APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community development is a multifaceted concept involving various strategies and

methodologies aimed at improving the social, economic, and environmental conditions of
communities. Over time, scholars and practitioners have developed several approaches to
guide the process of community development.
1. Self-Help Approach
 Introduction Year: 1950s
 Authors: Dennis A. Rondinelli, William W. Parlett, et al.
The self-help approach emphasizes the active participation of community members in
addressing their own needs. This approach is rooted in the belief that communities possess
the intrinsic capability to solve their problems with minimal external assistance. The self-help
model emerged in the 1950s, driven by the notion that sustainable development occurs when
people take ownership of their development processes. This approach encourages community
engagement, skill development, and the utilization of local resources. Rondinelli and Parlett
highlighted that the self-help approach fosters a sense of responsibility and empowerment
among community members, leading to more sustainable outcomes.
2. Technical Assistance Approach
 Introduction Year: 1960s
 Authors: Robert Chambers
The technical assistance approach to community development gained prominence in the
1960s. This approach involves the provision of specialized knowledge, skills, and resources
by external experts to address specific community challenges. Robert Chambers, a key
advocate of this approach, argued that technical assistance is crucial in situations where
communities lack the expertise to tackle complex issues. The approach often involves
training, education, and the transfer of technology, aiming to build local capacity. However,
critics have pointed out that this approach can sometimes lead to dependency on external
resources and may not always consider the unique cultural contexts of communities.
3. Advocacy Planning Approach
 Introduction Year: 1960s
 Authors: Paul Davidoff
Introduced in the 1960s by Paul Davidoff, the advocacy planning approach arose from the
recognition that marginalized communities often lacked a voice in the planning processes that
affected them. This approach seeks to empower disadvantaged communities by ensuring they
have representation and a say in decision-making processes. Advocacy planners act as
intermediaries, championing the interests of these communities and pushing for policies that
reflect their needs and aspirations. This approach has been particularly influential in urban
development, where it has been used to combat social inequalities and promote social justice.
4. Participatory Development Approach
 Introduction Year: 1970s
 Authors: Robert Chambers, Paulo Freire
The participatory development approach, emerging in the 1970s, emphasizes the involvement
of community members in all stages of the development process, from planning to
implementation and evaluation. Robert Chambers and Paulo Freire were key figures in
promoting this approach. Chambers introduced the concept of "putting the last first,"
advocating for the inclusion of marginalized voices in development projects. Freire, on the
other hand, emphasized the importance of dialogue and critical consciousness, encouraging
communities to critically assess their situations and take collective action. This approach is
rooted in the belief that development should be a bottom-up process, driven by the needs and
aspirations of the community members themselves.
5. Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)
 Introduction Year: 1990s
 Authors: John Kretzmann, John McKnight
Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) was introduced in the 1990s by John
Kretzmann and John McKnight. This approach focuses on identifying and mobilizing the
existing strengths, resources, and capacities within a community rather than focusing on its
deficiencies. ABCD operates on the principle that sustainable development can be achieved
by leveraging local assets, including human, social, physical, and financial resources.
Kretzmann and McKnight argued that communities could create positive change by building
on what they already have, fostering a sense of pride and ownership among community
members. This approach contrasts with needs-based approaches, which often focus on
problems and deficits.
6. Sustainable Livelihoods Approach
 Introduction Year: 1990s
 Authors: Robert Chambers, Gordon Conway
The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) was developed in the 1990s by Robert
Chambers and Gordon Conway. This approach integrates environmental, economic, and
social dimensions of development, focusing on enhancing the capabilities, assets, and
activities required for a means of living. SLA emphasizes the need for development strategies
to be environmentally sustainable, economically viable, and socially equitable. Chambers and
Conway highlighted the importance of understanding the vulnerability context of
communities, such as shocks, trends, and seasonality, to design interventions that build
resilience and reduce poverty. The approach has been widely adopted in rural development
and poverty reduction initiatives.
7. Rights-Based Approach
 Introduction Year: Late 1990s - Early 2000s
 Authors: Amartya Sen, Martha Nussbaum
The Rights-Based Approach (RBA) emerged in the late 1990s and early 2000s, influenced by
the works of Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum. This approach integrates human rights
principles into community development, asserting that development is a fundamental right of
all individuals. RBA focuses on empowering individuals and communities to claim their
rights and participate fully in development processes. It also emphasizes the accountability of
duty-bearers, such as governments and institutions, in fulfilling their obligations to ensure
equitable development. Sen's capabilities approach, which underpins RBA, argues that
development should expand people's freedoms and opportunities, enabling them to lead lives
they value.
References
Chambers, R. (1960s). Technical assistance approach.
Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1990s). Sustainable livelihoods approach.
Davidoff, P. (1960s). Advocacy planning approach.
Freire, P. (1970s). Participatory development approach.
