LECTURE 2

SPEAKING

Introduction

Unlike writing, speaking is enhanced with verbal and non-verbal cues (signs) that individuals
unconsciously use when speaking. Speaking is oral communication which is either planned or
unplanned. In most cases, speaking is unplanned because it is a spontaneous daily occurrence.
We all have information to pass across or share with others, and this can be done orally. It is
necessary to study the features of speaking because when speaking is defective, communication
will turn out to be ineffective and listeners will misunderstand our intentions.

Definition. Speaking

Apart from the informal speaking in which we are regularly involved, speaking in the real
context of our study is public presentation (official speech made in public for a specific purpose
and audience). Speech making is an art which can be very effective with the relevant skills. An
individual who makes a public speech should be able to deliver the right information and make
the audience attentive throughout the duration of the speech. The individual should adequately
present his views (thoughts, ideas or scenario) without boring the audience. Speaking is the
oral expression of opinion to influence others. In this case, the speaker would have made an
effort to understand those who constitute the audience, including their level of education and
expectations. However, a speech may also be impromptu, where the individual is compelled
by circumstances at the moment to make the speech. With reference to public speaking, the
speaker has an obligation to be logical in his presentation while making it possible for listeners
(the audience) to follow him with interest.

Public Speaking

This is the most essential skill human beings need, to function effectively in today’s society. It
is an indispensable skill as you go up in the world’s hierarchy (student, assistant/intern, to junior
analyst, to manager, to CEO).

Public speaking is a form of communication in which a speaker addresses a relatively large

audience with a relatively continuous discourse, usually in a face-to-face situation. It is a
situation in which a speaker (sender of a message disseminates information to a targeted
audience or group of people. Indeed, it is a process of scheming a message art conveying it to
an audience. It has to do with creating a presentation and delivering it to a group of people.
Thus, in public speaking, a speaker presents a specific message to a relatively large audience
in a unique context. A person who engages in public speaking is called a public speaker. Often
time, the term has been used strictly for those who speak to an audience in order to be paid for
it. This may not necessarily be the truth as every human being one time or the other, as found
himself/herself in a participating context since anyone who engages in speaking to a group of
people can be regarded as a public speaker. Examples abound every day and every time
including the following context-in a friend get-together, Seminar presentation, speaking in an
interview, in a religious institution like a church or mosque e.t.c.

In essence, public speaking is a part of all sundry career, education and personal life. It is vital
to everyone as ability to speak effectively to the public is one of the signs of intellectual
advancement.

Like all communication, public speaking is a transactional process, a process whose elements
are inter-dependent (Watilawick, 1978 Watilawick, Beavin and Jackson 1967). This means that
each element in the public speaking process depends on each interacts with all other elements.
For example, the way in which you organise a speech will depend on such factors as your
speech topic, your audience, the purpose you hope to achieve and a host of other variables of
utmost importance is to note the mutual interaction and influence between speaker and
audience. The speaker does most of the speaking while the audience does most of the listening
but the audience sends a message in form of feedback such as applause, no applause, bored
look, nods of agreement/disagreement or attentive glances as forms of non-verbal cues.

In public speaking, it is very important to be ethical. This, in public speaking is called ethics.
It is of great importance that a public speaker should not give false information or misleading
information which can be done when a speaker provides information or tries to persuade the
audience about a concept/idea that is not true.

Verbal and Non-verbal Cues

Cues are those guides, signposts and reminders. In speech making, verbal and non-verbal cues
are those expressive features which effectively aid speech presentation and understanding of
what is being projected to the audience. The ultimate aim of communication is to achieve
understanding. In speech making, or everyday process of speaking, it is not different. What is
the essence of speaking for an hour or several minutes if your listeners will make no meaning
out of it? We may, therefore, learn to understand the importance of certain verbal and non-
verbal cues which can aid speakers in the speech process. Here are a few examples of verbal
cues.

Use charts, graphs, power point and audio-visuals which illustrates the points you are trying to
make. These will arouse the interest of members of the audience and keep them attentive,
provided such cues fit genuinely into your presentation.

While your language must be simple, try to identify some key words and build your points or
argument around them. Such key words can be highlighted. If you are making a PowerPoint
presentation (using the Microsoft office software), attach some pictorial illustrations to the key
words. This will enable you remember the meaning as an explanatory note.

Examples of non-verbal cues include gestures, facial expressions, intonation and watching the
reaction of the audience as you make your speech.

