Chapter 28-Direct-Current Circuits

28.1 Electromotive force

●
Battery provides a constant potential difference at its terminals.
●
It supplies a current constant in magnitude and direction.
●
This current is called direct-current.
●
A battery is called a source of electromotive force or a source of emf.
●
The emf ℇ of a battery is the maximum possible potential difference that a battery
can supply from its terminals.
●
A battery has an internal resistance r because it is made of matter.
●
Therefore, terminal voltage of a battery, that is the potential difference across the battery
when it is connected to a circuit, is not equal to its emf.
●
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 28.1
●
Let’s move along the circuit and measure the potential differences
at various points.
●
Passing from the negative terminal to the positive terminal, the potential
increases by an amount ℇ .
●
As we move through the resistance r, however, the potential decreases
by an amount Ir, where I is the current in the circuit.
●
Therefore, the terminal voltage of the battery Δ V =V d −V a is
Δ V =ℇ−Ir (1)
●
From this expression, notice that ℇ is equivalent to the open-circuit voltage,
that is, the terminal voltage when the current is zero.
●
Figure 28.1b is a graphical representation of the changes in electric
potential as the circuit is traversed in the clockwise direction.
●
Figure 28.1a shows that the terminal voltage ΔV must equal the potential difference
across the external resistance R, often called the load resistance.
●
The potential difference across the load resistance is Δ V =I R
●
Using Equation 1, we find
ℇ=IR + Ir (2)
●
Then the current is
ℇ
I= (3)
R +r
●
The current depends on both R and r. When r is much smaller than R, it can be
neglected.
●
Multiplying Equation 2 by the current I gives

I ℇ=I 2 R + I 2 r (4)
[Link]
 28.2 Resistors in series and parallel
●
Figure 28.3a shows two resistor in series combination.
●
In series combination, the charge on resistors has the same
value.
●
That leads to flow of the same amount of charge per unit time.
●
Therefore, both resistors have the same current:
I =I 1 =I 2
where I is the current leaving the battery, I1 is the current in resistor and I2 is the
current in resistor R2 .
●
The potential difference applied across the series combination of resistors divides
between the resistors.
Δ V =Δ V 1 +Δ V 2=I 1 R 1 +I 2 R2
●
The potential difference across the battery is also applied to the equivalent
resistance in Figure 28.3c:
R eq
Δ V =IR eq
●
Combining these two equations for ΔV gives
Δ V =IR eq =I 1 R1 +I 2 R 2=I R 1 + I R 2 → R eq =R1 + R2 (5)
●
If more than two resistors are connected in series:

R eq =R 1 +R 2 +R 3 +⋯ (6)
●
This relationship indicates that the equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistors is the
numerical sum of the individual resistances and is always greater than any individual resistance.
●
Now consider two resistors in a parallel combination as shown in Figure 28.5.
●
Notice that both resistors are connected directly across the terminals of the battery.
●
Therefore, the potential differences across the resistors are the same:
Δ V =Δ V 1=ΔV 2
●
When charges reach point a, they split into two parts, with some going toward R1 and
the rest going toward R2 .
●
A junction is any such point in a circuit where a current can split.
●
This split results in less current in each individual resistor than the current leaving the
battery.
●
Because electric charge is conserved, the current I that enters point a must equal the
total current leaving that point:
ΔV1 ΔV 2
I =I 1 + I 2 = +
R1 R2
where I1 is the current in R1 and I2 is the current in R2 .
●
The battery supplies the same current to an equivalent resistance R eq :
ΔV
I=
R eq
●
Combining these equations for I, we see that the equivalent resistance of two resistors in
parallel is given by
ΔV ΔV1 ΔV2 ΔV ΔV 1 1 1
I= = + = + → = + (7)
R eq R1 R2 R1 R 2 R eq R1 R 2
●
If more than two resistors are connected in parallel:
●
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯ (8)
R eq R1 R 2 R 3
●
This expression shows that the inverse of the equivalent resistance of two or more
resistors in a parallel combination is equal to the sum of the inverses of the individual
resistances.
●
Furthermore, the equivalent resistance is always less than the smallest resistance in the
group.
 28.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules
●
Complex circuits are analyzed by using Kirchhoff’s rules.
1. Junction rule. At any junction, sum of the currents must equal zero:
∑ I =0
junction