Kretzmann, J., & McKnight, J. (1990s). Asset-based community development.
Nussbaum, M., & Sen, A. (1990s-2000s). Rights-based approach.
Rondinelli, D. A., & Parlett, W. W. (1950s). Self-help approach.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community development is a process where community members come together to take
collective action and generate solutions to common problems. It involves the development of
social, economic, environmental, and cultural aspects of the community. Over time, various
approaches to community development have emerged, each with unique principles and
methodologies. Here’s a detailed discussion of some of the key approaches to community
development, including the years they were introduced and their authors.
1. Traditional Community Development Approach
 Year Introduced: 1940s-1950s
 Authors: This approach was influenced by early pioneers such as L.J. Cary and F.L.
Bretherton.
The traditional community development approach emerged in the mid-20th century, focusing
on self-help and mutual aid. It was heavily influenced by colonial administration practices,
especially in the context of developing countries. The approach emphasizes empowering
communities to take action and improve their circumstances through local initiatives and
resource mobilization. The role of external agents was seen as facilitators who help
communities identify their needs and plan interventions.
2. Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)
 Year Introduced: Early 1990s
 Authors: John P. Kretzmann and John L. McKnight
Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) focuses on identifying and leveraging the
strengths and assets within a community rather than focusing on its needs or deficiencies.
Introduced by Kretzmann and McKnight in their 1993 book Building Communities from the
Inside Out: A Path Toward Finding and Mobilizing a Community's Assets, this approach
empowers communities by emphasizing local talents, resources, and social networks. It
promotes sustainable development by building on what is already present and working well
within the community.
3. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
 Year Introduced: Late 1980s
 Authors: Robert Chambers and others
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is an approach developed in the late 1980s, primarily by
Robert Chambers, to involve community members in the development process actively. PRA
uses various techniques such as mapping, seasonal calendars, and ranking to gather
information from the community. It emphasizes local knowledge and involves community
members in analyzing problems and finding solutions. The approach is rooted in the belief
that people are the best experts on their own lives, and their participation leads to more
relevant and sustainable outcomes.
4. Community-Driven Development (CDD)
 Year Introduced: 1990s
 Authors: The World Bank and other development agencies
Community-Driven Development (CDD) became prominent in the 1990s, promoted by the
World Bank and other development agencies. CDD is an approach where communities have
direct control over planning decisions and investment resources. It aims to empower
communities by involving them in the decision-making process, thereby ensuring that the
interventions reflect their needs and priorities. CDD projects often involve building local
capacities to manage development funds and projects effectively.
5. Social Capital Approach
 Year Introduced: Late 1980s - 1990s
 Authors: Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman, and Robert Putnam
The Social Capital Approach to community development emphasizes the importance of
social networks, trust, and norms of reciprocity in achieving development outcomes. While
Pierre Bourdieu and James Coleman introduced the concept of social capital in the late
1980s, Robert Putnam popularized its application in community development in the 1990s
through his work Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital. This approach posits
that communities with strong social capital are better equipped to solve collective problems,
access resources, and achieve economic and social development.
6. Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)
 Year Introduced: Late 1990s
 Authors: Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway
The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) was developed in the late 1990s, notably by
Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway, as a way to promote sustainable development in rural
areas. The approach focuses on understanding and supporting the various means through
which people make a living, considering factors like human, social, natural, financial, and
physical capital. It encourages a holistic view of development that integrates various aspects
of community life and emphasizes the importance of sustainability in development efforts.
7. Human Rights-Based Approach (HRBA)
 Year Introduced: Early 2000s
 Authors: United Nations and other international organizations
The Human Rights-Based Approach (HRBA) emerged in the early 2000s as a framework for
community development grounded in international human rights standards. It was introduced
by the United Nations and other international organizations to ensure that development
efforts are aligned with the protection and promotion of human rights. HRBA focuses on
empowering marginalized and vulnerable groups, ensuring their participation in development
processes, and holding duty-bearers accountable for respecting, protecting, and fulfilling
human rights.
8. Community-Led Development (CLD)
 Year Introduced: 2010s
 Authors: Various practitioners and organizations
Community-Led Development (CLD) is a more recent approach that emphasizes the role of
communities in leading their own development. This approach builds on earlier methods like
ABCD and CDD, stressing that communities should not only participate but lead the
planning, implementation, and evaluation of development projects. CLD advocates for a shift
in power dynamics, where communities hold decision-making power, and external actors
provide support rather than directives.
Conclusion
The evolution of community development approaches reflects a growing recognition of the
importance of community participation, local knowledge, and empowerment. From
traditional approaches emphasizing self-help to more contemporary methods like HRBA and
CLD, the field has continually adapted to better meet the needs of communities. Each
approach offers unique insights and strategies, contributing to a more nuanced and effective
practice of community development.