Visual aids in Public Speaking

Visual, also called multimedia-based presentation (MBE), is the combination of sound (audio)
and visual aids in communicating a message to the audience in public speaking. It is a
presentation where particular attention is paid to the audio and visual presentation of the
material with the goal of improving comprehension and retention. Visual aids is the use of any
visual tool or information to communicate a message to the audience in public speaking.

Adding a visual dimension to your presentation can make it look more vivid, graphic and
professional-looking. Thus, used wisely visual aids can turn into a powerful tool that helps your
listeners remember your speech, while allowing you to prove, reinforce and engage in your
ideas. In summary, it is critical to choose visual aids that empower your message, stimulate
and create an emotional response in your audience as well as work well in the physical
settings of your presentation.

Tools Used for Visual Presentations

When public speakers talk about visual aids they usually intend one of the five communication
power tools: flip charts, overhead projectors, slide shows, handouts and props.

• Flip Charts

Flip charts are one of the most commonly used visual supports in business presentations for
briefing smaller, more informal groups of people. As the name implies, a flip chart is a large
pad of paper on an easel which allows the speaker to illustrate or write down their ideas and
then simply flip the used sheet of paper and start anew. Flip charts are quick, inexpensive,
portable, universally understood communication tool that does not require electricity or hi-tech
knowledge.

• Overhead projectors

Overhead projectors are similar in many respects to flipcharts. They are convenient,
unpretentious, and can be ideal in transferring data for an audience-settings of 20 to 50 people.
Many smaller companies and organizations are still using overhead projectors and
transparencies in meetings and team-training workshops, though, this system is being largely
replaced by LCD projectors and interactive whiteboards. If you are looking to impress your
audience with something higher tech, slide shows will be your best bet.

• Slide shows

With the advent of computer programs like PowerPoint and Keynote it is now easier than ever
to put together a professional looking slide show in just a couple of hours. A slideshow is a
series of pictures, diagrams, maps and charts projected on to a screen. The main objective of a
slide show is to reinforce the oral presentation and to ‘sell’ the message, the product or the
company without being too aggressive. One of the biggest strengths of this communication tool
is its universality. Whether you are presenting your idea to four hundred professionals or
holding a weekly meeting for selected members of your team, you can still win greatly from
weaving a slide show into your presentation.

• Handouts

Handouts are printed copies of notes and slides given to the listeners during or after the
presentation. Handouts are often unjustly disregarded by many speakers even though they come
in very handy, especially during lengthy academic presentations that contain vast amounts of
facts, figures and data. Quick and inexpensive to make, handouts allow your audience to follow
your presentation, gain added information and even take it home with them.

• Props

A prop is an object used during the presentation to help illustrate or reinforce a point. Using a
prop that relates to the content of the speech, can be an original way to create an atmosphere
of surprise, draw people’s attention to the speaker and help people recall the point of your
speech weeks and even months after the presentation.

Tips on using Visual Aids

➢ Prepare your visual ahead of time: There is a popular saying that a stich in time saves
nine. Do not start prepping your slides, few minutes before the talk. It is a sign of
irresponsibility; it can lead to a grave disappointment. Some members of the audience
may get angry if they discover that your preparation is not adequate.
➢ Use Visual aids that are not too complicated: Too complicated audio visual will take
much of your time and it may also be difficult for the audience to understand. Use those
that are user-friendly and can drive home your points easily.
➢ Use Visual that are compatible with the environment of your presentation: If you to use
slides, be sure that there is a projector or a LCD monitor for your projection.
➢ Master the use of aids very well before time: It will look irresponsible to be battling
with the use of technological gadgets in the front of the audience. You need to have
mastered how to use your audio-visual aids. They should aid your presentation and not
hamper it.
➢ Be skillful in the use of the visual: You need to master how you will skillfully use the
audio-visual, in such a way that you will still maintain all needed eyes contacts and
gesticulation and you will not just be addressing your visual aids and not the audience.
➢ Prepare for hitches in the use of Visual: It is good always good to prepare for plan B.
What if the visuals did work? Will the speech still continues?

If the audio-visual suddenly develop fault on the spur of the moment, what can be done?
Projectors develop faults. Laptops and projector may not connect and sometimes there may not
be power supply, even where there is a generator.