2. Loop rule. The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed
circuit loop must be zero:
∑ Δ V =0
closed loop

●
Kirchhoff’s first rule derives from conservation of electric charge.
●
All charges arriving a given point in a circuit must leave that point because charge cannot
build up at a point.
●
There are negative and positive currents in the junction rule: currents arriving the junction
carry a plus sign but currents leaving the junction carry a minus sign.
●
So the junction shown in Figure 28.12a gives
I 1 −I 2 −I 3 =0
●
A mechanical analog the first rule is shown
in Figure 28.12b.
●
Water flows through a branched pipe having
no leaks.
●
Kirchhoff’s second rule follows from the law of conservation of energy.
●
Let’s imagine moving a charge around a closed loop of a circuit.
●
When the charge returns to the starting point, the charge-circuit system must have the
same total energy as it had before the charge was moved.
●
The sum of the increases in energy as the charge passes through some circuit elements
must equal the sum of the decreases in energy as it passes through other elements.
●
The potential energy decreases whenever the charge moves through a potential drop
-IR across a resistor or whenever it moves in the reverse direction through a source of emf.
●
The potential energy increases whenever the charge passes through a battery from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal.
●
When applying Kirchhoff’s second rule, imagine traveling around the
loop and consider changes in electric potential rather than the changes
in potential energy.
●
Imagine traveling through the circuit elements in Figure 28.13 toward
the right.
●
The following sign conventions apply when using the second rule:
1. Charges move from the high-potential end of a resistor toward the low-
potential end, so if a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current,
the potential difference ΔV across the resistor is -IR (Fig. 28.13a).
2. If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the
potential difference ΔV across the resistor is +IR (Fig. 28.13b).
3. If a source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf,
the potential difference ΔV is +ε (Fig. 28.13c).
4. If a source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite the emf,
the potential difference ΔV is -ε (Fig. 28.13d).
 28.4 RC circuits
●
In DC circuits containing capacitors, the current is always in the same direction but
may vary in time.
●
A circuit containing a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor is called an RC
circuit.
Charging a capacitor
●
Figure 28.16 shows a simple series RC circuit.
●
Let’s assume the capacitor in this circuit is initially uncharged.
●
There is no current while the switch is open (Fig. 28.16a).
●
If the switch is thrown to position a at t = 0 (Fig. 28.16b), however, charge begins to
flow, setting up a current in the circuit, and the capacitor begins to charge.
●
As the plates are being charged, the potential difference across the capacitor
increases.
●
The value of the maximum charge on the plates depends on the voltage of the
battery. Once the maximum charge is reached, the current in the circuit is zero
because the potential difference across the capacitor matches that supplied by the
battery.
●
To analyze this circuit quantitatively, let’s apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit after
the switch is thrown to position a. Using Figure 28.16b we find
q
ℇ− −IR =0
C
where q/C is the potential difference across the capacitor and IR is the potential
difference across the resistor.
●
Note that q and I are instantaneous values that depend on time (as opposed to steady-
state values) as the capacitor is being charged.
●
At the instant the switch is thrown to position a (t =0), the charge on the capacitor is
zero. The initial current Ii in the circuit is a maximum and is given by
ℇ
I i= (current at t = 0)
R
●
At this time, the potential difference from the battery terminals appears entirely across
the resistor.
●
Later, when the capacitor is charged to its maximum value Q, charges cease to flow, the
current in the circuit is zero, and the potential difference from the battery terminals
appears entirely across the capacitor.
●
Substituting I = 0 into the above equation gives the maximum charge on the capacitor:

Q=C ℇ (maximum charge)

