Transport Planning and
Management
Fundamental of Traffic Engineering
By Rahel A.
STREET
INFRASTRUCTURE
Outline
Street and Roadway Lighting
Landscaping
Parking
Accommodation of transit facilitates
Street and Roadway Lighting
Properly designed and maintained street lighting will
produce comfortable and accurate visibility at night,
which will facilitate and encourage both vehicular and
pedestrian traffic.
Determinations of need for lighting should be
coordinated with crime prevention programs and
other community need.
Uniformity of lighting is an indication of the quality of
illumination.
Street and Roadway Lighting (cont’d)
Recommended uniformity ratios are as follows:
residential roadways, 6:1;
Commercial roadways, 3:1;
residential walkways, 10:1; and
commercial walkways, 4:1.
The objectives of the designer should be to minimize
visual discomfort and impairment of driver and
pedestrian vision due to glare.
Where only intersections are lighted, a gradual
lighting transition from dark to light to dark should be
provided so that drivers may have time to adapt their
vision.
Street and Roadway Lighting (cont’d)
Street and Roadway Lighting (cont’d)
Objectives of Street Lighting
a) Traffic Lighting
Lighting which is applicable to roads on which the
visual requirements of motorists are dominant, e.g.
major roads.
b) Pedestrian Area Lighting
Pedestrian area lighting is lighting which is applicable
to roads and outdoor public areas where the visual
requirements of pedestrians are dominant
e.g. minor roads,
car parks,
pathways, etc.
Need for Public Lighting
The benefits of a high level of street lighting, especially
at intersections, are well documented with a strong
correlation to night-time accident reduction.
Street lighting should provide
• a driver with a clear view of the road alignment.
• Adequate lighting levels,
• consistency and
• avoidance of dark patches is important
Need for Public Lighting (cont’d)
To minimize the effect of glare and to provide the most
economical lighting installation,
Height should be at least 9m.
10 to 15 m are usually preferable
High mast lighting- 30m (interchanges and rest areas )
Luminaire supports (poles) should be placed outside
the roadside clear zones.
Breakaway poles should not be used on streets in
densely developed areas, particularly with sidewalks.
Poles should not be erected along the outside of curves
on ramps where they are more susceptible to being
struck.
Need for Public Lighting (cont’d)
On a divided highway or street, luminaire supports
may be located either in the median or on the right
side of the roadway.
For median installations, dual-mast arms should be
used, for which 12 to 15 m mounting heights are
favored.
Intersection, Roundabout and
Interchange Lighting
a) General Provision
Lighting shall be considered at intersections with
raised channelization.
b) Intersection Design Area
If Category V lighting is deemed necessary at an
intersection because of the traffic volumes or any
special road safety concerns, then the minimum design
area shall comprise the surface of the carriageway
extending at least 10m beyond the prolongation of the
kerb lines of the intersecting roads. This shall be further
extended to include raised islands and medians,
changes in road alignment and locations of potential
traffic conflict in or near the
intersection.
Intersection, Roundabout and
Interchange Lighting (cont’d)
C) Restricted Visibility: Where traffic facilities are not visible
at night over an approach
distance of:
120m in a 60km/hr zone:
200m in a 100km/hr zone
d) Adverse conditions such as:
road location and geometry
background lighting (including offset of opposing
headlights)
weather conditions (such as fog)
separate needs of pedestrians indicates the existence of a
special road safety risk
accident history
Intersection, Roundabout and
Interchange Lighting (cont’d)
e) Painted channelization or auxiliary passing lanes in
cases such as:
i) predominant heavy left turn volumes,
ii) predominant movements of heavy vehicles
iii) tourist areas where drivers are not familiar with local
conditions
Intersection, Roundabout and
Interchange Lighting (cont’d)
f) Signalized Intersections
At locations involving the upgrading or installation of
traffic signals, intersection lighting to Category ‘V’
standard should be provided regardless of the road
lighting categories or traffic volumes of the intersecting
roads.
g) Roundabouts
As for signalized intersections, Category ‘V’ lighting
should be provided on roundabouts regardless of the
road lighting categories or traffic volumes of the
intersecting roads.
Intersection, Roundabout and
Interchange Lighting (cont’d)
h) Interchanges
In urban areas, motorways are generally fully lit and the
interchanges must also be fully lit. The standards of the
lighting are to be in accordance with the Public Lighting
Code.
Route Lighting
Route Lighting may be provided in areas where:
The traffic volume (AADT) exceeds 10,000vpd, or
The traffic volume is approaching 10,000 vpd and/or
AACRFA considers that the road is associated with a special
road safety risk that warrants route lighting
Supplementary Lighting at
Pedestrian Crossings
a) General Provision
Lighting may be provided in areas where the traffic
volume (AADT) exceeds 1,000 vpd.
