloud type and cloud cover
 precipitation
 visibility
 wind speed and direction
 solar radiation
 evaporation

METEOROLOGY
 Scientific study of atmospheric processes and phenomena and their time-
dependant behaviour
 Derived from the Greek words “meteoros” meaning lofty or high and
“logos” meaning discourse
 Has to do with the actual weather conditions at a given time

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We distinguish between:
 Physical meteorology:
Concerned with atmospheric structure and composition, the transfer of
electromagnetic radiation etc., the physical processes involved in the
formation of clouds and precipitation and a wide range of problems that
are closely related to the disciplines of physics and chemistry.
 Dynamic meteorology:
Concerned with atmospheric motions and their evolution based upon the
principles of fluid dynamics.

In order of decreasing scale of influence:

 Synoptic meteorology:
Large-scale or weather map scale meteorology
Horizontal distance: 100’s to 1000’s km
Time scale: days to weeks
E.g. mid-latitude cyclone and associated cold front
 Mesometeorology:
Medium-scale meteorology
Horizontal distance: few km to 100 km
Time scale: few minutes to few hours
E.g. thunderstorm
 Micrometeorology:
Small-scale meteorology
Vertical depth: 100 m to 2 km (near the earth’s surface)
Horizontal distance: 1cm to 1 km
Time scale: 1 s to a few minutes
E.g. small turbulent eddies

And of special importance to us:

 Agrometeorology:
Agricultural meteorology is a branch of applied meteorology which
investigates the relationship between weather/climatic conditions and
agricultural production, a science concerned with the application of

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 meteorology to the measurement and analysis of the physical environment
in agricultural systems (Murthy, 2002).

Benefits of studying Agricultural meteorology (Murthy, 2002):

 Planning crop systems/patterns
 Selection of sowing dates for optimum crop yields
 Cost effective ploughing, harrowing, weeding, etc.
 Reducing losses of applied chemicals and fertilizers
 Judicious irrigation to crops
 Efficient harvesting of all crops
 Reducing or eliminating outbreak of pests and diseases
 Efficient management of soils which are formed out of weather action
 Managing weather abnormalities like tropical cyclones, heavy rainfall,
floods, drought, etc. which can be achieved by:
o Protection – when rain is forecast avoid irrigation, but when frost
is forecast apply irrigation
o Avoidance – avoid fertilizer and chemical sprays when rain is
forecast
o Mitigation – use shelter belts against cold and heat waves
 Effective environmental protection
o Avoiding or minimising losses due to forest fires

CLIMATE
 The average weather conditions of the atmosphere for a given place over
a specified time period
 The synthesis or summary of the long-term manifestation of the weather
such as measured over a 30-year period
 From the Greek word “klima” which means inclination or slope and
emphasizes the importance of the sun’s influence on the climate as
observed throughout history

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 Consists of 3 important concepts:
a) It is the average condition of the atmosphere as reflected by
different elements, values and frequencies – also the variation
around the averages and the extreme values
b) It must be linked to a specific place or environment e.g. a valley,
farm etc.
c) It emphasizes the time factor as climate is subject to both short and
long term fluctuations. It is therefore important that the time period
is given when two places are compared.

We also differentiate between:

 Macroclimate: The general large-scale climate over a large area e.g. the
Free State.
 Mesoclimate: The climate of a small portion of the earth’s surface which
is not considered representative of the general macroclimate of the area
e.g. the climate of a small valley, a forest or a city. Can be less or more
extreme than the climate of the adjacent area.
 Microclimate: The climate of the air layer nearest to the earth to a height
where the character of the surface no longer has an effect on the meso- or
macro-climate (e.g. 2 m above a maize crop). The height of the
microclimate can change but usually means the lowest 2m of the
atmosphere. The largest changes and largest deviations usually occur in
this layer of air. A lawn, tarred road, bare patch or ploughed land all
contribute to the microclimatic conditions.

CLIMATOLOGY
 Scientific study of the average weather conditions or climate of an area.

And of special interest to us:

 Agroclimatology: A branch of applied Climatology which studies the
influence of climate on different processes of agriculture.
 Phytoclimatology: The study of the microclimate in the air space in a
plant canopy, the plant surfaces and the air spaces within the plants.

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 Cryptoclimatology: The study of the climate in confined spaces, e.g.
caves, houses, glasshouses.

Table 1.1: Differences between Weather and Climate (adopted from Murthy, 2002)
WEATHER CLIMATE
A typical physical condition of the 1 Generalised condition of the atmosphere
atmosphere at a given place and time which represents and describes the
characteristics of a region
Changes from place to place even in a 2 Different in different large regions
small locality
Changes with time (every moment) 3 Changes require longer time (several
years)
Crop growth, development and yield are 4 Selection of crops suitable for a location is
dependent on the weather in a given based on the climate of a region
season
Under abnormal weather conditions 5 Climate information helps in long-term
planners can adopt a short-term agricultural planning e.g. likely planting date
contingency plan e.g. irrigate crops when
very dry
Example: at 11am on 2013-06-05 the air 6 Example: the average maximum air
temperature in Bloemfontein was 13ºC temperature for Upington for the month of
February is 34ºC (calculated over the 30-
year period spanning 1981 – 2010)

1.2 CLIMATIC ELEMENTS AND THEIR MEASUREMENT

According to the International Meteorological Vocabulary (IMV) a climatic

element is “any one of the properties or conditions of the atmosphere which
together specify the physical state of the weather or climate at a given place,
for any particular moment or period of time” (Lowry, 1972). Examples of
climatic elements thus include dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature,
wind speed and direction, cloud cover, visibility, sunshine duration, soil
moisture content, human discomfort index, etc.

Clearly, the values of some climatic elements are obtainable from suitable
instruments such as wind speed from an anemometer or dry-bulb temperature

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from a dry-bulb thermometer or a thermograph. Others such as the cloud
cover or cloud type are not. There is a great variety of climatic elements and
the means of obtaining values for them are equally various. Several
references can be consulted for a more detailed discussion of the climatic
elements; however, only one source is listed here as the information
contained therein is sufficient for our needs.

1.2.1 SOLAR RADIATION

Energy may be transferred from one place to another by:

 Conduction
 Convection and advection
 Radiation

Radiation is the process whereby energy is transferred from one body to

another in the form of electromagnetic waves, without the help of a medium
(solid, liquid, gas, etc.). All matter, at any temperature above absolute zero
(0 K) emits such radiation.

Radiation is the only method of energy transfer that can bridge the vacuum of
outer space, thus energy coming to and leaving planet Earth must be in the
form of radiation. We can actually think of radiation as streams of photons that
are discrete packets of energy, moving along a sinusoidal wave trajectory
(packets of photons make up waves, and groups of waves make up a beam of
radiation).

A fundamental characteristic of radiation is the wavelength () of propagation.

All bodies radiate at a large number of wavelengths. Radiation is therefore
conceived as containing a continuous range of wavelengths, the totality of
which is called the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 1.1). The unit of
wavelength commonly used is the micrometer, μm, which is equal in length to
10-6 m. Climatologically important wavelengths range from 0.1 to 100 μm.
Within this range the human eye responds only to visible light with

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wavelengths between 0.4 μm (violet) and 0.7 μm (red). Radiation with
wavelengths shorter than 0.4 μm is termed ultraviolet (UV), while radiation
with wavelengths longer than 0.7 μm is termed infrared radiation (IR). Of the
sun’s radiation, 9% is in the ultraviolet, 45% in the visible and 46% in the
infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Figure 1.1: The electromagnetic spectrum.

It is important to differentiate between solar radiation (also referred to as

shortwave radiation) and terrestrial radiation (also referred to as longwave
radiation):
Shortwave radiation: that portion of the solar spectrum having
wavelength less than 4 μm
Long-wave radiation: the terrestrial and atmospheric radiation which are
in the wavelengths between 4 and 120 μm
Since the spectral distributions of solar and terrestrial radiation overlap very
little, they can very often be treated separately in measurements and
computations. In meteorology, the sum of both types is called total radiation.
In the case of solar radiation, we can discriminate between direct and diffuse
radiation:
Direct radiation: that portion of the solar radiation that reaches the earth’s
surface without being modified by atmospheric scattering.
Diffuse radiation: that portion of the solar radiation that reaches the earth’s
surface after having been scattered by molecules and

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 suspended particles in the atmosphere. In cloudy
conditions it also includes the portion of the shortwave
radiation which is reflected by the clouds. It is the
incoming shortwave radiation in shade. Before sunrise
and after sunset, all shortwave radiation is in diffuse form.
The ratio of diffuse to the total incoming shortwave radiation varies diurnally,
seasonally, and with latitude (Arya, 1988).

IMPORTANCE OF SOLAR RADIATION IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

AND ACTIVITIES
 All plants are affected by sunlight. Light of the right intensity,
wavelength and duration is necessary for development.
 Reduced levels of solar radiation leads to reduced growth in plants and
may result in abnormalities and defects.
 Solar radiation (or light of the right wavelength) is necessary for
photosynthesis.
 Solar radiation influences dry matter production, the size of the leaves,
root growth, flower- and fruit formation etc.
 High levels of incoming solar radiation leads to pollen burst or flower
drop.
 Solar radiation controls the distribution of temperature through surface
heating and the rate of evapotranspiration.
 Seasonal variation in the intensity of the solar radiation and
temperature markedly affect the digestibility of forage material, e.g.
alfalfa harvested during springtime is of higher quality than that
harvested during mid-summer when solar radiation and temperatures
are higher.
 Exposure to high levels of ultraviolet light may result in sunburn, skin
cancer and cataracts in animals and humans.
 In dry climates, solar energy is used in drying of fruit and vegetable
crops (e.g. raisins).
 Solar radiation can be converted through photovoltaic technology into
electricity, which can be used in various on-farm activities.

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INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE SOLAR RADIATION
 Pyranometer or Solarimeter (Fig. 1.2): Designed to measure total
shortwave radiation or components thereof (e.g. diffuse radiation with
the use of a shadow ring) on a horizontal plane surface from
hemispherical sky. Spectral range: 285 to 2800 nm (depending on
model type); Field of view: 180°; Units of measurement: W m-2.