●
To determine analytical expressions for the time dependence of the charge and current,
we must solve Equation 28.11, a single equation containing two variables q and I.
●
We substitute I = dq/dt into the above equation and rearrange the equation:
dq ℇ q
= −
dt R RC
●
To find an expression for q, we solve this separable differential equation as
follows. First combine the terms on the right-hand side:

dq C ℇ q q−C ℇ
= − =−
dt RC RC RC
●
Multiply this equation by dt and divide by q – Cε:
dq 1
=− dt
q−C ℇ RC
●
Integrate this expression, using q = 0 at t = 0:
q t
dq 1
∫ q−C ℇ
=−
RC
∫ dt
0 0

ln ( q−C ℇ
−C ℇ )
=−
t
RC
●
From the definition of the natural logarithm, we can write this expression as
−t / RC −t / RC
q (t )=C ℇ(1−e )=Q (1−e )
●
Using I = dq/dt, we find that
ℇ −t / RC
I (t )= e
R
●
Plots of capacitor charge and circuit current versus time are shown in Figure 28.17.
●
The quantity RC is called the time constant τ of the circuit: τ =RC
●
The time constant represents the time interval during which the current decreases
to 1/e of its initial value; that is, after a time interval τ, the current decreases to
−2
−1
I =e I i =0.368 I i . After a time interval 2τ, the current decreases to I =e I i =0.135 I i
and so forth.
●
Likewise, in a time interval τ, the charge increases from zero to C ℇ [1−e−1 ]=0.632 C ℇ .
●
τ has units of time. Therefore t/RC is a dimensionless quantity.
●
The energy supplied by the battery during the time interval required to fully charge the
capacitor is Q ℇ=C ℇ2 .
●
After the capacitor is fully charged, the energy stored in the capacitor is 12 Q ℇ= 12 C ℇ2 ,
which is only half the energy output of the battery.
 Left: Charge as a function of time on a charging capacitor in an RC circuit. Right: Current as a function of time in an RC
circuit during charging process.

Left: Charge as a function of time on a charging capacitor in an RC circuit. Right: Current as a function of time in an RC
circuit during charging process. Four different values of C have been considered.
 Left: Charge as a function of time on a charging capacitor in an RC circuit. Right: Current as a function of time in an RC
circuit during charging process. Four different values of R have been considered.

Left: Charge as a function of time on a charging capacitor in an RC circuit. Right: Current as a function of time in an RC
circuit during charging process. Four different values of ε have been considered.

[Link]
 Discharging capacitor
●
Imagine that the capacitor in Figure 28.16b is completely charged.
●
A potential difference Q/C exists across the capacitor, and there is zero potential
difference across the resistor because I = 0. If the switch is now thrown to position b at
t = 0 (Fig. 28.16c), the capacitor begins to discharge through the resistor.
●
At some time t during the discharge, the current in the circuit is I and the charge on the
capacitor is q.
●
We eliminate ε write
q
− −IR=0
C
●
When we substitute I = dq/dt into this expression, it becomes

dq q dq 1
−R = =− dt
dt C q RC
●
Integrating this expression using q = Q at t = 0 gives

( )
q t
q t
∫ dq
q
=−
1
RC
∫ dt ln =− q (t)=Qe−t / RC
Q 0 Q RC

●
Differentiating this equation with respect to time gives the instantaneous current as a
function of time:
Q −t / RC
I (t)=− e
RC
where Ii = Q/RC is the initial current.
 [Link]
Eedb88faVjd2dgpJ?usp=sharing

Left: Charge as a function of time on a discharging capacitor in an RC circuit.