Advantages of Visual aids for Public Speaking

➢ Visual aids make presentation easy because they foster or promote understanding.
 ➢ They make the speech serious and colourful.
➢ They help the audience to concentrate. Audience do not just listen, they see things like
graphs, read texts and look at pictures.
➢ Visual aids also help in making the speech more organised and systemic; the speaker
spends time in preparing a well-structured talk.
➢ Audio gadgets can be used to amplify the voice and thereby help in making the speech
a success.
➢ Visual helps in making the speech interesting.

Disadvantages of Visual aids for Public Speaking

➢ Equipment failure: Audio or video gadget used can develop faults which could lead to
messy situation
➢ Capital intensive: The gadgets are capital intensive. They are expensive to procure and
maintain.
➢ Technical know How: Some of the gadgets may be difficult to operate. Hence may
require a support technician which is additional cost.
➢ They can constitute nuisance if the speaker does not know how to use them.
➢ Source of distraction: Gadgets can be distraction if they are not properly used.
➢ Boredom: It much of visual material used at one time can result in boredom. It is useful
only if it is effective. Considering that each public speaking situation varies, so it is
important to know that all concepts may not be learned effectively through audio-visual.
➢ Time consuming: It requires a lot of time for the presenter to prepare presentation in
order to have interactive session. Also, presenter’s valuable time may be lost in gaining
familiarity with equipment.
➢ Some audience may feel reluctant to ask questions while the video or film is playing.
➢ Power Requirement: In rural areas where electricity is not always available, it is not
feasible to use audio-visual aids that requires electricity.

In conclusion, it is clear that visual aids are important tools for teaching and learning process.
It helps the lecturers/Instructors to present the lesson effectively. Students learn and retain the
concepts better and longer duration. Use of aids improves students’ critical and analytical
thinking. It helps to remove abstract concept through visual presentation. However, improper
and unplanned use of those aids can have negative effect on the learning outcome.
Structure of a Written Speech

Let us see examples of a written speech. Although an unprepared or unwritten speech does not
usually follow the pattern of a written speech, a written speech for a particular formal occasion
is structured as follows:

1. General title of the speech

2. Salutation of dignitaries and members of the audience
3. The speech proper, structured into paragraphs
4. Concluding remarks

Principles of Effective Public Speaking

If any speech is to make good impact, certain principles must be followed in presenting the
speech. The speaker must first demonstrate confidence in the command of the subject matter's
contents. He must prove, through his carriage, that he has adequate knowledge of the topic.
Most importantly, he must ensure that the interest and expectation of the audience are
addressed.

Let us highlight some basic guides:

• Rehearse your speech privately before presentation.

• Make eye contact with the audience.

• Express an idea in various ways by using synonymous words.

• Outline your speech points for easy reference.

• Use correct pronunciation. You may have to consult a standard dictionary to verify a
word if you are in doubt.

• Your voice must be audible enough to reach every member of the audience.

• Vary your voice in relation to questions, emotion, statements and direct quotations.

• Use very clear language devoid of ambiguity.

• Be sure that your words are appropriate for the occasion and relevant to the topic.
• Be time-conscious. Do not over-stretch an issue and as much as possible, avoid undue
repetition.

ATTITUDE AND EMOTION IN SPEECH MAKING

Attitude and emotion feature prominently in our speech. Whether we are making a formal
speech or simply discussing informally with friends, colleagues, or family members, attitude
and emotion are exposed by what we say and how we say it.

First, you must understand that attitude is the totality of feelings or opinions that someone
displays toward another individual, situation, or subject matter. Such feelings are also shown
in our behavior. By your behaviour, people around you are able to know your feelings.

Similarly, from your speech, listeners are able to discern how you feel, your views, and
disposition toward others and issues of immediate concern.

When we make a public speech, those who listen to us carefully will clearly discern our point
of view, line of argument, and feelings. All of these either show that we are in favour or we are
against a subject matter. Indeed, your expressions and points of argument also suggest that you
have a negative or positive attitude. Beyond understanding the speech, there is a clear reflection
of the speaker’s attitude. Consequently, the speaker’s attitude helps listeners to establish their
own stand.

Similarly, speech reflects the speaker’s emotion. Most times, good and passionate public
speakers use emotions to capture the interest, loyalty, and support of listeners. Emotions in
general are characterized by strong feelings of love, anger, fear, and hatred. From a speaker’s
speech context, facial expression, and voice, we can deduce passion, love, anger, fear, or hatred.
Emotion is a stronger expression of the speaker’s feelings in an attempt to drive home his
disposition, objective, and point of view.