Figure 1.2: Pyranometer, mounted with shadow ring on the right (CS Africa,
2013).

 Pyrgeometer (Fig. 1.3): Designed to measure radiation in the far

infrared (FIR) spectrum. The instruments have a silicon window with
solar blind filter on the inside to block all solar radiation. If placed
upright it will measure the downward atmospheric long wave radiation,
if placed upside down it will measure upward terrestrial long wave
radiation. Net long-wave radiation can be calculated using two
pyrgeometers, one looking up and one looking down. Spectral range: 4
500 to 42 000 nm (depending on model type); Field of view: 180°; Units
of measurement: W m-2.

Figure 1.3: Pyrgeometer (CS Africa, 2013).

 Net radiometer or net pyrradiometer (Fig. 1.4): Designed for the

measurement of both incoming and outgoing short-wave and long-

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 wave radiation. Consists of a pyranometer pair, one facing upward, the
other facing downward, and a pyrgeometer pair in a similar
configuration. The pyranometer pair measures the short-wave
radiation, while the pyrgeometer pair measures long-wave radiation.
Spectral range: 300 to 2 800 nm (short wave) and 4 500 to 42 000 nm
(long wave); Field of view: 360°; Units of measurement: W m-2.

Figure 1.4: Net radiometer (CS Africa, 2013).

 Pyrheliometer (Fig. 1.5): Designed specifically to measure the direct

beam solar radiation on a plane surface at normal incidence. This
instrument must be combined with a sun tracker to ensure that it is
pointed at the sun at all times. Spectral range: 200 nm and 4 000 nm;
Field of view: 5°; Units of measurement: W m-2.

Figure 1.5: Pyrheliometer mounted on a sun tracker (CS Africa, 2013).

 Quantum sensor (Fig. 1.6): Developed for measurement of

Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR). This is important for

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 horticultural studies and plant physiology monitoring. The amount of
PAR is commonly expressed as Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density
(PPFD). Spectral range: 400 to 700 nm; Field of view: 180°; Units of
measurement: μmol m-2 s-1.

Figure 1.6: Quantum sensor (CS Africa, 2013).

 Sun photometer (Fig. 1.7): An electronic device that measures direct

solar radiation in narrow spectral bands in order to determine the
atmosphere’s optical thickness. Automated instruments incorporate a
sun-tracking unit. Spectral range: 368±2 nm and 500±2 nm; Field of
view: 1.2°; Units of measurement: candela or lux.

Figure 1.7: Automated sun photometer (CS Africa, 2013).

 Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder (Fig. 1.8): A glass sphere

concentrates sunlight onto a recording card placed at its focal point.
The card must be changed every night and the length of the burn trace

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 left on the card must be analysed manually to determine the sunshine
duration.

Figure 1.8: Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder (Wikipedia, 2013).

 Solar-cell sunshine recorder (Fig. 1.9): Traditionally, sunshine duration

is monitored using a Campbell-Stokes recorder. To automate this
process and reduce the variability of results a very accurate solution is
to use a sun tracker and a pyrheliometer, but this is relatively
expensive. The sunshine duration sensor is a specially adapted
radiometer designed to measure the time during which the direct solar
radiation exceeds the level of 120 W m-2. Spectral range: 400 to
1 100 nm; Field of view: 180°; Units of measurement: h.

Figure 1.9: Solar-cell sunshine recorder (CS Africa, 2013).

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SITING AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS
 Sunshine recorders and radiometers should be installed in a location
where solar radiation is not shaded by trees or buildings in any season
from sunrise to sunset and where there are no smoke emission
sources.
 Pyranometers in particular should be installed at a site where the
instrument is not influenced by intense reflected light from the wall
surfaces of buildings. Usually, such instruments are installed on
rooftops or towers, but the convenience of routine maintenance and
checking tasks such as cleaning of the sensor should be taken into
consideration.
 When installing a sunshine duration or solar radiation instrument, it
must be set properly using a spirit level. It must also be oriented in the
prescribed direction using the meridional plane as reference with its
elevation angle set to the latitude of the site. It should be checked that
the pyranometer’s output does not fluctuate when the sensor rotates in
clear weather.
 Any dust, condensation, frost, ice or snow deposited on the glass
should be removed with a feather duster or soft cloth.

1.2.2 TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Whereas heat measures total kinetic energy (energy of movement) of
molecular motion and is thus directly proportional to the mass of air being
considered, temperature measures the average kinetic energy of molecular
motion and is thus independent of mass (Tyson & Preston-Whyte, 2000).

In general, when we refer to the hotness or coldness of a substance, we are

referring to its temperature. In the case of two substances or bodies at
different temperatures, heat will flow from the hotter to the colder until their
temperatures are identical and thermal equilibrium is reached. When heat
flows from a hotter object to a colder one, the temperature of the former

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decreases whilst the temperature of the latter increases. When thermal
equilibrium is reached, the temperature of the two objects will be the same.

The thermodynamic temperature is defined as one of the seven physical

quantities (along with length, mass, time, electric current, amount of
substance and light intensity) in the International System of Measurement
(SI).

TEMPERATURE SCALES
Most temperature scales today are expressed in degrees Celsius (°C),
although in the United States, the Fahrenheit (°F) is still in use. The Celsius
scale is fixed by two points, the freezing and boiling point of pure water, which
at normal atmospheric pressure are 0°C and 100°C respectively. The scale is
then divided into 100 units. 0°C is equivalent to 32°F and 100°C to 212°F. The
relationship between °F and °C is given by:
5
C  ( F  32)
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The Kelvin temperature scale is the absolute temperature scale. Absolute

zero, the coldest temperature possible in the universe, is 0 K or -273°C. One
Kelvin is equivalent to one degree Celsius, so 0°C is the same as 273 K, and
15°C is the same as 288 K. By convention the degree symbol is not used for
degrees Kelvin. Converting from °C to K can be made by simply adding 273 to
the Celsius temperature, as:
K  C  273

IMPORTANCE OF TEMPERATURE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

AND ACTIVITIES
 All living organisms thrive within a certain temperature range. Both
extremely low and high temperatures may be harmful.
 Animals compensate within limits for variations in effective ambient
temperature (an index value representing the collective thermal impact
of temperature, solar radiation, humidity, wind and precipitation) by
metabolism and behaviour, characterized by a shift in food and water

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 consumption, passage rate of food through the digestive tract,
hormone synthesis and release, panting or shivering, and reduced
activity to name a few. This in turn affects the partition of dietary energy
by the animal.
 Under low temperatures, domesticated animals generally require
more digestible nutrients for maintenance.
 If the rate of heat loss to the environment is too rapid, hypothermia
and frostbite can set in and may lead to mortality.
 If the rate of heat loss to the environment is too slow, hyperthermia
or heatstroke can occur. The situation is worsened if there is no
shelter or if there is a shortage of drinking water.
 High temperatures accompanied by high humidity may lead to high
levels of discomfort under humans and animals as cooling through
evaporation of sweat are no longer effective.
 The activity of pollinators such as bees is drastically reduced when the
temperatures are too low or too high.
 Most crop plants are adapted well for temperatures between 10 and
40ºC.
 Maximum dry matter production takes place between 20 and 30ºC.
 Low temperatures and plant damage:
 Reduced growth and metabolism: any temperature below the
optimal leads to a reduction in the growth and metabolic processes
in the plant. Growth will cease at temperatures below the minimum
threshold temperature.
 Suffocation: small plants may experience a shortage of oxygen when
they are covered with snow. Certain toxic substances accumulate in
the roots and crowns due to low CO2-diffusion.
 Physiological drought: continued transpiration and poor absorption of
soil water may occur when the soil temperature is very low. The
internal water content of crop plants is depleted which may result in
death of leaves.
 Heaving: plant roots may be lifted out of their normal position in the
ground due to continuous warming and cooling and under extreme
circumstances they may even stretch or break.

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 High temperatures and plant damage:
 Reduced growth and metabolism: any temperature above the
maximum threshold temperature (crop-specific) causes growth to
cease and a disruption of metabolic processes within the plant.
 High night-time temperatures increase respiration and metabolism.
 At temperatures > 40ºC cooling through transpiration will cease as a
result of stomata closure.
 Exposure of crop plants to temperatures > 45ºC for periods as short
as 30 minutes may cause serious damage to leaves. Such high
temperatures lead to the disruption of cell-metabolism, production of
toxins and damage to cell membranes.
 As ambient temperature increase, the digestibility of some forage
materials decrease due to a rise in its cell wall content and a
decrease in digestibility of the cell walls. Forages grown under high
temperatures also have a higher stem-to-leave ratio while grazing
animals prefer leaves.
 Damage may be caused by the sharp rise in temperature from early-
morning to midday (sunclad).
 Scorching of the stem near the soil surface during high temperatures
(stem girdle).
 Increased transpiration will occur under high temperatures due to
increased atmospheric demand and to cool plants through
evaporation.
 At high temperatures and high humidity, pests and diseases become
more prevalent under most crop plants.
 The intensity of wildfire and their ease of ignition increases with
increasing temperature.
 Temperatures during post harvest processing and transporting
influences the quality and shelve life of the final product.
 Vertical temperature profile effects: Temperature inversions may
develop as a result of surface cooling (during the night, Figure 1.10),
subsidence (as may be the case in the centre of a strong high-pressure
cell) or when a warm air mass moves over a cooler surface. Inversions
influence the vertical mixing of air and therefore play a role in cloud

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 formation, the occurrence of fog/mist and pollution. It also affects the
maximum temperature that may occur later in the day.

Figure 1.10: Diurnal variation in vertical temperature profile.

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE

There are many types of thermometers. The major ones employ one of the
following principles:
- the thermal expansion of substances;
- the variation in electrical resistance of substances according to
temperature; or
- the relationship between temperature and heat radiation energy
emitted from the surface of substances.