References
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory
and Research for the Sociology of Education (pp. 241-258). Greenwood.
Cary, L. J. (1970). The community development as a process. University of Missouri.
Chambers, R. (1994). Participatory rural appraisal (PRA): Analysis of experience. World
Development, 22(9), 1253-1268.
Kretzmann, J. P., & McKnight, J. L. (1993). Building communities from the inside out: A
path toward finding and mobilizing a community's assets. ACTA Publications.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community.
Simon & Schuster.
United Nations. (2003). The human rights-based approach to development cooperation:
Towards a common understanding among UN agencies. United Nations Development Group.
World Bank. (1998). The World Bank and community-driven development: Origins,
evolution, and implications. World Bank.
APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community development encompasses various approaches aimed at enhancing the quality of
life and well-being of people in a community. These approaches have evolved over time,
reflecting different philosophies, strategies, and goals. Below is a detailed discussion of the
main approaches to community development, including the years they were introduced and
the key authors associated with each approach.
1. Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)
Year Introduced: 1993
Authors: John Kretzmann and John McKnight
Overview:
Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) emerged in the early 1990s as a response to
the traditional needs-based approach, which often highlighted the deficiencies within
communities. John Kretzmann and John McKnight introduced ABCD to focus on the
strengths and assets within a community rather than its problems. This approach empowers
community members by identifying and leveraging their skills, resources, and capacities to
drive development initiatives. It emphasizes local leadership, grassroots participation, and the
mobilization of internal resources to achieve sustainable development.
Key Concepts:
 Identifying community assets, such as individuals' skills, local associations, and
institutions.
 Encouraging active participation and leadership from within the community.
 Fostering partnerships between local assets and external resources to address
challenges.
2. Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)
Year Introduced: 1998
Authors: Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway
Overview:
The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) was developed in the late 1990s, primarily by
Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway, to address poverty and promote sustainable
development. This approach considers the diverse factors that affect people's livelihoods,
including economic, social, environmental, and institutional influences. SLA focuses on
enhancing people's capacity to make a living while ensuring that the use of resources is
sustainable for future generations.
Key Concepts:
 Livelihood assets, which include human, social, physical, financial, and natural
capital.
 Vulnerability context, which examines the shocks, trends, and seasonality affecting
livelihoods.
 Policies, institutions, and processes that influence people's access to assets and
livelihood strategies.
3. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
Year Introduced: 1983
Authors: Robert Chambers
Overview:
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) emerged in the 1980s as an approach to involve
communities in the development process. Robert Chambers played a crucial role in
popularizing this approach, which encourages local people to share, analyze, and enhance
their knowledge of their own conditions to plan and implement development projects. PRA
emphasizes the use of visual tools, group discussions, and participatory techniques to gather
information and make decisions.
Key Concepts:
 Participation of local people in all stages of the development process.
 Use of visual methods, such as mapping and diagramming, to facilitate discussion.
 Empowerment of communities by valuing their knowledge and insights.
4. Community-Led Development (CLD)
Year Introduced: 1960s
Authors: Paulo Freire
Overview:
Community-Led Development (CLD) is an approach rooted in the teachings of Brazilian
educator Paulo Freire, particularly his ideas on critical consciousness and participatory
education. CLD emphasizes the role of community members in leading their development
processes, identifying their needs, and implementing solutions. It advocates for social justice,
equity, and the empowerment of marginalized groups.
Key Concepts:
 Critical consciousness, where community members become aware of their social
realities.
 Collective action, encouraging communities to work together to address shared
challenges.
 Empowerment through education and capacity building.
5. Social Capital Approach
Year Introduced: 1980s
Authors: Pierre Bourdieu, Robert Putnam, and James Coleman
Overview:
The Social Capital Approach gained prominence in the 1980s and 1990s through the works of
sociologists Pierre Bourdieu, Robert Putnam, and James Coleman. This approach focuses on
the value of social networks, relationships, and trust within communities as key drivers of
development. Social capital is seen as a resource that communities can use to achieve
collective goals, improve social cohesion, and enhance economic development.
Key Concepts:
 Bonding social capital, which refers to strong ties within a close-knit group.
 Bridging social capital, which connects different groups and fosters broader networks.
 Linking social capital, which involves connections with institutions and individuals in
positions of power.
Reference
Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. Longman.
Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1998). Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for
the 21st century. Institute of Development Studies.
Freire, P. (1968). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum.
Kretzmann, J. P., & McKnight, J. L. (1993). Building communities from the inside out: A
path toward finding and mobilizing a community's assets. ACTA Publications.
Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling alone: America's declining social capital. Journal of
Democracy, 6(1), 65-78.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In Handbook of Theory and Research for the
Sociology of Education (pp. 241-258). Greenwood Press.
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of
Sociology, 94, S95-S120.