• Speaking Confidently

In order to present oneself to others confidently and with self-assurance, a speaker must engage
in these wide variety of social, academic and career skills. Those skills help you to understand
human motivation and analyze or evaluate the validity of persuasive appeals and to effectively
use persuasion. A Public speaker should:

- Understand his/her message

 - Connect with his/her message
- Have a conversation
- Keep it clear

Try these 10 tips to get over your nervousness and to develop confidence during public
speaking.

1. Expect to be nervous: Even experienced speakers get nervous. Don’t try to eliminate your
jitters. Turn them into energy you can use to boost your delivery.

2. Prepare: Know what you are going to say – and why you want to say it.

3. Practice: Speak to supportive audiences in small forums where less is at stake – at a church
gathering, group discussion or Class meeting.

4. Breathe: In the thirty seconds before you begin speaking, take three slow, deep breaths
through your nose, filling your belly. As you breathe out, say silently to yourself, “Relax.”

5. Rehearse: Stand up and walk around as you practice out loud. Don’t memorize your speech
or practice it word for word. Talk it through, point by point. Imagine you’re explaining your
main ideas to a friend.

6. Focus on your audience: Stage fright is rooted in self-preoccupation. (“How am I doing?”

“Am I making any sense?”) Stop focusing on yourself. Focus, instead, on your audience.
(“How are you?” “Are you getting this?” “Can you hear me?”)

7. Simplify: Most speakers try to do too much in a speech. Then they worry about leaving
something out or losing their train of thought. Aim, instead, to communicate one basic idea.
Keep it short and simple.

8. Visualize success: Practice relaxation techniques in the days before your presentation. Lie
down or sit comfortably in a quiet place. Breathe slowly. Close your eyes. Imagine your
upcoming speaking engagement. Picture yourself speaking with confidence.

9. Connect with your audience: Make the audience your allies. Talk to individuals before
your presentation to get to know them. Look them in the eye as you speak to them, one person
at a time. When your audience sides with you, your job as a speaker becomes easier.
10. Act confident: People won’t see how nervous you are. (They can’t tell if your palms are
sweating or your knees are knocking or your heart is pounding.) So don’t tell them. Smile.
Stick your chest out. Look confident, even if you don’t feel it.

• Overcoming Anxiety in Public Speaking

Many speakers develop fear when they realize they will have to engage an audience but the
audience should not be feared as they are there to listen and gain knowledge from one’s
presentation. This fear that a speaker experiences before and during the speech, rapid breathing,
a strange kind of shaking or nausea.

In order to put things in proper perspectives, it should be clear that effective public speakers
are not born, they are made. We are more confident than one another and people with less
confidence can build themselves by constant practice and change of their belief
system(mindset).

Thus, to be an effective speaker, there is the need to develop oneself through instructional
teaching, exposure to different speeches, feedback and individual learning experiences.
Regardless of your present level of confidence, you can improve your speaking skills through
proper training.

Jerry Seinfeld said “According to most studies, people’s number one fear is public speaking.
Death is number two”. Apprehension in public speaking is normal this because you are the sole
focus of attention and are usually being evaluated for your performance. Thus, experiencing
nervousness or anxiety is a natural reaction. Apprehension is not necessarily harmful. In fact,
it can work to your advantage. Fear can energize you, motivate you to work a little harder to
produce a speech that will be better than it might have been, had you not been fearful.

This apprehension, is stage fright and it is called “communication Apprehension”. Research

has identified five factors as being especially important in contributing to fear in public
speaking (Beatty:1988; Reckoned and Mcrosky:1998).

1) Inexperience- a new and totally different situation can cause anxiety.

2) Subordinating status- portray yourself as less important or lower in status than the
members of the audience.
3) Conspicuousness: Perceiving yourself as the center of attention.
 4) Lack of familiarity: Seeing yourself as different from your audience.
5) Prior History: having memories of previous times when you were apprehended

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE PUBLIC SPEAKING

Speaking, whether in public or private places, is rendered ineffective by certain barriers.

Barriers are generally those factors which prevent the effective understanding of a speech.
More specifically, the burden to make a speech clear, meaningful and understandable rests on
the speaker. The speaker has a critical role to play. He may create the barriers by not observing
some elements.