Air temperature continuously fluctuates within a range of 1 to 2°C over

individual periods of several seconds. The World Meteorological Organisation
(WMO) advises that the best representative value of air temperature is the
average taken over a one-minute period, meaning that a number of readings
should be made if a thermometer with a very small time constant is used.
Rapid fluctuations are smoothed with a thermometer that has a large time
constant. However, if the time constant is too large, lags in response to
temperature variation will cause errors. Though leaf temperature,
grass/surface temperature, soil temperatures at various depths and air
temperatures at various heights within and above a crop canopy are
measured regularly, this section mainly focuses on the measurement of air
temperature at a standard weather station.

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 Electric thermometer (Fig. 1.11): includes electrical resistance
thermometer, semiconductor thermometer (thermistor) and
thermocouple thermometer. A platinum resistance thermometer, for
example, employs the changing resistance of platinum according to the
temperature. It allows temperature to be obtained by measuring
electrical resistance. The actual sensor is made with a thin sheet of
mica or porcelain wrapped with platinum wire, placed in a waterproof
protective tube which has excellent thermal conductivity and is
corrosion resistant. The electric measurement allows automated
measurement (i.e. no observer needed), while a stable power supply is
necessity.

Figure 1.11: Thermistor (CS Africa, 2013).

 Liquid-in-glass thermometer (Fig. 1.12): consists of a capillary glass

tube with a bulb at one end filled with a thermometric liquid, vacuumed
and sealed. By reading the position of the liquid level on a scale, a
temperature value can be obtained. Designs can be classified as either
the sheathed type or the unsheathed type. A sheathed thermometer
consists of a bulb, a slender capillary glass tube connected to it, a
milky-white scale plate attached to the capillary tube, and an outer
glass tube that encloses them. An unsheathed thermometer consists of
a thick-walled capillary glass tube with a scale marked directly on it. A
liquid-in-glass thermometer measures temperature based on the
thermal expansion of mercury or spirit alcohol in a glass container. The
boiling point of mercury is 356.7°C, and its melting point is -38.9°C.
The boiling point of methyl alcohol is 64.7°C, and its melting point is
-97.8°C. Mercury thermometers are used for ordinary meteorological
observations, and spirit thermometers are used for those involving

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temperatures below the melting point of mercury. The advantages of
liquid-in-glass thermometers are their simple design, simple
observation method and the possibility of temperature measurement
anywhere as they require no electric power for operation. The
disadvantage is that careful handling is required because the glass
material is fragile and that readings cannot be automated. Several
types of liquid-in-glass thermometers are used to measure maximum
temperature, minimum temperature and soil temperature in addition to
ordinary air temperature.
o Maximum thermometer: a mercury thermometer used to measure
the maximum temperature within a certain period. It has a narrow
part in the capillary tube where mercury passage is constricted
between the bulb and the starting point of the scale. As the air
temperature rises, the mercury exits the bulb and passes through
the constriction. When the air temperature drops, the mercury
column breaks at this point, indicating the maximum temperature.
Observation of maximum temperature is carried out once or twice a
day. After measurement, the thermometer is held at the head and
the mercury in the capillary tube is shaken back into the bulb to
reset its indication to the current air temperature.
o Minimum thermometer: a spirit thermometer used to measure the
minimum temperature within a certain period. It has a dumbbell-
shaped index of colored glass in the spirit column. As the air
temperature drops, the index is dragged by the surface tension of
the spirit and moves toward the bulb. When the temperature rises,
the index is left in position because the spirit flows around it,
indicating the minimum temperature. Observation of minimum
temperature is carried out once or twice a day. After measurement,
the column is inclined while keeping the bulb higher than the head,
and the index is gradually slid back to the top of the column.
o Soil thermometer: To measure soil temperatures at various depths,
a steel pipe of the desired length is driven into the soil and a
mercury-in-glass thermometer is suspended in the pipe with a
chain. A thermometer with a large time constant should be used to

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 minimize any change in indication between removal from the pipe
and reading. In order to minimize changes in indication during
measurement and to protect the thermometer, it is advisable to
cover the bulb with a rubber cap or install the unit in a glass or
plastic pipe coated with wax or metallic paint.

Figure 1.12: Maximum (top) and minimum (bottom) thermometers mounted

inside a radiation screen (Poelaert, 2013).

 Bimetallic thermograph (Fig. 1.13): a unit consisting of a bimetal lever

and a clock-driven drum on which a recording chart is wound. The
curvature of the bimetal changes in response to temperature variations,
and this curvature change is recorded on a chart. The bimetal consists
of two metal plates with different expansion coefficients welded and
then rolled to an appropriate thickness. As the temperature changes,
the bimetal curves due to the difference in the expansion coefficients of
the two metals. This change is mechanically magnified and then
recorded on the drum. The advantage of bimetallic thermographs is
that air temperature can be charted over a period of one day or seven
days even where no electric power supply is available. The
disadvantages are that its accuracy is lower than those of liquid-in-
glass and electrical thermometers, its mechanism does not allow
continuous recording over long periods, and that readings cannot be
automated for extended periods.

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 Figure 1.13: Bimetallic thermograph (Russel Scientific, 2013).

SITING AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS

 Thermometer installation should be standardized to ensure
measurements that represent the ambient atmosphere and are
comparable with those obtained at different places and at different
times.
 WMO recommends measuring atmospheric temperature at a height of
1.25 to 2m above ground at a representative location of the region.
 The observation field should be level, open and unshaded by trees or
buildings. The ground surface should be covered with short grass or
maintain its natural surface on barren land, and the field should be
enclosed with a fence that does not disturb wind passage.
 Ensure that there’s at least 30 m separation from any extensive
concrete or paved surface.
 All attempts should be made to avoid areas where rough terrain or air
drainage are proven to result in non- representative temperature data
(e.g. on steep slopes or in hollows).
 Areas where water or drifting snow tends to collect is also best avoided.
 The instrument should be sheltered in a radiation screen (Figure 1.14).
The shelter should be positioned in such a way that it opens to the
south (north in the Northern Hemisphere) to protect the instruments
from direct sun exposure. The floor of the shelter should be 1.2 to 1.8 m

24
 above the surface. Shelters should be located no closer to an
obstruction than four times the height of the obstruction.

Figure 1.14: Steven screen (left) and more compact type radiation screen (right)
(Wikipedia, 2013).

 Electrical thermometers should be checked at least every three months

using a portable aspirated psychrometer. Observation errors can result
from even small changes in contact resistance or slight deteriorations of
insulation caused by dust or salt deposits. Ensure that wire connection
terminals are tightened, and clean them with alcohol once a year.
 Breakage in the mercury column occurs when a bubble remains in it.
This is often seen when mercury thermometers are transported or
stored carelessly. This can be remedied by gripping the thermometer at
the head tightly and shaking it forcefully, or by tapping the bulb of the
thermometer on a rubber plate.
 The spirit in spirit thermometers sometimes evaporates, adheres or
condenses in the upper part of the capillary tube, producing errors in
reading. To prevent such problems, immerse the bulb in cold water or
ice and blow steam over the upper part of the tube at regular intervals to
move adhered spirit back to the bulb.
 Periodic maintenance of thermographs should be carried out every
three months. If necessary, replace the pen, clean the bimetal using a
brush soaked with benzene, and clean and oil the clock-driven drum.

25
  Calibration of thermometers should be done at regular intervals –
usually every five years.
 Transport liquid-in-glass thermometers with the bulb in a low position to
prevent breakage of the liquid column.
 Wash louvered screens once or twice a year to remove soiling. If paint
has peeled or soiling is difficult to remove, repaint the screen.

CALIBRATION
 Resistance, R, of a metal conductor increases with temperature, T.
 Fill a clean container with warm water at approximately 50°C and place
the cleaned resistance thermometer (to be calibrated) in the water.
 Simultaneously measure the resistance (with a voltmeter set to
measure resistance) and water temperature (with a standard mercury
thermometer).
 Place crushed ice in the water to cool it down. Stir thoroughly and
repeat measurements as explained above at regular 5°C intervals until
0°C is reached. The temperature of 0°C is defined as that at which ice
is in equilibrium with air-saturated water under standard pressure
conditions.
 Eleven evenly distributed measurements have been acquired, and can
subsequently be plotted on a graph. Resistance (measured in Ω with a
resistance meter) plotted against temperature (measured in °C with a
mercury thermometer) will result in a straight line with y-intercept R0 and
gradient A.
 The calibration of a resistance thermometer entails the computation of
R0 and A so that for a given resistance R, the temperature can be
calculated as follows: T = (R - R0) / A
 According to this method, temperature can be measured to an accuracy
of 0.1°C.

26
1.2.3 HUMIDITY

ATMOSPHERIC WATER AND PHASE CHANGES

Water is the only known substance that can exist simultaneously as a gas
(water vapour), liquid (liquid water) and solid (ice) within the temperature
ranges observed within the Earth’s atmosphere. The following terms are used
to describe the phase changes that may occur (Figure 1.15):
Condensation: the process of conversion of a substance from a gas into
a liquid state (e.g. water vapour condenses into cloud
droplets)
Vaporisation: the process of conversion of a substance from a liquid
into a vapour state (e.g. evaporation of liquid water)
Fusion: the process of conversion of a substance from a solid
(melting) into a liquid state (e.g. snow melting into water)
Glaciation: the process of conversion of a substance from a liquid
(freezing) into a solid state (e.g. cloud droplets freeze into ice
pellets)
Sublimation: the process of conversion of a substance directly from a
solid into a vapour state (e.g. ice crystals to water vapour)
Deposition: the process of conversion of a substance directly from a
vapour into a solid state (e.g. water vapour into frost)

Figure 1.15: Phase changes of water occurring within the Earth's atmosphere (after
Pejsa, 2005).

Gas molecules normally exert attractive forces on each other except when in
very close proximity where the interaction is repulsive. If a gas or vapour is

27
cooled so that molecular movements become relatively sluggish, the attractive
forces draw the molecules close together to form a liquid.

