INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

involves team members from financial planners and C-suite executives to contractors, engineers,
on-the-ground crew members, and others. The role of project manager is critical & may be filled
by a contractor, an owner who handles projects in-house, or even a dedicated construction
manager. The project manager’s goal would be to ensure the entire construction process goes
smoothly and according to plan. They’re responsible for maintaining a tight schedule, staying
within budget, allocating resources, avoiding scope creep, and ensuring quality. They assess risks
in real time and keep stakeholders informed. By centralizing information and streamlining
communication, the project manager enables efficient processes that otherwise wouldn’t be
possible. The following five major stages of construction projects is a must for successfully
managing them.
1. Planning and Development
2. Design
3. Preconstruction
4. Procurement
5. Construction
A clear knowledge of the following points is necessary for reliable construction and its
management. The ten Ms of construction management are: Money, Materials, Machines,
Manpower, Methodologies, Maintenance, Modernization, Monitoring, Motivations,
Managements of all types.

BASIC MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

BRICKS:
Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying
and burning these blocks. As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged, are light
in weight and hence bricks replace stones.

Classification: Bricks can broadly be divided into two categories- i) Unburnt or sundried bricks
& ii) Burnt bricks.
i) Unburnt or sun-dried bricks- Unburnt or sun-dried bricks are those that are dried with the help
of heat received from sun after the process of moulding. These bricks can only be used in the
constructions of temporary and cheap structures. Such bricks should not be used at places
exposed to heavy rains.
ii) Burnt Bricks: The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and they are classified
into the following four categories.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

a. First Class bricks: These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape. The surface and
edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. They comply with all the qualities of
good bricks and are used for superior work of permanent nature.
b. Second class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and are burnt in kilns. The surface
of bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also slightly irregular. These bricks are commonly used
at places where brick work is to be provided with a coat of plaster.
c. Third class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and are burnt in clamps. These
bricks are not hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges. These bricks
give dull sound when struck together. They are used for unimportant and temporary structures
and at places where rainfall is not heavy.
d. Fourth class bricks: These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour.
These bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundation, floors, roads, etc. because of the
fact that the over burnt bricks have compacted structure and hence, they are sometimes found
stronger than even first-class bricks.

Qualities of Good Brick:

(i) Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks
and with sharp and square edges.
(ii) They should be uniform shape and of standard size.
(iii) They should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.
(iv) When broken, they should show a bright homogeneous and compact structure free from
voids.
(v) They should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for first class and 22
percent by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a period of 24 hours.
(vi) They should be sufficiently hard with no impression left on brick surface, when it is
scratched with finger nail.
(vii) They should have low thermal conductivity and be sound proof.
(viii) They should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one
meter.
(ix) They, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salts when
allowed to dry in shade.
(x) No brick should have crushing strength below 55kg/cm2.

Following are the constituents of good brick earth.

Alumina: A good brick earth should contain 20 to 30 percent of alumina. This constituent
imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be moulded. If alumina is present in excess, raw bricks
shrink and warp during drying and burning.
Silica: A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 percent of silica. Silica exists in clay
either as free or combined form. As free sand, it is mechanically mixed with clay and in
combined form; it exists in chemical composition with alumina. Presence of silica prevents
shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks. Durability of
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in brick earth. Excess of silica destroys the
cohesion between particles and bricks become brittle.
Lime: A small quantity of lime is desirable in finely powdered state to prevent shrinkage of raw
bricks. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence, its shape is lost due to the splitting of
bricks.
Oxide of iron: A small quantity of oxide of iron to the extent of 5 to 6 % is desirable in good
brick to impart red colour to bricks. Excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or
blackish.
Magnesia: A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint to bricks, and
decreases shrinkage. But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks. The ingredients like,
lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, pebbles, organic matter should not present in good brick earth.
Field tests of good quality bricks:
1. Uniformity in shape & size: A good brick should have rectangular plane surface and uniform
in size. This check is made in the field by observation.
2. Uniformity in colour: A good brick will have uniform colour. This can be done by inspection.
3. Structure: Few bricks may be broken in the field and their cross-section is observed. The
section should be homogeneous, compact and free from defects such as holes and lumps.
4. Sound test: If two bricks are struck with each other they should produce clear ringing sound.
The sound should not be dull.
5. Hardness test: Scratch the brick with nail. If no impression is marked on the surface, the brick
is sufficiently hard.
6. Water absorption: Brick specimen is weighed dry. Then they are immersed in water for 24
hrs. It is weighed again and the difference indicates amount of water absorption. This should not
be more than 20%.