Note: Lighting to at least Category V5 shall exist or be
provided on the carriageway for 3 spans either side of
the crossing in accordance with the requirements of the
Public Lighting Code Part 4.
Supplementary Lighting at
Pedestrian Crossings (cont’d)
b) Special Cases
For volumes of less than 1,000 vpd, other conditions
that may suggest supplementary lighting
at pedestrian crossings include the following:
• road location geometry
• background lighting (including offsets of opposing
headlights),
• weather conditions (such as fog)
• separate needs of pedestrians indicate the existence of a
special risk
• accident history
Road Lighting Pole Placement
Guidelines
a) General
For guidelines for the use and placement of rigid and
frangible road lighting poles refer to AS/NZS 1158.1.3
Appendix B
b) Longitudinal Placement in Roads with Frontage Access
road lighting poles should be located on an alignment with
property boundary junctions
where ever possible.
c) Joint Use Road Lighting Poles
Where joint use poles are located in medians, they are be
located at least 1m from the median nose. Joint use poles
should not be located in medians less than 2m wide.
Road Lighting Pole Placement
Guidelines (cont’d)
d) Clearances from Overhead Lines
Design Clearances
These should be calculated taking into account:
The most adverse position to which a conductor may swing
under the influence of wind
The worst position a conductor may assume by sag under the
influence of load current
The maximum design deflection of the lighting structure
under the influence of win
The movement of impacted frangible poles
Landscaping
Landscaping in keeping with the character of the
street and its environment should be provided for
aesthetic and erosion-control purposes.
Landscape designs should be arranged to permit a
sufficiently wide, clear, and safe pedestrian walkway
for pedestrian with disabilities and bicyclists.
Highway landscaping is vegetation placed for
aesthetic, safety, environmental mitigation, storm
water pollution prevention, or erosion control
purposes, and includes necessary irrigation systems,
inert materials, and mulches.
Landscaping (cont’d)
highway planting is used to
• satisfy the need for headlight glare reduction,
• windbreak protection, or
• graffiti reduction on retaining walls and
• noise barriers.
Aesthetics
To achieve a smooth grade line, the distance between
vertical points of intersection on profiles should be at
least 4V where V is the design speed in km/h.
Road furniture should be designed to minimize visual
clutter.
erect regulatory signs on street light columns for
reduced cost and a tidy roadside.
The design of bridges should also have good
appearance as a key objective.
Highway planting and replacement planting shall
integrate the road with the adjacent community or
natural surroundings.
Safety
Selection and location of plants shall be carefully
considered to maintain sight distance and clear
recovery zone setbacks.
Highway planting projects, including highway
planting restoration, should incorporate safety
concepts that include, but are not limited to, the
following:
1. Provide access gates to freeways for maintenance
personnel from local streets and frontage roads or provide
paved maintenance vehicle pullout areas away from traffic
Safety (cont’d)
2. Median planting should be designed with safe
maintenance procedures fully considered
3. locate irrigation system components (if used) and
vegetation away from the road edge, gore areas, narrow
island areas, between ramps and through carriageway to
reduce the need for lane closures for pruning or other
maintenance operations.
4. Place irrigation components that require regular
maintenance, such as controllers, behind safety devices
required for some other purpose
Safety (cont’d)
5. Narrow areas and gore areas should be paved
where possible to avoid the need for routine
maintenance .
6. Use automated irrigation systems and remote
control devices to minimize worker exposure and
allow for effective water management.
7. Valves should be clustered and be placed adjacent
to maintenance vehicle pullouts or access points
Maintainability
Maintenance-intensive activities should be identified
and minimized by design.
Ongoing communication between
designers,
landscape specialists,
landscape maintenance personnel, and
construction inspectors is
required to ensure that maintenance concerns are
addressed
Maintainability (cont’d)
Plants should not require regular, ongoing maintenance.
Planting and irrigation design shall reflect the goal of
minimal pesticide use.
Highway planting should be able to withstand roadside
conditions and become established on limited water with
minimal maintenance.
Plants should be tolerant of local environmental conditions
such as temperature, soil, water quality, air quality, wind
and have proven to be durable adjacent to roads.
Native plants should be incorporated into the design, taking
into account local plant communities and species
availability, to the maximum extent feasible.
Maintainability (cont’d)
A diversity of plant material should be chosen for
freeway landscaping.
Only plants which will have the greatest chance of
survival if water were to become unavailable should
be selected.