Molecules of water in a condensed state are held to one another by strong

forces of attraction, which are balanced by equally strong repulsive forces.
Tending to overcome the potential energy of attraction is the escaping
tendency of molecules, arising from their kinetic energy. The kinetic energy,
and thus the escaping tendency, is a function of absolute temperature. At
each temperature a certain fraction of the molecules possesses enough
kinetic energy to overcome the forces of attraction of the surrounding
molecules and to escape from the surface of the water as vapour; whether
that surface be an ocean or a cloud droplet. As the molecules, which possess
excessive kinetic energy (heat), evaporate from the liquid, the average kinetic
energy of the remaining molecules decreases and the temperature drops.

The energy carried away with the water vapour, about 2 500 J/g of vapour, is
the latent heat of vaporisation. Conversely when water vapour condenses
back into the liquid state this latent heat is released into the surrounding air as
sensible heat. Sensible heat is a function of air temperature while latent heat
is a function of H2O content in its various phases. Ice melts at 0°C requiring
334 J/g, the latent heat of fusion. If ice is converted directly to water vapour,
at the same temperature, it takes about 2 850 J/g, the latent heat of
sublimation.

IMPORTANCE OF HUMIDITY IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND

ACTIVITIES
 Humidity is closely related to evapotranspiration, cloud cover and
rainfall.
 It has a large influence on the potential evapotranspiration and hence
the water requirement of crop plants.
 High humidity therefore reduces the irrigation requirement.
 Moisture is important in energy transport. If there is a change of phase
associated with water transport, large quantities of energy can be
transferred to or from a surface. For example, transpiration is

28
 responsible for the cooling of plants, while animals may cool down by
the evaporation of sweat from their skin.
 It influences the internal water potential of plants and the distribution of
water and minerals through the plant.
 High humidity may prolong a plant’s life during times of water stress.
 Humidity thus determines which crops are grown in a specific region.
 Very high or very low humidity are, however, not directly related to
higher yield. It is true, however, that the yield will be reduced by high
humidity during grain filling.
 High humidity favours the growth of certain saprophytic and parasitic
fungi, bacteria and pests, which may cause considerable damage to
crop plants.
 The intensity of wildfire increases with decreasing humidity.
 High temperatures accompanied by high humidity may lead to high
levels of discomfort under humans and animals, since cooling through
evaporation of sweat is no longer effective.
 Water vapour is an important greenhouse gas which absorbs a portion
of the outgoing long-wave terrestrial radiation. Frost, for example, is
less likely to occur when atmospheric humidity is relatively high.
 Atmospheric moisture can influence the vertical stability profile within
the atmosphere since moist air is less dense than dry air.

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE HUMIDITY

 Psychrometer (Fig. 1.16): consists of two thermometers of the same
specifications, which are suspended side by side in the air. One of
them measures the actual air temperature (dry-bulb), while the other,
whose bulb is covered with a wet sleeve (cotton cloth soaked in
distilled water), measures wet-bulb temperature (both in °C). When the
air steadily flows around the wet-bulb, the wet-bulb temperature falls
below the dry-bulb temperature due to water evaporation from the
surface of the wet-bulb. Psychrometric formulas, tables or diagrams
are then used to determine the vapour pressure (in hPa), dewpoint
temperature (in °C) or relative humidity (as a %).

29
 Figure 1.16: Aspirated-type psychrometer (Lambrecht, 2013).

 Hygrograph (Fig. 1.17): makes use of the characteristic that human

hair expands or shrinks in length in response to the relative humidity in
the air. This expansion/shrinkage of a hair bundle is amplified by a
moving arm and recorded with a pen on a card wrapped around a
clock-driven drum.

Figure 1.17: Hair hygrograph (Fairmount, 2013).

 Electric capacitance hygrometer (Fig. 1.18): used to detect the change

in the electrostatic capacity or electric resistance of a sensor when it
absorbs moisture. The sensor is a dielectric material made of a high
polymer membrane.

30
 Figure 1.18: Temperature and relative humidity probe (CS Africa, 2013).

SITING AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS

 The observation field should be level and open. The ground surface
should be covered with short grass or maintain its natural surface on
barren land, and the field should be enclosed with a fence that does not
disturb wind passage.
 The instrument should be sheltered in a radiation screen. The shelter
should be positioned in such a way that it opens to the south (north in
the Northern Hemisphere) to protect the instruments from direct sun
exposure. The floor of the shelter should be 1.2 to 1.8 m above the
surface. Shelters should be located no closer to an obstruction than four
times the height of the obstruction.
 Maintenance of psychrometer:
a) Ensure there is water in the container for soaking the cotton sleeve.
b) If the wet sleeve becomes dirty, replace it with a new one.
c) Wash off deposits on the wet-bulb when the wet sleeve is replaced.
d) If of the aspiration type, ensure the fan in running properly at every
observation.
 Maintenance of hygrometer:
a) Clean the hair bundle with a soft brush.
b) Make offset adjustments by comparing the reading of the hair
hygrometer with that of the aspirated psychrometer.

1.2.4 PRECIPITATION

PRECIPITATION TYPES
Precipitation refers to all liquid or solid phase water particles that originate in
the atmosphere and fall to the earth’s surface. The more common term
“rainfall” is also used in this total sense to include not only amounts of rain,
but also the water equivalents of frozen precipitation. Precipitation is

31
measured as the amount of water that reaches a horizontal surface, and is
expressed as a vertical depth of water or the water equivalent of solid
precipitation. The unit of precipitation is the millimetre. We discriminate
between the following types of precipitation:
 Drizzle: very small (less than 0.5 mm in diameter), numerous and
uniformly distributed liquid water drops that appear to float to the
ground. It usually falls from low stratus clouds and is frequently
accompanied by low visibility.
 Rain: liquid water drops that have a diameter larger than 0.5 mm.
 Sleet: a mixture of rain and snow.
 Snow: composed of white or translucent ice crystals, chiefly in complex
branch hexagonal form and often agglomerated into snowflakes.
 Snow grains (granular snow): very small (less than 1 mm in diameter),
white opaque particles of ice; the solid equivalent of drizzle. Resemble
snow pellets in external appearance, but are more flattened and
elongated. Snow grains usually fall in small quantities, mostly from
stratus clouds, and never in the form of a shower.
 Ice pellets: consist of transparent pellets of ice, 5 mm or less in
diameter. They may be spherical, irregular, or conical in shape. Ice
pellets usually bounce when hitting hard ground and make a sound
upon impact.
 Diamond dust: small ice crystals falling from an apparently cloudless
sky (often at night). Crystals originate from air having a higher moisture
content above a thermal inversion aloft, where mixing leads to
nucleation and growth of crystals at temperatures near -40ºC.
 Small hail (graupel): hail with a diameter less than 5 mm. Generally
translucent particles, consisting of snow pellets encased in a thin layer
of ice. The ice layer may form either by the accretion of droplets upon
the snow pellet or by the melting and refreezing of the surface of the
snow pellet.
 Hail: balls or irregular lumps of ice, always produced by convective
clouds such as cumulonimbus. By convention, hail has a diameter of 5
mm or more.

32
  Shower (of rain, hail or snow): a brief period of precipitation in which
intensity can be variable and may change rapidly, invariably from a
convective cloud.

IMPORTANCE OF PRECIPITATION IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

AND ACTIVITIES
 Water plays an important role in the life processes of living organisms.
 Rainfall influences the distribution of plants and crop plants in
particular, since the vegetation of a specific place depends on the
amount of rainfall received at that place.
 The amount, distribution and frequency of rainfall have a large
influence on crop yield.
 Rainwater contains more dissolved oxygen than irrigation water and is
much better for crop plants.
 Precipitation has a direct influence on the hydrology.
 Water has a high dissolving capability and it plays an important role in
crop plants as the plants get their nourishment from soil only in solution
form.
 The high thermal stability and heat capacity of water helps to regulate
the temperature of crop plants.
 Frequent, evenly spread rain is more beneficial during the crop growth
season than heavy rain falling at once. If it doesn’t rain frequently over
dry lands, the plants will die or the seed may never germinate.
 Many farm activities depend on rainfall, e.g. seedbed preparation,
sowing, weeding etc.
 Hail can seriously damage crop plants. Large hail may kill small stock
and fowls.
 Spraying of pesticides is less effective during rainy conditions.
 The influence of excessive rain:
 Heavy downpours may damage plants on impact or interfere with
pollination.
 Heavy rain may cause the upper soil layer to harden which delays
or prevents the emergence of new plants.

33
  Heavy rain may also help to loosen and carry soil particles away.
Erosion will lead to a loss of fertile topsoil.
 Soil types with a high rate of percolation will be subjected to the
removal of plant nutrients.
 Floods may occur, resulting in uprooting, erosion and drowning.
 The free movement of oxygen is blocked and compounds toxic to
the roots are formed due to drainage problems.
 Heavy snow may cause the suffocation of small plants and a
shortage of foraging material. Plants may also bend or break under
the weight of the snow.
 Heavy rains during the harvesting season may keep farmers off the
fields and also reduce the quality of the seed/grain.
 Heavy rain may undo chemical treatment (spraying of pesticides).
 The influence of scanty rainfall:
 May give rise to drought.
 Water stress during any of the growth stages can cause serious
damage.
 Water stress, especially during the flowering stage, will affect grain
filling and reduce the final yield.
 Plants may wilt.
 Cell division and -growth are very sensitive to water stress. Growth
may cease.
 Nutrient uptake, carbohydrate and protein metabolism as well as
the movement of ions are affected.
 The plant can introduce abscission of fruits, seeds or leaves.
 Plant respiration is drastically reduced.
 Livestock will die if they don’t have access to drinking water.
 The influence of untimely rain:
 Early rain may hamper cultivation due to muddy conditions.
 Late rain may delay harvesting and have a negative effect on the
sugar content of fruits and sugarcane.

34
INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE PRECIPITATION
Rain gauges are classified into recording and non-recording types. As rain
gauges measure the volume or weight of precipitation collected in a vessel
with a fixed orifice diameter, the size of the orifice needs to be standardized.
 Ordinary rain gauge (Fig. 1.19): rainwater entering the receptacle is
channeled through a funnel and collected in a storage bottle. The
precipitation amount is measured with a measuring glass (a measuring
cylinder graduated in millimeters based on the diameter of the
receptacle’s orifice). Rainwater that overflows from the storage bottle
enters a metal storage vessel. The amount of overflow is also
measured with the measuring glass, and is added to the amount of
precipitation in the storage bottle. Because measurements are
performed by an observer at regular intervals, this instrument is used at
non-automated observatories.