Right: Current (its absolute value) as a function of time in an RC circuit during
discharging process.
Solution
The three resistors in the middle are parallel to each other, their equivalent resistance is
in series with the remaining two resistors:

( )
−1
1 1 1 R 7
R eq =R+ + + + R=2 R + = R
R R R 3 3
Solution
(a) 5 and 20-Ω resistors are in series. Their equivalent resistance 25 Ω is in parallel with 5
and 10-Ω resistors. Find the total current:

( )
−1
1 1 1 50 220
R eq = + + +10 Ω= Ω+10 Ω= Ω
10 Ω 5 Ω 25 Ω 17 17
25 V 85
I= = A
220/17 Ω 44
Find the potential difference for the equivalent 50/17-Ω resistor:

Δ V= ( 50
17
Ω)(85
44 )
A =
250
44
V
250
V
Finally current on 20- Ω resistor: I= 44 10
= A=0.227 A
25 Ω 44
(b)
250
Δ V= V=3.68 V
44
Solution S is closed:
a) S is open:

( )
−1
open 1 1
R =
eq + +R
90 Ω+10 Ω 90 Ω+10 Ω
open
R eq =R+50 Ω

open
b) R
( ) ( )
closed
R eq = eq closed 1 1
−1
1 1
−1
2 R eq = + + + +R
90 Ω 10 Ω 90 Ω 10 Ω
R
R +18 Ω= +25 Ω R closed = R+9 Ω+9 Ω=R+18 Ω
2 eq

R =14 Ω R +18 Ω< R+50 Ω → Therefore, R eq decreases.

Solution
a) I =I + I −4 I 1 −8−6 (I 1 +I 2 )=0 b) E=P Δ t P=I Δ V
1 2
−3 I 1−I 1 −12+4−5 I −I =0 −8 I 2 +4−6( I 1 +I 2 )=0 E 4 =(0.46 A)(4 V)(120 s)=221 J
−8 I 2 +4−5 I −I=0 I 1 =−1.31 A
I 2 =0.85 A E 12=(1.31 A)(12 V)(120 s)=1.88 kJ
I2 I1
I =−0.46 A
I

c) E=P Δ t
2
P=I R d) 4-V emf is charged.
2
E 8 =(0.85 A) (8 Ω)(120 s)=694 J
2
E 5 =(0.46 A) (5 Ω)(120 s)=127 J e)
E 3 =(1.31 A)2 (3 Ω)(120 s)=618 J E=694 J+25.4 J+127 J +206 J+618 J=1.67 kJ
2
E 1 =(0.46 A) (1 Ω)(120 s)=25.4 J
2
E 1 =(1.31 A) (1 Ω)(120 s)=206 J
Solution
(a) In the case of open switch, two resistors are series; their equivalent resistance
determines the time constant.
τi =R eq C=(R 1 +R 2 )C=(150 k Ω)(10 μ F)=1.5 s
(b) When the switch is closed, the time constant determined by the second resistor.
τ f =R eq C=R 2 C=(100 k Ω)(10 μ F)=1 s

(c) There are two currents passing through the switch: the first one is due to the battery
and the first resistor and the second one is due to the capacitor and the second resistor.
They are in the same direction.
10 V 10 V −t /1 −t
I =I 1 + I 2 I 1= 3
=200 μ A I 2 = 3
e =100 e μA
50×10 Ω 100×10 Ω
−t
I =(200+100 e ) μ A
Solution
(a)
In the equilibirum the wire where the capacitor is placed
does not carry any current. We can replace it with an open
switch. Then the potential difference on the capacitor is equal
to that between the potentials 3 and 2 −Ω resistors.
The potential differences accross left and right arms are equal to 5 V.
5V 5V 5V 5V
Δ V 3 =(3 Ω) ; Δ V 2 =(2 Ω) → Δ V C =Δ V 2−Δ V 3 =(2 Ω) −(3 Ω)
83 Ω 2 Ω+ R 2 Ω+ R 83 Ω

[
Q=C Δ V =(3 μ F) (2 Ω)
5V
2 Ω+ R
−(3 Ω) ]
5V
83 Ω
=
3(800−15 R)
83 (R+2)
μC

(b)
3 [800−15(10)]
Q= μ C=1.96 μ C
83(10+2)
(c)
When 800−15 R=0 , we have Q=[Link] R should be 800/ 15 Ω or 53.3 Ω
 Q is a decaying function of R. It is maximum when R = 0 and minimum when R = ∞.
When R = 0 it becomes 14.5 μC.