MORTAR:
The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a
mixture of binding material like cement or Lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two
components of mortar namely the binding material and fine aggregates are sometimes referred to
as matrix. The durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depend on quantity and
quality of the matrix. The combined effect of the two components of mortar is that the mass is
able to bind the bricks or stones firmly.
Properties of good mortar:
1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks, stones
etc.
2. It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
3. It should be capable of resisting penetration of rainwater.
4. It should be cheap, durable & easily workable.
7. It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Uses:
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces of masonry.
3. To form an even bedding layer for building units.
4. To form joints of pipes.
5. To improve the appearance of structure.
Types of Mortar: The mortars are classified on the basis of the following:
1. Bulk density: According to the bulk density of mortar in dry state, there are two types of
mortars: (i) Heavy mortars & (ii) Lightweight mortars.
(i) Heavy Mortars: The mortars having bulk density of 15 kN/m3 or more are known as the heavy
mortars and they are prepared from heavy quartzes or other sands.
(ii) Lightweight Mortars: The mortars having bulk density less than 15 kN/m3 are known as the
lightweight mortars and they are prepared from light porous sands from pumice and other fine
aggregates.
2. Kind of binding material: The kind of binding material for a mortar is selected by keeping in
mind several factors such as expected working conditions, hardening temperature, moisture
conditions, etc. According to the kind of binding material, the mortars are classified into the
following five categories:
(i) Lime mortar
(ii) Surkhi mortar
(iii) Cement mortar
(iv) Gauged mortar
(v) Gypsum mortar.
(i) Lime Mortar: In this type of mortar, the lime is used as binding material. The lime may be fat
lime or hydraulic lime. The fat lime shrinks to a great extent and hence it requires about 2 to 3
times its volume of sand. The lime should be slaked before use. This mortar is unsuitable for
water-logged areas or in damp situations. For hydraulic lime, the proportion of lime to sand by
volume is about 1:2 or so. This mortar should be consumed within one hour after mixing. It
possesses more strength and can be used in damp situations. The lime mortar has a high
plasticity and it can be placed easily. It possesses good cohesiveness with other surfaces and
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

shrinks very little. It is sufficiently durable, but it hardens slowly. It is generally used for lightly
loaded above-ground parts of buildings.
(ii) Surkhi Mortar: This type of mortar is prepared by using fully surkhi instead of sand or by
replacing half of sand in case of fat lime mortar. The powder of surkhi should be fine enough to
pass BIS No. 9 sieve and the residue should not be more than 10% by weight. The surkhi mortar
is used for ordinary masonry work of all kinds in foundation and superstructure. But it cannot be
used for plastering or pointing since surkhi is likely to disintegrate after some time.
(iii) Cement Mortar: In this type of mortar, the cement is used as binding material. Depending
upon the strength required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand by volume
varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or more. It should be noted that surkhi and cinder are not chemically inert
substances and hence they cannot be used as adulterants with matrix as cement. Thus, the sand
only can be used to form cement mortar. The proportion of cement with respect to sand should
be determined with due regard to the specified durability and working conditions. The cement
mortar is used where a mortar of high strength and water-resisting properties is required such as
underground constructions, water saturated soils, etc.
(iv) Gauged Mortar: To improve the quality of lime mortar and to achieve early strength, cement
is sometimes added to it. This process is known as the gauging. It makes lime mortar
economical, strong and dense. The usual proportion of cement to lime by volume is about 1:6 to
1:8. It is also known as the composite mortar or lime-cement mortar and it can also be formed by
the combination of cement and clay. This mortar may be used for bedding and for thick brick
walls.
(v) Gypsum Mortar: These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding materials such as building
gypsum and anhydrite binding materials.
3. Nature of application: According to the nature of application, the mortars are classified into
two categories: (i) Bricklaying mortars & (ii) Finishing mortars.
(i) Bricklaying Mortars: These mortars are intended to be used for brickwork and walls.
Depending upon the working conditions and type of construction, the composition of masonry
mortars with respect to the kind of binding material is decided.
(ii) Finishing Mortars: These mortars include common plastering work and mortars for
developing architectural or ornamental effects. Cement or lime is generally used as binding
material for ordinary plastering mortar. For decorative finishing, the mortars are composed of
suitable materials with due consideration of mobility, water retention, resistance to atmospheric
actions, etc.
4. Special mortars: Following are the various types of special mortars which are used for certain
conditions:
(i) Fire-resistant mortar
(ii) Lightweight mortar
(iii) Packing mortar
(iv) Sound-absorbing mortar
(v) X-ray shielding mortar.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