Figure 1.19: Ordinary rain gauge (JMA, 2013).

 Tipping bucket rain gauge (Fig. 1.20): rainwater collected in the

receptacle is channeled through a funnel and poured into a tipping
bucket. When it reaches a predetermined amount, the bucket tips and
dumps the water through drainage holes, causing the reed switch to
generate a pulse. Subsequent rainwater is poured into the other
bucket. As long as precipitation continues, this operation is repeated
and a pulse is generated each time a bucket tips, allowing automated

35
 observation with a recorder. Solid precipitation can also be measured if
a heater is set at the receptacle.

Figure 1.20: Tipping bucket rain gauge with inner workings exposed (Wikipedia,
2013).

SITING AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS

 The orifice of the gauge must be horizontal and 1 to 1.5 m above the
surface.
 There should be no steeply sloping ground in the vicinity and the site
should not be in a hollow.
 The site should be well away from trees, buildings walls or other
obstructions. The distance of any such obstacle (including fencing)
from the rain gauge should be no less than twice the height of the
object above the rim of the gauge. Alternatively the object must not
protrude above 30° from an imaginary horizontal line perpendicular to
the rim of the rain gauge.
 At coastal stations, it is desirable that the station should commend a
view of the open sea, but should not be too near the edge of a cliff
because the wind eddies created by the cliff will affect the
measurements of the amount of precipitation.
 Avoid putting up a station where the instruments are in the public eye
and an easy target for thieves or vandalism.
 Routine inspections should include the following:

36
 a) Inspect the receptacle and the funnel and remove dust or leaves
(especially after periods of strong wind); and
b) Inspect the receptacle for deformation, especially at the rim, and
check the funnel for leakage or corrosion.
 Periodic inspections should include the following:
a) Tip the tipping buckets to check the recording of data;
b) Mow the grass around the rain gauge regularly.
 When checking for instrument errors, place the tipping bucket on a
stand table, connect it to a recorder and drip water continuously for a
period of one day, then check the following points:
a) Ensure that the drained water does not splash back onto the tipping
bucket;
b) Check that each tip is not registered as multiple movements; and
c) Verify that the amount of water needed for tipping is constant.

1.2.5 WIND

WIND AS A VECTOR QUANTITY

Natural wind in the open air is a three-dimensional vector that has both
direction (north-south, east-west in addition to vertical components) and
magnitude (i.e. wind speed). As the vertical component is ignored for most
operational meteorological purposes, surface wind is practically considered as
a two-dimensional vector.

Wind blowing over the earth’s surface is turbulent, and is characterized by

random fluctuations of speed and direction. The rapid fluctuations are called
gusts. Wind speed can be described as either instantaneous or average. The
average wind speed is the average of the instantaneous wind speed over a
ten-minute period. However, wind speed fluctuates continuously, and
measured values of instantaneous wind speed are affected by instrument
response characteristics.

A number of different units are used worldwide to indicate wind speed,

including meters per second (m/s), kilometers per hour (km/h), miles per hour

37
(mph), feet per second (ft/s) and knots (kt). In synoptic reports, the average
wind speed is reported in meters per second (m/s) or in knots (kt).

Wind direction is always given as the direction from which the wind is blowing.
We can use the 16 directions on a compass (Figure 1.21) in order to describe
the wind direction, e.g. a northerly wind blows from the north. The wind
direction may also be given as degrees about a 360º circle where 90º
indicates an easterly wind, 180º a southerly wind, 270º a westerly wind and
360º indicates a northerly wind. However, near large bodies of water and in
hilly terrain, wind directions may be expressed differently. For example, wind
blowing from the water to the land is referred to an onshore wind, whereas
wind blowing from land to water is called an offshore wind. Air moving uphill is
referred to as an upslope wind (valley breeze) whilst air moving downhill is a
downslope wind (mountain breeze).

Figure 1.21: The 16 directions on a compass.

IMPORTANCE OF WIND IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND

ACTIVITIES
 Mild wind produces turbulence that aids in the uptake of CO2 during
photosynthesis.
 Mild wind may prevent the formation of temperature inversions and
frost as night-time temperatures will not drop as low.
 Pollination through wind is natural and necessary for some crops.

38
  The activity of pollinators such as bees and butterflies are drastically
reduced when the wind is strong.
 At sustained high speeds plants adopt a dwarf like form and leaves
become thicker and smaller, while the shapes of trees are altered.
 Plants or branches may break during strong winds, or seeds may blow
away.
 Wind causes increased evapotranspiration.
 Dust storms may block the stomata and cause respiratory problems at
animals.
 Spraying of pesticides is less effective during strong winds.
 Wind causes the sensible temperature to be lower than the measured
(dry-bulb) temperature.
 Increased wind speeds increase the rate of spread of fires and thus the
intensity of wildfires.

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE WIND

Surface wind is usually measured using a wind vane and a cup or propeller
anemometer. When a measuring instrument malfunctions, or when no such
instrument is available, the wind direction and speed may be estimated
subjectively (e.g. Beaufort scale).
 Wind vane (Fig. 1.22): used to indicate or measure wind direction.
Consists of an elongated asymmetrical light weight balancing arm
mounted at its centre of gravity about a vertical axis on which it is free
to rotate. The end that offers the greater resistance to airflow (known
as the fang) moves to the downward position. Wind direction may be
determined by visual reference to an attached oriented compass rose.
The direction may also be displayed or recorded by use of a
potentiometer or digital optical encoder for automation. The
potentiometer is designed to generate a voltage proportional to the
change in the angle.

39
 Figure 1.22: Wind vane (CS Africa, 2013).

 Cup anemometer (Fig. 1.23): used to measure wind speed (though

recent models are combined with a wind vane to measure direction as
well). It has three or four cups mounted symmetrically around a
freewheeling vertical axis. The difference in the wind pressure between
the concave side and the convex side of the cup causes it to turn in the
direction from the convex side to the concave side of next cup. The
revolution speed is proportional to the wind speed irrespective of wind
direction. Wind speed signals are generated with either a generator or
a pulse generator and transmitted to the indicator or logger. Older
mechanical-type cup anemometers indicated the number of cup
rotations through gears connected to the sensor axis and measured
wind run in kilometers per day.

Figure 1.23: Cup anemometers (CS Africa, 2013).

40
 Propeller anemometer (Fig. 1.24): measures wind direction and wind
speed. It includes a propeller that reacts to wind pressure and turns at
a rate corresponding to the wind speed. A generator connected to the
propeller shaft generates induced voltages proportional to the wind
speed which is transmitted to a wind speed indicator or a recorder. The
tail assembly ensures that the propeller is always facing the wind, while
a selsyn motor generates wind direction signals.

Figure 1.24: Propeller anemometer (PVC, 2013).

 Sonic anemometer (Fig. 1.25): used to measure wind direction and

speed as it is designed to make use of the relationship between wind
and sound-wave propagation. Two pairs of sonic transmitting/receiving
devices (heads) are fixed facing each other across a specified span.
Ultrasonic wave pulse signals are repeatedly emitted alternately from
each pair of heads at certain time intervals. The propagation times of
the ultrasonic pulses in opposite directions are measured; the wind
speed is calculated in each direction, and the wind direction and speed
are derived through vector synthesis. Sonic anemometers respond
much quicker to changes in wind direction and speed than rotating
anemometers. They can also provide three-dimensional wind
measurements.

41
 Figure 1.25: 3-D Sonic anemometer (Wikipedia, 2013).

SITING AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS

 For synoptic weather stations, wind instruments are placed at 10 m
above the ground surface, while for agrometeorological stations they
are placed lower between 1.5 to 2 m.
 Instruments should be installed on a level piece of ground, covered
with short grass or a surface representative of the area. There should
be no steeply sloping ground in the vicinity and the site should not be in
a hollow.
 The site should be open, i.e. well away from trees, buildings, walls or
other obstructions. The distance between the anemometer and any
obstruction should be at least ten times the height of the obstruction.
 At coastal stations, it is desirable that the station should commend a
view of the open sea, but should not be too near the edge of a cliff
because the wind eddies created by the cliff will affect the
measurements.
 Avoid erecting stations near dirt roads as dust causes damage to
instruments.
 Maintenance should be carried out periodically to check for the
following:
a) Dents to the cups and deformation of the arms on which they are
mounted, propeller deformation, wind-direction plate damage;
b) Out-of-level mount or wind-direction deviation;

42
 c) Lack of rotation at low wind speeds or wear on generator brushes;
and
d) Cable damage.

1.2.6 PRESSURE

DEFINITION AND UNITS

Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted against a
surface by the weight of the air above that surface.
F mg
p 
area area
Force per area can be expressed in Nm-2, but this quantity is conventionally
defined as Pascal, Pa. The standard measure of atmospheric pressure is the
hectopascal, hPa.
100 Nm-2 = 100 Pa = 1 hPa = 1 mb

IMPORTANCE OF PRESSURE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND

ACTIVITIES
 The response of plants to changes in atmospheric pressures has not
received the same attention as other climate elements.
 At high altitudes and low atmospheric pressures the solubility of CO2
and O2 in water are reduced. This has important implications for
respiration which relies on the transport of these gasses in solution.
 Plants therefore show stunted growth at higher altitudes and lower
atmospheric pressures.
 Strong relationships exist between:
o atmospheric pressure gradient and wind speed.
o atmospheric pressure and pressure tendency and precipitation
likelihood.

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

 Mercury barometer (Fig 1.26): When a one-meter long, open ended
glass tube is filled with mercury and is then turned upside down into a
container filled with mercury, part of the mercury flows out of the glass

43
 tube into the container. A "Torricellian vacuum" is then produced at the
top of the glass tube and the mercury level stabilizes at approximately
76 cm from the mercury level in the container. Torricelli's experiment
revealed that such a height indicates the ambient atmospheric
pressure. The principle of a mercury barometer is to measure
atmospheric pressure from precise measurement of this height.