(e)
No it is not meaningful. We need a large value of resistance to achieve this. But we can replace
the resistor with an open switch to obtain the same result. Then the capacitor become series with
the 2-Ohm resistor. Both become parallel the with 3-Ohm resistor. When the capacitor is fully charged,
its potential difference become that of the 3-Ohm resisor:

(5 V)(3 Ω) 15
V C =V 3= = V
83 Ω 83
Q=CV =(3 μ F) (
15
83
V = )
45
83
μC

The same result can be obtained by taking the limit of the charhge expression while R goes to infinity
45
Then we have |Q|→ μC.
83
Solution
(a) Both capacitors are fully charged.
we can replace each of them with an
open switch. Then the potential
difference on the first capacitor
becomes equal to that of the first resistor.
2
P2 =I R 2
2.4 W=I 2 (7×10 3 Ω)
I =0.0185 A
Q 1=C 1 V R 1
3
V R =I R1 =(0.0185 A)(4×10 Ω)=74.06 V
1

Q 1=(3×10−6 F)(74.06 V )=222 μ C

(b) When the switch is open, the capacitors
exchange charges. Finally they reach new
equilibrium. Now the potential difference on the
each capacitor becomes equal to the emf value.
Q 2 f =C ℇ
ℇ=I (R 1+ R 2 )=(0.0185 A)(11×10 3 Ω)=203.5 V
Q 2 f =(6×10−6 F)(203.5 V )=1221 μ C
Q 2 i=C 2 V R =(6×10−6 F)(203.5 V−74.06 V)=777 μ C
2

Δ Q=Q 2 f −Q 2i =1221 μ C−777 μ C=444 μ C

Solution
−t / RC −t / RC −t / RC
Q=C ℇ e → Δ V =ℇ e (Δ V =Q / C) →Δ V / ℇ =e → ln (Δ V / ℇ )=−t / RC → ln ( ℇ / Δ V )=t / RC

Our fit function is ln( ℇ /Δ V )=a t +b

Comparing the fit function with the above equation,
1 1
we find a= → C=
RC Ra
The numerical computation gives a=0.0118 s−1
1
so C= 10 −1
(10×10 Ω)(0.0118 s )
C=8.48 μ F

[Link]
 Solution
V = ℇ−I r
Our fit function is: V =a I +b
We obtain a=−0.0599 Ω and b=13.6 V
So r=0.0599 Ω and ℇ=13.6 V

[Link]
Solution
ΔV
P=I Δ V and I = so find Req for each case
R eq

( )
−1
parallel 1 1 R
R eq = + +⋯ =
R R n
series
R eq =R + R +⋯=nR
ΔV nΔV
I parallel = =
R R
n
series ΔV
I =
nR
2
parallel n ΔV ΔV
P = Δ V =n
R R
2 2
series ΔV ΔV 1 ΔV
P = ΔV= =
nR nR n R

( )
2
series 1 ΔV 1 parallel
P = 2 n = 2P
n R n
Solution
I =I 1 + I 2 75−5(I 1 + I 2 )−30 I 1 =0 → 75−35 I 1 −5 I 2 =0
I I2 2
I 2 R=20 35 I 1 +5 I 2 =75 → 7 I 1 + I 2 =15
75−5 I −30 I 1=0
I1 30 I 1 −40 I 2 −RI 2 =0 ( R
)
30 I 1 −(40+ R) I 2 =0 → 6 I 1 − 8+ I 2 I 2 =0
5
42 I 1 +6 I 2 =90

( 7
5 ) 7
42 I 1 − 56+ R I 2=0 → −42 I 1 +(56+ R) I 2 =0 add it to the above equation
5

( 7
)
6 I 2 + 56+ R I 2 =90 the result of the addition
5
7 90
62+ R= divide the above equation by I 2
5 I2

( )
2
7 8100
62+ R = 2
5 I2
1.96 R 2−231.4 R +3844=0
2 R 2
3844+1.96 R +173.6 R= 8100 insert 20/ R for I 2 R1 =98.1 Ω and R 2 =20 Ω
20