Computer Networks

Chapter I
Introduction

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Chapter 1: Outline
• what is the Internet?
• network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
• network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
• delay, loss, throughput in networks
• protocol layers, service models
• networks under attack: security

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 Introduction
• In this course we are going to concentrate on
TCP/IP protocol suite layers 3, 4, and 5.
• Other layers are covered in the Data
Communications course.

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What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
PC
 billions of connected mobile network
server computing devices:
wireless
laptop
• hosts = end systems global ISP

smartphone • running network apps

home
 communication links network
regional ISP
wireless • fiber, copper, radio,
links satellite
wired
links • transmission rate:
bandwidth

 packet switches: forward

router
packets (chunks of data) institutional
• routers and switches network

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What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
 Internet: “network of networks”
• Interconnected ISPs
global ISP
 protocols control sending, receiving
of messages
• e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11 home
network
 Internet standards regional ISP
• RFC: Request for comments
• IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force

institutional
network

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What’s the Internet: a service view
mobile network
 infrastructure that provides
services to applications: global ISP

• Web, VoIP, email, games, e-

commerce, social nets, … home
 provides programming network
regional ISP
interface to apps
• hooks that allow sending
and receiving app programs
to “connect” to Internet
• provides service options,
analogous to postal service
institutional
network

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What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication activity
in Internet governed by
protocols
… specific messages sent
… specific actions taken
when messages protocols define format, order of
received, or other
events messages sent and received
among network entities, and
actions taken on message
transmission, receipt
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What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get [Link]
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

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A closer look at network structure:
 network edge: mobile network

• hosts: clients and servers

global ISP
• servers often in data
centers
home
 access networks, physical network
regional ISP
media: wired, wireless
communication links

 network core:
• interconnected routers
• network of networks institutional
network

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Access networks and physical media

Q: How to connect end

systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school, company)
 mobile access networks
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per second)
of access network?
 shared or dedicated?

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Access network: digital subscriber line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

• data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
• voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically < 1 Mbps)
 < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically < 10 Mbps)
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Access network: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing: different channels transmitted

in different frequency bands
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 Access network: home network
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (1 Gbps)

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Enterprise access networks (Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

 typically used in companies, universities, etc.

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch

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Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end system to router
• via base station aka “access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft.)  provided by telco (cellular)
 802.11b/g/n (WiFi): 11, 54, 450 operator, 10’s km
Mbps transmission rate  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet

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Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
 takes application message
 breaks into smaller two packets,
chunks, known as packets, L bits each
of length L bits
 transmits packet into
access network at 2 1
transmission rate R R: link transmission rate
• link transmission rate, host
aka link capacity, aka
link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
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The network core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
• forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
• each packet transmitted at
full link capacity

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Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to transmit one-hop numerical example:

(push out) L-bit packet into
link at R bps  L = 7.5 Mbits
 store and forward: entire  R = 1.5 Mbps
packet must arrive at router  one-hop transmission
before it can be transmitted delay = 5 sec
on next link
 end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming
zero propagation delay) more on delay shortly …
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Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 if arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link
for a period of time:
• packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
• packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

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 Two key network-core functions
routing: determines source-
destination route taken by forwarding: move packets from
packets router’s input to appropriate
 routing algorithms router output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
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Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated
to, reserved for “call”
between source & dest:
 in diagram, each link has four
circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top
link and 1st circuit in right
link.
 dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not used
by call (no sharing)
 commonly used in traditional
telephone networks
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Internet structure: network of networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet
Service Providers)
• residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
• so that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
• evolution was driven by economics and national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet
structure

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Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

access
to each other directly doesn’t access
net
net
scale
access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
….
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A

access
net ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
…. which must be interconnected
access access
Internet exchange point
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access peering link

net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to
ISPs
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft,
Akamai) may run their own network, to bring services, content
close to end users
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
Content provider network
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

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Internet structure: network of networks

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

• “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national &
international coverage
• content provider network (e.g., Google): private network that connects
it data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional
IT3203 ISPs
Computer Networks 1-30
 INTERNET STRUCTURE: NETWORK OF
NETWORKS
 roughly hierarchical
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., UUNet, BBN/Genuity,
Sprint, AT&T), national/international coverage
• treat each other as equals
Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
Tier-1 at public network
providers
Tier 1 ISP
NAP access points
interconnect (NAPs)
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

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 INTERNET STRUCTURE: NETWORK OF
NETWORKS
 “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs
• Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other,
rest of Internet NAP interconnect
 tier-2 ISP is
at NAP
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

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 INTERNET STRUCTURE: NETWORK OF
NETWORKS
 “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs
• last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier NAP
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
of Internet
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP
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 INTERNET STRUCTURE: NETWORK OF
NETWORKS
 a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
NAP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP
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Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

POP: point-of-presence
to/from backbone

peering
… … …
…

to/from customers

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How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

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Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output link
 determine output link for transmission
 typically < msec  depends on congestion
level of router
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Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link bandwidth (bps)  s: propagation speed (~2x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different

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 Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite
capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by
source end system, or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost

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Protocol “layers”
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
 protocols …. or at least our
 hardware, discussion of networks?
software

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Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications
• FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
 transport: process-process data
transfer transport
• TCP, UDP
network
 network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination
Data link
• IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
• Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”
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ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow applications
to interpret meaning of data, application
e.g., encryption, compression,
machine-specific conventions presentation
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
 Internet stack “missing” these
layers! Data link
• these services, if needed, must be physical
implemented in application
• needed?

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Network security
 field of network security:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
 Internet not originally designed with (much)
security in mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users
attached to a transparent network” 
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!

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 Disclosures Stories
5 June - a top secret order of Foreign Intelligence Surveillance
Court (FISC)
Ordered a business division to provide metadata for all telephone calls
“wholly within the United States, including local telephone calls” and all
calls “between the United States and abroad.”

6 June – PRISM (begin from 2007)

A clandestine electronic surveillance program that allegedly allows the
NSA to access e-mail, web searches, and other Internet traffic in real-
time.

9 June – Boundless Informant

A system "details and even maps by country the voluminous amount of
information [the NSA] collects from computer and telephone networks."

15 June - Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)

A British intelligence agency, worked jointly with the NSA to eavesdrop
on a meeting of industrialized nations in London in 2009.

21 June -- GCHQ has secretly gained access to the network of cables and
has started to process vast streams (The MTI Project)
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Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet
 malware can get in host from:
• virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing
object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
• worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving
object that gets itself executed
 spyware malware can record keystrokes, web
sites visited, upload info to collection site
 infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for
spam. DDoS attacks

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Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources
(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic
by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts around
the network (see botnet)
3. send packets to target from
compromised hosts
target

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Bad guys can sniff packets
packet “sniffing”:
 broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets
(e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

 wireshark software used for end-of-chapter labs is a

(free) packet-sniffer
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Bad guys can use fake addresses
IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
A C

src:B dest:A payload

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Internet Censorship
 Internet censorship is control or suppression of the publishing
or accessing of information on the Internet.
 Each Nation sets their own laws on censorship of the internet.
Some Nations are more strict than others.
 For example, China blocks or filters Internet content relating to
Tibetan independence, Taiwan independence, police brutality,
the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, freedom of speech,
pornography, certain religious movements, and many blogging
websites.
 However, a nation like Mexico does not have any internet
censorship laws or filters.

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Thank you

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