Figure 1.26: Fortin mercury barometer (William Sugg & Co, 2013).

 Aneroid barometer (Fig 1.27): measures the distortion of an evacuated,

sealed elastic capsule inside with change in atmospheric pressure.
Their accuracy is lower than that of mercury barometers, but thanks to
their compact and portable configuration, aneroid barometers are
easier to handle and use, and suitable for self-recording.

Figure 1.27: Aneroid barometer (Laco, 2013).

44
  Electrostatic capacitive barometer (Fig. 1.28): consists of a silicon
wafer to detect pressure, a silicon chip for substrate, and an insulating
glass plate. The silicon wafer is etched to form an electrode and a
diaphragm, and a vacuum gap between the silicon and the glass plate
is made. These electrodes of silicon wafer and silicon chip separated
by the vacuum gap form a kind of capacitor. The shape of the
diaphragm changes depending on atmospheric pressure, causing the
vacuum gap to expand or contract. Such deformation causes the
change in the electrostatic capacity of the gap and the electrodes. This
slight change is detected as an electric signal and converted to
atmospheric pressure.

Figure 1.28: Electrostatic capacitive barometer (CS Africa, 2013).

SITING AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS

 If it is possible, place the barometer in a dry place free from direct
sunlight and extreme temperature changes.
 The barometer should be positioned in a place free from vibration and
strong impacts.
 During actual observation, the reading should be corrected for the
index error, temperature correction, and gravity according to the
manual.
 Regularly brush dust off the outer surface with a soft brush, and wipe
metal and glass parts with a soft cloth. Check the barometer for flaws
and cracks.

45
PART 2: CLIMATIC CONTROLS AND CLIMATE
CLASSIFICATION

2.1 CLIMATIC FACTORS / CONTROLS

According to the International Meteorological Vocabulary (IMV), climatic

factors are “certain physical conditions which control the climate (latitude,
altitude, distribution of land and sea, topography, ocean currents, etc.)”
(Lowry, 1972). Thus, climatic factors are agencies which produce or control
the outcome, or elements values, which make up the climate.

The factors that produce the climate in any given place – the climatic controls
– are:
 Intensity of sunshine and its variation with latitude;
 Distribution of land and water;
 The modifying effects of major sea currents;
 Prevailing winds;
 Positions of high- and low-pressure areas and the seasonal variation of
these positions; and
 The exposure of the locality, i.e. altitude, mountain barriers etc.

2.2 CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION

The climatic controls interact to produce such a wide array of different

climates that no two places experience exactly the same climate. However,
the similarity of climates within a given area allows us to divide the earth into
climatic regions. Such a climate classification permits us to reduce the vast
numbers of observations and records to a way of looking at climatic types
which any student can understand and appreciate.

The first classification of climate was done by the ancient Greeks, based upon
the simple geometry of the earth and the sun. Considering the limited direct

46
knowledge of climate over the earth 2500 years ago, this was an amazingly
accurate classification of climate. They categorized the world into three
climatic regions:
1) The “Torrid Zone” is a low-latitude tropical zone bounded by the northern
and southern limits of the region where the sun is directly overhead at one
time of the year or another (between 23½ ºS and 23½ ºN);
2) The “Frigid Zone” is a high-latitude zone poleward of each of the circles of
latitude marking a time of no direct sunlight in winter (poleward of 66½ ºS
and 66½ ºN); and
3) The “Temperate Zone” is the mid-latitude zone sandwiched between the
other two zones.

Modern climatologists have used other bases for classification. They are:
 The atmospheric processes which form the climate (genetic classification);
 The relationships between the climate and the observed distribution of
vegetation (empirical classification); and
 The water budget (hydrological classification).

2.2.1 THE KÖPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The most widely used system of climate classification is that of the German
climatologist Köppen (1936) - virtually all more recent classifications are
refinements or variants of the "Köppen system". Faced with the lack of
adequate observing stations throughout the world, Köppen related the
distribution and type of native vegetation to the various climates. In this way,
climatic boundaries could be approximated where no climatological data were
available. The classification is based on monthly rainfall and temperatures,
including the following five inputs:
 Average monthly temperature of the warmest month;
 Average monthly temperature of the coldest month;
 Average thermal amplitude between the coldest and warmest months;
 Number of months with average monthly temperature exceeding 10ºC;
and
 Winter and summer rains.

47
The Köppen system (Figure 2.1) employs five major climatic types and
assigns codes to each of them:
A – Tropical Moist Climates
B – Dry Climates
C – Humid Mesothermal Climates (moist climates with mild winters -
Temperate)
D – Humid Microthermal Climates (moist climates with severe winters - Cold)
E – Polar Climates
Each of the main climate classes are divided into sub-classes based mainly
on the distribution of rainfall and temperature over the year.

Class A: Tropical
Temperature of the coldest month: > 18°C.
This is the climate where the most water- and heat-demanding crops (e.g. oil
palm and rubber) are grown. The climate is also ideal for yams, cassava,
maize, rice, bananas and sugarcane. Subclasses are:
Af Tropical wet (rainforest)
No dry season, at least 60 mm of rainfall in the driest month
Am Monsoon type
Short dry season but sufficient moisture to keep ground wet throughout
the year
Rainfall in driest month < 60 mm but ≥ 10 – P/25
(P is the mean annual rainfall in cm)
Aw Distinct dry season
One month with precipitation < 60 mm and < 10 – P/25

48
Figure 2.1: The climatic regions of the world, according to the classification system of
Köppen (Lowry, 1972).

49
Class B: Dry
Annual evaporation exceeds annual precipitation. The dry/humid boundary is
defined by the following formulas:
P = 2T + 28 when ≥ 70% of rain falls in warmer 6 months (dry winter)
P = 2T when ≥ 70% of rain falls in cooler 6 months (dry summer)
P = 2T + 14 when neither half year has ≥ 70% of rain (evenly distributed
rainfall)
(P is the mean annual precipitation in cm and T is the mean annual
temperature in ºC)
Even the wettest variants of this climate are characterized by a marked dry
season. The climate is, therefore, mostly unsuitable for the crops that require
year-round moisture. The main crops are usually millet, sorghum and
groundnuts. Sunshine is usually high, which leads to high productivity where a
sufficiently long rainy season or irrigation ensures a sufficient water supply:
rice, sugarcane and maize are also common crops under this climate. The
two main subclasses refer to the dominant vegetation types:
BS Steppe (semi-arid)
BW Desert (arid)
The BS/BW boundary is exactly ½ the dry/humid boundary
They are further subdivided as subtypes:
h Hot and dry (subtropical desert with mean annual temp ≥ 18°C)
k Cool and dry (cool dry climate of the middle latitude deserts where
mean annual temp < 18°C)

Class C: Temperate
Average temperature of the coldest month < 18°C and > -3°C, and average
temperature of warmest month >10°C.
The main crops are the temperate cereals such as wheat, barley and Irish
(white) potatoes. An important variant of this climate is the Mediterranean
climate, characterized by the olive tree, and also very suitable for grapes. The
main subdivisions include:

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Cw Dry winters
At least 10 times as much precipitation in wettest month of summer as
in driest month of winter
Cs Dry summers
At least three times as much rain in wettest month of winter as in driest
month of summer, the latter having < 30 mm precipitation
Cf Wet all seasons
≥ 30 mm precipitation in the driest month, difference between wettest
month and driest month less than for Cw and Cs
Additional qualifiers are:
a Summers long and hot
Average temperature of warmest month > 22°C; at least 4 months with
average temperature > 10ºC
b Summers long and cool
Average temperature of warmest month < 22°C; at least 4 months with
average temperature > 10ºC
c Summers short and cool
Average temperature of all months < 22°C; less than 4 months
with average temperature > 10ºC

Note that, since the “Temperate” class is defined only by temperature range,
the "raw" temperate climate extends into other areas - e.g. Australia, North
Africa - which, owing to severely limited rainfall, are classified as Dry (B)
climates.

Class D: Cold
Average temperature of the warmest month > 10ºC and that of the coldest
month < -3°C. This climate grows essentially the same crops as the
temperate climate, but seasons tend to be shorter and limited at the beginning
and end by frost. Subtypes include:
Dw Dry winters
Same criteria as under Cw
Ds Dry summers
Same criteria as under Cs

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Df Wet all seasons
Same criteria as under Cf
Other codes used are:
a Summers long and hot
Same criteria as under Cfa
b Summers long and cool
Same criteria as under Cfb
c Summers short and cool
Same criteria as under Cfc
d Summers short and cool; winters severe
Average temperature of coldest month ≤ -38°C

Class E: Polar
Average temperature of the warmest month < 10°C.
No crops are grown under this climate. The two main subdivisions are:
ET Tundra
Average temperature of warmest month ≥ 0°C
EF Perpetual frost or Ice cap
Average temperature of warmest month < 0°C
Sometimes the qualifier d is used if the average temperature of coldest month
< -38°C.

52
Figure 2.2: Same as figure 10.1, but zoomed in over Southern Africa. The small area
demarcated over the SW Cape should be labelled Csb (Lowry, 1972).

2.2.2 CLIMATIC REGIONS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA AND A GENERAL

SUMMARY OF THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

For practical purposes the South African Weather Service (previously the
South African Weather Bureau) has partitioned South Africa, Namibia and
Botswana into 13 climatic regions as shown in Figure 2.3. This division into
regions is based on:
 geographic considerations, more particularly the prominent mountain
ranges (great escarpment) which after all constitute the main climatic
divides, besides also other factors such as rivers and political boundaries;
and
 the change from BW to BS and from BS to C climates according to the
Köppen classification on the interior plateau.

53
Figure 2.3: Climate regions of Southern Africa (after Schulze, 1994).

The 13 climate regions, delineated in Figure 2.3, are:

M South-western Cape (Mediterranean climate)
SC Southern Cape coastal belt
K Karoo (Great and Little)
NS & W Arid and semi-arid western region (southern part of Namibia and
the Namib, Namaqualand and north-western Cape)
NN & BOT Northern interior of Namibia and Botswana
SS Southern Steppe (northern E Cape and south-eastern N Cape)
SN Northern Steppe (eastern N Cape, western NW Prov. and
western Free State)
SE South-eastern coastal belt
E Eastern coastal belt and Zululand
D Drakensberg region and escarpment
L Lowveld (eastern Mpumalanga and eastern Limpopo)
B Bushveld (western and central Limpopo Prov., northern Gauteng
and north-eastern NW Prov.)