A speech will be marred where the speaker uses inappropriate words or detaches himself from
the audience.

Also, effective speaking will be hindered where the speaker fails to exercise a good command
of the subject matter. If the purpose of the speech is not in tune with the topic (subject matter)
or where the speaker does not clearly address the purpose of the speech, the audience may be
confused or misled.

It is appropriate to understand the level of awareness or education of those to whom a speech

is directed (the audience) and attempt to choose words that they will clearly understand. In
Engineering, it is necessary that technical expressions must be used because of the nature of
the subject matter, then such expressions must be well explained with scenarios and
illustrations; otherwise, the audience will be bored, and the whole essence of the speech is
marred. You may have discovered that some people make too many pauses when speaking as
they attempt to find the right words to express their views. This is a barrier to quick
comprehension by listeners. It is more frustrating for the listeners when the speaker is
constantly saying, “em ….em….em…. ah… ah. This regularly happens to some speakers when
they run out of the right words, not simply or only because they have forgotten a point.

Again, it is appropriate to assert that inarticulate expressions, inaudibility, poor intonation, bad
pronunciation, and disregard for the gestures made by the audience constitute barriers to
speaking. The speaker should also be able to make some appropriate body gestures to drive
home his points; he should not be lifeless or stiff. Speaking entails action to help listeners
achieve a good level of understanding.
We need to acknowledge that although speech may be well-prepared, poor presentation could
make it lose its value and objective. Similarly, a speaker may have good knowledge of the
subject matter, but his presentation or articulation is inappropriate; when this happens, it
hinders listeners’ comprehension.