Trees generally recognized to be brittle, susceptible
to disease, or that increase in size by suckering,
should not be selected.
Plants with edible or attractive fruits, berries or
nuts should not be selected.
Maintainability (cont’d)
Plants with root systems that block drains or crack
pavement and footpaths should be avoided
Trees must not be planted under overhead utilities
or structures.
Plants with similar water requirements should be
grouped for irrigation purposes.
Plants with thorns or known to be poisonous to
humans and animals should not be planted
Parking
Parking facilities can be divided into two main groups:
On-street and
Off-street.
On-Street Parking Facilities (curb facilities )
Parking bays are provided alongside the curb on one
or both sides of the street.
1. unrestricted parking facilities - duration of parking is
unlimited and parking is free
2. restricted parking facilities- Parking is limited to
specific times of the day for a maximum duration.
Off-Street Parking Facilities
These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they
include surface lots and garages.
Definitions of Parking Terms
1. A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of
a single parking space for a period of 1 hr.
2. Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that
park in a study area during a specific length of time, usually
a day.
3. Parking accumulation is the number of parked
vehicles in a study area at any specified time. These data
can be plotted as a curve of parking accumulation against
time, which shows the variation of the parking
accumulation during the day.
Off-Street Parking Facilities (cont’d)
4. The parking load is the area under the accumulation
curve between two specific times. It is usually given as
the number of space-hours used during the specified
period of time.
5. Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is
parked at a parking bay. When the parking duration is
given as an average, it gives an indication of how
frequently a parking space becomes available.
6. Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking
space. It is obtained by dividing the parking volume for a
specified period by the number of parking spaces.
Off-Street Parking Facilities (cont’d)
Methods of Parking Studies
A comprehensive parking study usually involves
1) Inventory of existing parking facilities,
2) Collection of data on parking accumulation,
parking turnover, and parking duration,
3) Identification of parking generators, and
4) Collection of information on parking demand
5) Information on related factors, such as
financial, legal, and administrative matters,
may also be collected
Off-Street Parking Facilities (cont’d)
Analysis of Parking Data
The relevant information includes
Number and duration for vehicles legally parked
Number and duration for vehicles illegally
parked
Space-hours of demand for parking
Supply of parking facilities
Off-Street Parking Facilities (cont’d)
Space-hours of demand for parking
Where: D= space vehicle-hours demand for a specific period of time;
N = number of classes of parking duration ranges;
ti = mid parking duration of the ith class;
ni= number of vehicles parked for the ith duration range
Space-hours of supply
Where: S = practical number of space-hours of supply for a specific period
of time;
N =number of parking spaces available;
ti = total length of time in hours when the ith space can
be legally parked on during the specific period; ‘
f= efficiency factor
Off-Street Parking Facilities (cont’d)
The efficiency factor is used to correct for time lost in
each turnover.
curb parking- 78 % - 96 %
surface lots and garages - 75 % - 92 %
Average value for
Curb parking- 90%
Garages – 80%
Surface lots – 85%
Parking generation
Parking generation (cont’d)
In any parking facility, handicapped spaces must be
provided as required by federal and local laws and
ordinances.
Transportation Engineers of the US recommends the
following minimum standards for provision of
handicapped spaces:
Office-0.02 spaces per 1,000 sq ft GFA
Bank-1 to 2 spaces per bank
Restaurant-0.30 spaces per 1,000 sq ft GFA
Retail ( <500,000 sq ft GFA)-0.075 spaces per 1,000 sq ft GFA
Retail ( 2 500,000 sq ft GF A )-0.060 spaces per 1,000 sq ft
GFA
Parking Studies and Characteristics
Critical to parking supply needs are the duration,
accumulation, and proximity , requirements of parkers.
Many parking studies seek to establish the distribution
of parking accumulation over time to determine the
peak accumulation and when it occurs.
Parking duration is the length of time that individual
vehicles remain parked.
Parking Studies and Characteristics (cont’d)
Analysis of the data involves several summaries and
computations that can be made using the field sheet
information:
Accumulation totals- Each column of each field sheet is
summed to provide the total accumulation of parked vehicles
within each time period on each observer's route.
Duration distribution- By observing the license plate records of
each space, vehicles can be classified as having been parked for
one interval, two intervals, three intervals, etc. By examining
each line of each field sheet, a duration distribution is created.
Violations- The number of vehicles illegally parked, either
because they occupy an illegal space or have exceeded the legal
time restriction of a space, should be noted.