54
H Highveld (Lesotho, eastern Free State, western and central
Mpumalanga, central and southern Gauteng and south-eastern
NW Prov.)

The rainfall and temperature data quoted in this brief description of the
climatic regions are generalised to give an over-all idea of the conditions in a
region.

Region M
Region M enjoys a climate similar to Mediterranean countries, receiving the
bulk of its rainfall in the winter from about May to September, and having a
warm to hot and dry summer. The rainfall is profoundly influenced by the very
pronounced orographical features, resulting in annual amounts of over 3 000
mm in some mountain gorges, against 400 to 500 mm on the Cape Flats and
less than 250 mm in the Breede River valley – the latter being a typical “rain
shadow” effect. During the season of maximum rainfall one may normally
expect 12 to 15 rain days per month whilst in the dry season Cape Town and
environs experience 4 to 5 rainy days per month.

The rainfall is mainly cyclonic and orographic but very occasionally

thunderstorms do occur, viz. on nearly 5 occasions per year. Hail is a rare
phenomenon. The mountains are occasionally snow-capped but the snow
layer never persists throughout the winter. On average snow occurs on about
5 occasions per year, mainly in winter and early spring.

The average daily maximum temperature is about 28ºC in midsummer and

17ºC in midwinter but extreme maxima can reach 43ºC and 30ºC respectively.
Average daily minimum temperature is about 15ºC in January and 6ºC in July
though extreme minima can fall to 4ºC and -5ºC respectively, depending on
altitude and situation. Frost is rare on the coastal flats though minima below
freezing point are occasionally recorded. In the higher mountain valleys,
however, frost is quite usual in winter and minima of -5ºC have been recorded
there.

55
Winds in summer are almost exclusively from the south-east and are the
prerequisite for the formation of the “table cloth” (orographic cloud) on Table
Mountain. In winter north-westerly winds are frequent and spell rainy weather.
Winds are frequently strong and may reach gale force, making conditions
rather unpleasant especially along or near the coast. Sunshine duration varies
from about 60% of the possible duration in July to over 70% in January.

Region SC
Region SC receives rain about equally in all seasons though autumn and
spring have a slight advantage over other seasons. Amounts vary
considerably due to topographical features. On the mountain ranges,
especially around George and Knysna, annual amounts may exceed 1 100
mm whereas the plains to the south of Riversdale barely receive 400 mm. On
the average 8 to 12 rain days per month may be expected. The rain is mainly
cyclonic and orographic and thunderstorms are comparatively rare, occurring
on about 10 occasions per year. Hail does fall but very infrequently. The
Langeberg and Outeniqua Mountains are occasionally snow-capped in winter
and spring, on average about twice a year.

Frost is practically unknown and the heat of summer is tempered by cool sea
breezes. Winds blowing along the coast can sometimes, especially in spring,
be unpleasantly strong, whilst in the interior, mainly in late summer,
temperatures can occasionally rise above 38ºC during hot “berg winds” whose
average occurrence is 1 to 3 per month. The average daily maximum
temperature is about 26ºC in January and 19ºC in July; extremes sometimes
reach 42ºC and 32ºC respectively. The average daily minimum is about 15ºC
in January and 7ºC in July whilst extremes can occasionally drop to 4ºC and -
4ºC respectively.

By South African standards this is a cloudy region, yet the yearly duration of
sunshine is as high as it is on the French Riviera (about 50% of the possible).
The famous “Garden Route” with its kilometres of forests, mountains and
beautiful beaches traverse this part of the country which is a very popular
holiday area.

56
Region K
This semi-arid to arid southern interior of the Cape provinces receive on the
average less than 250 mm of rain per year; only in certain reaches of the
mountain ranges (e.g. the Swartberg) does the rainfall exceed 750 mm. As in
Region A, the rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year with,
however, a tendency towards a double maximum in March and November.
Except in the mountains, only about 1 to 3 rain days per month can be
expected.

About 10 to 20 thunderstorms occur in this region per year and one

occasional heavy storm can sometimes account for as much as half the
normal annual rainfall. The landscape is mostly that of a desert or poor steppe
except perhaps in the easternmost region.

One of the most outstanding features of the climate of Region K is the very
large temperature fluctuation, both diurnal and seasonal. Days can be
excessively hot and temperatures up to 44ºC, due to hot winds off the high
plateau, are not uncommon. On the other hand nights can be quite chilly and
contrasts of 28ºC between day and night are not unusual. The average daily
maximum temperature is about 32ºC in January and 18ºC in July whilst
extremes of 45ºC and 31ºC respectively, have been recorded. Average daily
minima are about 15ºC in January and 5ºC in July; extreme minima can drop
to 5ºC and -3ºC respectively.

Frost occurs from about 1 June to 31 August, though in extreme years these
dates can be extended by a fortnight either way.

Snow can be seen on the higher mountain ranges on about 5 occasions per
year. Although hail seldom falls it is a distinct hazard to be reckoned with by
fruit farmers.

Skies are mostly clear resulting in an annual sunshine duration of about 70%
of the possible.

57
Region NS & W
This region occupies a large portion of the Northern Cape, southern Namibia
and the Namib Desert further north. The rainfall is unreliable, amounts to 250
mm per year in the interior and decreases to an insignificant 50 mm or less
towards the west coast. In the interior the precipitation is mainly due to
convectional showers in summer and autumn occurring on about 2 days per
month, whilst on or near the coast the sparse rainfall occurs mainly in winter.
Single very rare heavy showers can account for as much as the normal
annual precipitation. Hail is seldom recorded in this region. Snow occurs
about 5 times per annum on the southern mountain ranges (around
Sutherland) but is rare on the western escarpment, though this type of
precipitation has been recorded in the Namib as far north as Walvis Bay.

Due to the cold Benguela current the west coast is frequently foggy. Fog
advances onto the coastal flats (sometimes as far as 30-50 km inland) during
the night and recedes seaward in the forenoon; this diurnal motion is
connected with the intense heating of the land during the day and cooling at
night due to terrestrial radiation. The moisture necessary for maintaining the
prolific (wild flower) vegetation which adorns the countryside in Namaqualand
after a fortuitous winter shower, is probably largely due to condensation from
low clouds and fog.

Temperatures are subject to great variation both seasonal and diurnal. The
average daily maximum temperature in January is of the order of 35ºC and in
July 18ºC, whilst extremes can reach respectively 46ºC and 32ºC. Average
daily minima are about 17ºC in January and 3ºC in July; extremes can reach
5ºC and -10ºC respectively. On the interior plateau frost is common in winter.
One of the hottest areas in South Africa is found in the Orange River valley
around Goodhouse and one of the coldest spots is Sutherland in the
Roggeveld.

In the Kalahari and Namibia one sometimes encounters duststorms similar to

the “haboob” of the Sudan, whilst the coastal belt is subject to hot easterly
winds and sandstorms which are decidedly unpleasant. The latter occur

58
mainly during the winter season when an anticyclone is established over the
interior.

Region SS and SN
This is a semi-arid region receiving on the average about 250 mm of rain in
the west to 500 mm on its eastern boundary. The rainfall is largely due to
showers and thundershowers falling in the summer months October to March,
the peak of the rainy season being in February or March. On the average up
to 10 rain days per month may be expected during the peak of the season,
whilst during the usually dry and sunny winter months unsettled weather may
occur on 1 or 2 occasions per month, occasionally (about 5 times per year)
accompanied by snow on the southern mountain ranges (Snow, Winter,
Stormberg Mountains, etc.) and resulting in extremely cold and unpleasant
weather further north; very occasionally snow also occurs in Region SN. Hail is
sometimes associated with the thunderstorms and mainly occurs in the early
summer (November); although these storms may sometimes be very severe
and cause much damage, they usually cover a relatively small area.

Sunshine hours amount from 70 to 80% of the possible sunshine duration,

even during the peak of the cloudy (or rainy) season.

Air temperatures are subject to large diurnal and seasonal variation; in

January the average daily maximum lies between 30 and 33ºC and in July it is
about 17ºC whilst extremes can attain 41ºC and 28ºC respectively. Average
daily minimum temperatures are of the order of 15ºC in January and 0ºC in
July, whilst extremes of 3ºC and -11ºC respectively have occurred; these
extreme minima are of course largely dependent on local topographical
features since the nights are usually calm. The period during which frost can
be expected lasts for about 150 days (May to September) in the south of this
region and for about 100 days (June to August) in the north.

Winds are usually north-westerly, attaining their maximum speed in the

afternoon; during thunderstorms strong and gusty south-westerly winds of
short duration are a common feature and occasional cold snaps are

59
accompanied by unpleasantly cold southerly winds for a day or two. In the
Region SN dust storms similar to those in the Sudan sometimes occur,
depending mainly on denudation of the surface due to prolonged drought.

Region SE
As may be expected, this region is in many respects similar to Region SC,
namely temperate to warm and humid, except that there is a definite summer
rainy season which reaches its maximum in autumn (March), and its minimum
in June. On the average the summer months each have about 12 rainy days
as against about 4 in a midwinter month. Annual average rainfall varies from
about 500 mm in the Fish River valley to about 1 250 mm or more at Port St.
Johns. In July about 25 mm can be expected.

Rainfall is of a showery nature and thunderstorms are quite frequent – about

20 to 30 per annum – and are occasionally accompanied by hail, especially in
the interior.

Winds blow mainly parallel to the coast, namely north-easterly and south-
westerly, and occasionally reach gale force. During north-easterly winds the
sky is usually cloudless but hazy and south-westerly winds bring cool cloudy
weather and rain. Sometimes, mainly during the late winter, very dry and hot
“berg winds” (föhn) are experienced though much less frequently than in the
Cape south and west coasts and adjacent interior.