Things to consider when selecting a suitable Research/Project Topic for Public Speaking
in Engineering
1. Selection of the Topic: Selecting a topic for a speech can be overwhelming. You may feel
that you have an infinite number of topics to choose from, but there are a few strategies that
can help narrow down your choices. If you want to know how to select a topic, just follow
these steps.
a. Consider the occasion: The occasion for the speech can go a long way in helping you
determine the topic. Your speech topic will vary depending on whether the occasion is
professional or not. Here are a few ways that the occasion can help influence your speech topic:
If the occasion is professional, then you need to stick to a professional topic, such as report
and research work, and not focus on your personal experiences.
b. Consider your purpose: Your purpose is related to the occasion and is the goal you want to
achieve through your speech. A speech can have a variety of purposes, but it's important to be
acquainted with the most common purposes:
• Clarity of the Problem to be solved – it has to be a well defined and specific problem
statement.
• Clear communication of the research aim enhances ones understanding of the topic
2. Know which topics to avoid: If you want to select a topic that suits your aim and is relevant
to the profession, then you should eliminate a variety of topics before you even start
brainstorming ideas. This will make it easier for you not to offend or just bore your audience
as you move forward with your ideas. Here are a few things to consider as you cross those
potential topics off your list:
Don't pick anything so complicated that it would be impossible to inform your audience. If
you pick something so complex that it can't be explained in a short amount of time or without
pages of charts or diagrams, then you will lose your audience.
Don't pick something that's so simple that your audience could understand it in just a minute
or two. If your topic is so basic that you'll only be repeating yourself after you've said just a
few sentences, then you'll lose your audience's interests as well. You want to keep your
audience members on their toes, not knowing what to expect next.
Don't pick anything that's too controversial.
Avoid overly broad or vague topics
3. Consider the knowledge of your audience. If you want to connect to your audience, then
you should consider its knowledge before you select a topic. If you're giving a speech to a
group of aspiring writers, then you can comfortably reference other writers and literary terms;
if you're speaking to a group that knows very little about writing, be careful when you make
more obscure literary references.
If you're speaking to a group that is knowledgeable about a topic, then you don't have to
waste their time by discussing the most basic aspects of that topic.
4. Consider the level of education of your audience. If you're speaking at a conference for
young professionals, you can use more complicated terms and elaborate phrases, but if you're
delivering a speech to Undergraduate or graduate students, you'll have to change your terms
and phrasing to connect to your audience.
You don't want to lose your audience by speaking about something that is completely over
their heads, or by delivering content in such a basic way that it sounds condescending.
Think about who your project is for - Academicians, Professional, Community or Policy
makers
Tailor your communication style and depth of explanation based on the technical background
of your audience
5. Consider the audience's relationship to you. If you're giving a speech to friends or family,
then you can be more personal than you would if you were giving a speech to an audience of
strangers. If you're giving a speech to your colleagues or peer group, your tone would be
different than it would be if you were giving a speech to your lecturer or supervisor. Adjust the
tone and content of your speech accordingly.
6. Pick a topic that you're passionate about. If you pick something that you're passionate
about, then your audience will be able to see and feel your passion. This will also make you
much more excited to generate ideas for the speech and to deliver the speech.
If you only have a limited number of options and can't pick anything you're truly passionate
about, you should at least pick something that you like or are interested in to make it easier and
more enjoyable for you to write and deliver the speech.
The topic should align with your future academic or professional goals
7. Pick a topic that you're knowledgeable about. If you're giving a speech at a professional
conference, then it's logical that you would pick a topic that you're an expert on so you can give
credibility to your speech. But even if you're not delivering a speech on a particularly
complicated topic, you should still pick something you know a lot about, whether engineering
or technology related. You can even start by making a list of the things you're knowledgeable
about, whether it's career or academic related.
You don't have to know every single thing about a topic to deliver a great speech. You can
pick something that you're knowledgeable about, and can supplement that area with some
careful research.
If you're picking a subject you're knowledgeable about but know you'll need to research
further, make sure the topic is easy to research. If you pick something fairly obscure, then it
may be difficult to find more information about it.
8. Pick something that relates to your interest and career goals: It could have to do with
engineering, innovation or trending technology. Make a list of all of your area of interests and
see what would make for an engaging speech topic.
You may find a large overlap between the things you're interested in and the things you know.
9. Choose something timely. If there has been a topic that has been trending in innovation
space such as Intelligence-of-things, Artificial Intelligence, IoT etc.
Interdisciplinary scope is richer in content and more communicable to diverse audience. Pick
something that involve the integration of fields such as AI in CVE, IoT in Agriculture
(Agrotech) etc.
Read through popular national and local papers, listen to the radio, and watch the news to
see what people are talking about and how the public is reacting to these events.
Read Articles, Journals, Newspaper and consult professional in the field.
You can also pick something that is particularly timely for your community. Something that
can profer solutions to a problem affecting a community or the world at large.
Pick a topic that offers new insight, improves the existing system; or introduce novel
approach to solve problem.
10. Pick a topic that you have the ability to speak about. You should be able to deliver a
speech about the topic with clarity and conviction. This means that you should feel strongly
enough about the topic to inform and persuade your audience. It also means that your audience
should trust you as an authority on the subject.
 Whatever the topic, you should be able to connect with your audience through the speech.
At the end or even during the speech. If you don't have the ability to truly connect with your
audience about this topic, then pick another one.
Pick a topic you can give explanations through; diagrams, simulations or schematics and
technical writing, oral presentations or demonstrations
Pick a topic that are more engaging and make one demonstrate critical thinking – key
elements of effective engineering communication
11. Data Availability. Pick a topic whose data is available.
Consider your access to reliable data sources or if the data can be gathered through
experiments or simulations
Consider the feasibility of the project based on the available resources and technical capacity
Consider if the project be realistic and completed with the tools, equipment and knowledge
you have.
Data forms the basic evidence in engineering writing and communication
12. Ethical and Societal Impact. Consider a topic that has societal, environmental or ethical
implication
Engineering solutions must be communicated with awareness of broader impacts

Essential Qualities of a Good Public Speaker

1. Stand erect distributing your weight on both the legs. Do not hold onto the mike or to the
podium for support.

2. Have a good posture and appearance. Do not lean on the podium.

3. Be confident, relaxed and energetic. Do not play with your clothes or fingers.

4. Wear clothes that befit the occasion.

5. Convey sincerity, conviction and enthusiasm for the subject.

6. Begin the speech, after passing for a few seconds, looking over the audience.

7. Open the speech with a striking, catchy introduction looking into the eyes of the audience.

8. Have a conversational tone.

9. Establish eye contact with the audience.

10. Use gestures to emphasize and clarify your points.

11. Allow your hands, to fall naturally to your sides, when not gesturing.

12. Have enough voice projection.

13. Speak at moderate speed. Do not rush through.

14. Pause before and after important ideas.

15. Have pleasant mannerisms.

16. Do not read your speech.

17. Manage time.

18. Close the speech with a striking, impressive, concluding remark.

19. Stop, while the audience is still eager to hear more.

20. Avoid a defensive tone