Parking Studies and Characteristics (cont’d)
The average parking duration is computed as
Where D = average parking duration, h/veh
Nx = number of vehicles parked for x intervals
X = number of intervals parked
I = length of the observation interval, h
NT = total number of parked vehicles observed
Example 7.1
The owner of a parking garage located in a CBD has observed
that, there are a total of 250 vehicle . 20% of those wishing
to park are turned back every day during the open hours of
8 a.m. to 6 p.m. because of lack of parking spaces. An analysis
of data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those
who park are commuters, with an average parking duration
of 9 hr, and the remaining are shoppers, whose average
parking duration is 2 hr. If 20% of those who cannot park
are commuters and the rest are shoppers, and a total of 200
vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine the
number of additional spaces required to meet the excess
demand. Assume parking efficiency is 0.90.
Solution 20%= 50
vehicle not
20%= 10 vehicles are
commuter
park 80%= 40 vehicles are
shopper
250
vehicle 60%= 120 vehicles are
commuter
80% =200 Parked for 9 hr
vehicle park
daily 40%= 80 vehicles are a
shopper
Parked for 2 hr
Calculate the space-hours of demand
Commuters now being served = 120*9 = 1080 space-hr
Commuters not being served = 10*9 = 90 space-hr
Shopper now being served = 80*2= 160 space-hr
Shopper not being served = 40*2= 80 space-hr
Total space-hours of demand = (1080 + 90 + 160 + 80) =1410
Total space-hours served =1080 + 160 = 1240
Number of space-hours required = 1410 - 1240 = 170
Solution (cont’d)
Determine the number of parking spaces
• s=170 space-hr
• Use the length of time each space can be legally parked on (8 a.m.
through 6 p.m. = 10 hr) to determine the number of additional spaces.
170 = 0.9*10*N
N= 18.89 = 19
• At least 19 additional spaces will be required, since a
fraction of a space cannot be used.
Design Aspects of Parking Facilities
surface lots are considerably cheaper than
garages.
• There are three key objectives in the design of a
parking facility that need to be mate:
A parking facility must be convenient and safe for the
intended users.
A parking facility should be space-efficient and
economical to operate.
A parking facility should be compatible with its
environs.
Design Aspects of Parking Facilities (cont’d)
Some Basic Parking Dimensions
Parking Stall Width - The minimum door-opening clearance is 22
inches, but this may be increased to 26 inches where turnover rates
are high.
large cars – parking stall width = 77 + 22 = 99 inches (8.25 ft)
= 77 + 26 = 103 inches (8.58 ft)
small cars - parking stall width = 66 + 22 = 88 inches (7.3 ft)
=66 + 26 = 92 inches (7.7 ft)
Parking Stall Length and Depth - It is generally taken as the
length of the design vehicle plus 6 inches for bumper clearance.
large cars- parking length = 215+ 6 = 221 inches (18.4 ft)
small cars- parking length = 175 + 6 = 181 inches (15.1 ft)
For a 90° parking stall, the length and depth of the stall are equivalent.
For other angle parking, the depth of the stall is smaller than the length
Design Aspects of Parking Facilities (cont’d)
Aisle Width - Aisles in parking lots must be sufficiently
wide to allow drivers to safely and conveniently enter
and leave parking stalls in a minimum number of
maneuvers, usually one on entry and two on departure
Aisle width depends upon the angle of parking and
upon whether the aisle serves one-way or two-way
traffic
Parking Modules
A "parking module" refers to the basic layout of one
aisle with a set of parking stalls on both sides of the
aisle.
For 90° stalls, two-way aisles are virtually always used,
as vehicles may enter parking stalls conveniently
from either approach direction.
Where angle parking is used, vehicle may enter a stall
in only one direction of travel and must depart in the
same direction.
Design of Off-Street Parking Facilities
Surface Car Parks
The primary aim in designing
off-street parking facilities is to
obtain as many spaces as
possible within the area
provided.
Surface Car Parks
Design of Off-Street Parking Facilities
Garages
Access ramps connect each level with the one above.
The gradient of these ramps is usually not greater than
1:10 on straight ramps and 1:12 on the centerline of
curved ramps.
The radius of curved ramps measured to the end of the
outer curve should not be less than 70 ft, and the
maximum super-elevation should be 0.15 ft /ft
The lane width should not be less than 16 ft for curved
ramps and 9 ft for straight ramps.
Garages
Group Assignment
Select any segment of road in your local area to evaluate
the street infrastructure provision and prepare report
The evaluation include from the following perspective
• Street and Roadway Lighting
• Public Lighting
• Intersection, Roundabout and Interchange
Lighting (if there is any)
• Landscaping
• Aesthetics and safety
General Guidelines for Alignment
and Route Location (cont’d)