In winter the sky is mostly clear and the region receives about 70% of its
possible sunshine. In summer it is often cloudy to overcast resulting in only
about 50% of the possible sunshine duration.

Average daily maximum temperatures are around 28ºC in January and 21ºC
in July though extremes sometimes reach 43ºC and 34ºC respectively during
hot winds. Average daily minima are around 17ºC in January and 8ºC in July,
whilst extremes reach 12ºC and 3ºC respectively on the coast and 5ºC and -
5ºC in valleys in the interior. The frost period in interior valleys lasts on the
average about 30 to 40 days during July and August.

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Region E
This region is one of the best-watered regions of South Africa. The average
annual rainfall varies from about 760 mm in the northern interior to 1 250 mm
on parts of the coast and against interior mountains. Rain falls mainly in
summer from October to March and the peak of the rainy season changes
from February – March along the coast to January in the interior. About 120 to
140 rain days per year may be expected varying from about 15 days per
month during the peak of the rainy season to about 3 or 4 per month in winter.
Most of the rainfall is derived from instability showers and thunder is heard on
about 40 to 50 days per year. Occasional heavy showers in short periods of
time bring floods, causing extensive damage. Hail at an individual station
occurs on about 1 to 3 days per year, more particularly in the interior.
Although the rainfall is fairly reliable, droughts are apt to occur about once in
seven years.

Cloudy weather during the summer months reduces the sunshine duration to
about 45% of the possible, whilst in winter the percentage is about 70.

Average daily maximum temperatures ranges from about 28ºC in January to

22ºC in July, though extremes can reach 43ºC and 34ºC respectively.
Average daily minima are about 19ºC in January and 9ºC in July, whilst
extremes can sink to 7ºC and -1ºC respectively. Frost is practically unknown
except very occasionally in some interior valleys.

The predominating winds blow from the north-east and south-west in about
equal proportions. Gales are very infrequent. During north-easterly winds in
summer, sweltering warm to hot days are experienced; relief comes with
south-westerly winds and cloudy weather. Very occasionally (in late winter)
hot westerly winds blow off the interior plateau causing the mercury to rise
above 38ºC. The serene winter weather makes the coast one of the most
popular holiday destinations in South Africa.

61
Region D
This region has a climate very similar to that of Region SE and E, except that,
due to altitude and distance from the ocean, temperatures show greater
fluctuation both seasonally and diurnally. Thus days in summer are on the
whole warmer but colder in winter, whilst nights – as shown by the minimum
temperatures – are cooler throughout the year. The average daily maximum
temperature is about 27ºC in January and 19ºC in July, whilst extremes can
reach 40ºC and 30ºC respectively. Average daily minima are in the
neighbourhood of 15ºC in January and 3ºC in July, whilst extremes can sink
to 3ºC and -10ºC respectively in summer and winter. Depending on
topography, the frost period lasts from 90 to 150 days, from April to
September.

Winds are mainly southerly and northerly to north-westerly, the latter often
very strong – especially in autumn.

Sunshine duration varies from 50 to 60% of the possible in summer, and in

winter from 70 to 80%.

The average annual rainfall varies from about 680 mm in the Tugela basin to
over 1900 mm in places against the Drakensberg. The bulk of the rain falls in
summer from November to March when 12 to 13 rain days per month may be
expected. In midwinter an average of about 12 mm falls on 2 to 3 days per
month. The rainfalls are largely of the thunderstorm type, sometimes of great
intensity, and anything from 60 to 90 thunderstorms are experienced per
annum. Mists and drizzle are common against the mountains and also in the
so-called mist belt which more or less lies on the boundary between this
region and Regions E and SE.

Hail is relatively frequent and occurs about 6 times per year in higher lying
areas adjacent to the Drakensberg and perhaps 3 to 4 times per year at any
one station in the lower lying valleys (e.g. the Tugela basin).

62
On the mountains of this region snow is more frequent than anywhere else in
South Africa, probably on account of the great elevation of the Drakensberg.
On the average, snow falls on about 8 occasions per year, the peak of the
“snow season” being in July. Usually the snow-cap melts within a day or two,
but on rare occasions the Drakensberg on the Lesotho border has been
snow-capped for some weeks on end.

The beautiful mountain scenery coupled with an exhilarating climate draws

many visitors to this region.

Region L
In the low-lying areas of this region the average annual rainfall varies from
about 500 mm in the north to about 700 mm in the south. Against the
escarpment rainfall increases rapidly with altitude, in places up to 2 000 mm
per year. The rainy season lasts from about November to March with a
maximum in January. On the average about 65 rain days per year occur over
the Lowveld, whilst against the escarpment over 120 rain days may be
expected. The rain is mainly due to thunderstorms and heavy showers
exceeding 300 mm in one day have been recorded. Against the mountains
orographic rain and mists are of frequent occurrence. Hail occurs infrequently,
about once or twice per year.

The climate is warm to hot and a fairly high humidity makes summer days
very oppressive though cooler weather is found against the escarpment.
Average daily maximum temperatures are of the order of 30ºC in January and
23ºC in July; extremes in the Lowveld can reach 43ºC and 35ºC respectively.
Average daily minima are about 18ºC in summer and 8ºC in midwinter, whilst
extremes reach 7ºC and -2ºC respectively. Frost is seldom experienced and is
mainly confined to low-lying valleys.

In winter skies are usually clear and sunshine duration is about 75% of the
possible. During summer, however, the duration is around 50% of the
possible.

63
Winds blow mainly from the south-southeast or north-northwest and can
reach gale force against the mountains, though very infrequently. In winter
this region draws many visitors to the Kruger National Park whilst the beautiful
mountain scenery is an added attraction.

Region H
The average annual precipitation in this Highveld region varies from about
900 mm on its eastern border to about 650 mm in the west. The rainfall is
almost exclusively due to showers and thunderstorms and falls mainly in
summer, from October to March, the maximum fall occurring in January. The
winter months are normally dry and about 85% of the annual rainfall falls in
the summer months; heavy falls of 125 to 150 mm occasionally fall in a single
day. The annual average number of thunderstorms varies from about 75 north
of the Vaal River to 100 in Lesotho. These storms are often violent with
severe lightning and strong (but short-lived) gusty south-westerly winds and
are sometimes accompanied by hail. This region has about the highest hail
frequency in South Africa; about 4 to 7 occurrences (depending mainly on
altitude) may be expected annually at any one spot, whilst occasionally
hailstones may grow to the size of hen’s eggs or tennis balls and can cause
tremendous damage. Snow occurs about 8 times annually (mainly in
midwinter) in Lesotho; the frequency decreases rapidly northwards and in
Mpumalanga it may occur about once or twice a year. Very exceptionally,
snow will fall further northwards and has been observed as far north as the
Soutpansberg.

Average daily maximum temperature is roughly 27ºC in January and 17ºC in

July but in extreme cases these may rise to 38ºC and 26ºC respectively.
Average daily minima range from about 13ºC in January to 0ºC in July,
whereas extremes can sink to 1ºC and -13ºC respectively. The period during
which frost is likely to form lasts on the average for about 120 days from May
to September, though this period is longer in the southern highlands
(Lesotho).

64
On the whole winds are light except for short periods during storms. Very
occasionally tornadoes do occur and cause tremendous damage if they
happen to strike a populated area.

Sunshine duration in summer is about 60% and in winter about 80% of the
possible.

Region B
The climate is semi-arid and hot in the Limpopo and Olifants River basins but
more humid and somewhat cooler on the Waterberg plateau and
Soutpansberg. The average annual rainfall, mainly occurring as a result of
thunderstorms, varies from about 380 mm in the north to just over 700 mm on
parts of the Waterberg. The rainy season lasts from November to March, the
peak of the rainy season falling in January. About 50 to 80 rain days per year
may be expected. Hail is about half as (or less) frequent than on the Highveld
(Region H). The rainfall is somewhat unreliable and in about 12% of all years
rather severe drought conditions occur.

Average daily maximum temperatures are about 32ºC in January and 22ºC in
July; extremes are of the order of 42ºC and 31ºC respectively. Average daily
minima are about 18ºC in January and 4ºC in July, whilst extremes can reach
8ºC and -7ºC respectively. Days are often very oppressive in summer,
whereas winter nights can occasionally be decidedly cold. Frost occurs on the
average during the months June to August.

Winds are mainly light to moderate and blow from the north-easterly sector
except for short periods during thunderstorms or weather changes when they
have a southerly component.

The duration of bright sunshine exceeds 80% of the possible in midwinter and
60% of the possible sunshine in summer.

65
Region NN & BOT
This region adjoins Regions B, SN and NS & W, and partakes of these several
climates whilst there is a gradual transition to more humid conditions
northwards. The average annual rainfall varies from about 250 mm in the
south-west of the region to just over 600 mm in the extreme north. The main
rainfall season lasts from about November to March; in Botswana the peak of
the rainy season occurs in January, whereas in parts of northern Namibia
(around Windhoek) the peak occurs in February or March.

The rainfall is almost exclusively due to showers and thunderstorms. Heavy

showers, up to 125 mm of rain per day, occasionally fall in the north of this
region. Hail is infrequent; at Windhoek it occurs once or twice per year,
usually in November or December.

In summer the air temperature decreases northwards on account of mainly

cloud free skies and intense insolation in the south as opposed to cloudy
weather (arrested insolation) in the north; in winter, however, temperatures
increase northwards. The average daily maximum temperature is on the
whole about 33ºC in January and around 22ºC in July whilst extremes can
reach 42ºC and 32ºC respectively. Average daily minimum temperatures are
around 18ºC in January and 5ºC in July whilst extremes can sink to -7ºC and
-9ºC respectively, the latter low temperatures being mainly confined to the
southern parts of the region. Frost occurs mainly during June, July and
August and the “frost period” decreases in length northwards.

In winter skies are almost cloudless and sunshine duration amounts to 90% of
the possible in July. In summer however, due to cloudy conditions, the
sunshine duration varies from about 65% in the north to 80% in the south-
western parts.

Winds are mainly light to moderate from the north-eastern sector.

66
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