(i) Fire-Resistant Mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding aluminous cement to the finely
crushed powder of fire-bricks. The usual proportion is 1 part of aluminous cement to 2 parts of
powder of fire-bricks. This mortar is fire-resistant and it is therefore used with fire-bricks for
lining furnaces, fire places, ovens, etc.
(ii) Lightweight Mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding materials such as saw dust, wood
powder, etc. to the lime mortar or cement mortar. Other materials which may be added are
asbestos fibres, jute fibres, coir, etc. This mortar is used in sound-proof and heat-proof
constructions.
(iii) Packing Mortar: To pack oil wells, special mortars possessing the properties of high
homogeneity, water resistance, predetermined setting time, ability to form solid water-proof
plugs in cracks and voids of rocks, resistance to subsoil water pressure, etc. have to be formed.
The varieties of packing mortars include cement-sand, cement-loam and cement-sand-loam. The
composition of packing mortar is decided by taking into consideration the hydrogeologic
conditions, packing methods and type of timbering.
(iv) Sound-Absorbing Mortar: To reduce the noise level, the sound-absorbing plaster is formed
with the help of sound-absorbing mortar. The bulk density of such a mortar varies from 6 to 12
kN/m3 and the binding materials employed in its composition may be Portland cement, lime,
gypsum, slag, etc. The aggregates are selected from lightweight porous materials such as pumice,
cinders, etc.
(v) X-Ray Shielding Mortar: This type of mortar is used for providing the plastering coat to walls
and ceiling of X-ray cabinets. It is a heavy type of mortar with bulk density over 22 kN/m 3. The
aggregates are obtained from heavy rock and suitable admixtures are added to enhance the
protective property of such a mortar.
Preparation of cement mortar: For preparing mortar, water is added to intimate mixtures of
binding material and sand. The water to be used for this purpose should be free from clay, earth
and other impurities. Water which is fit for drinking should only be used for preparing mortar.
Cement mortar may be prepared by manual mixing or by mechanical mixing. Mechanical mixing
is preferred when mortar is required in large quantities to be used in continuous order.
a. Mixing in mechanical mixer: In this case, cement and sand in desired proportion are fed in the
mixer and mixed dry. Water is then added gradually and the wet mixing a continued for at least
one minute to obtain the mortar of desired consistency. It is necessary to ensure that only the
quantity of mortar which can be used within half an hour of its mixing should be prepared at a
time. This is essential as after 30 minutes the mortar begins to set.

b. Manual mixing: In this case, specified quantity of sand is spread and leveled on clean dry
masonry platform. Required quantity of cement bags are emptied over the sand layer. The
ingredients are then mixed thoroughly by turning them over the sand layer. The ingredients are
then mixed thoroughly by turning them over and over, backward and forward several times with
the help of spade. Dry mixing is continued till the mix attains a uniform colour. A batch of dry
mix is then put in the shallow masonry tank and just sufficient quantity of water is added to bring
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

the mortar to the consistency of a paste. The quantity of dry mix taken in each batch should be
such the mortar formed each time is consumed within half an hour.

CEMENT
Cement is an extremely fine material having adhesive and cohesive properties which provides a
binding medium for the discrete ingredients.

Chemical Composition of Cement: The materials used for the manufacturing consist mainly of
Lime, Silica, Alumina and Iron oxide. Oxides present in the raw materials when subjected to
high clinkering temperature combine with each other to form complex compounds. The
identification of the major complex compounds is based on R.H. Bogue’s work and hence these
are called Bogue’s compounds. In addition to the four major components, there are mainly minor
compounds form in the kiln. The influence of these minor compounds on the properties of
cement or hydrated compounds is not sufficient. Two of the minor oxides namely Pottassium
oxide (K2O) and Sodium oxide (Na2O) referred to as alkalies in cement are of some importance.
Constituents Percentage Average Percentage
Lime (Cao) 62 – 67 % 62
Silica (SiO2) 17 – 25 % 22
Alumina (Al2O3) 3–8% 5
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3–4% 4
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 3–4% 3
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 – 3 % 2
Sulphur 1–3% 1
Soda and Potash (Na2O + K2O) 0.5 – 1.3 % 1
Bogue’s compounds:
Name Chemical Formula Percentage
Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) 3CaOSIO2 30 – 50 %
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S) 2CaOSiO2 20 – 45 %
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) 3CaOAl2O3 8 – 12 %
Tetracalcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF) 4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3 6 – 10 %
Types of Cement: There are different types of cement classified as follows-
1. Ordinary Portland Cements: a. 33 Grade, b. 43 Grade, c. 53 Grade
2. Rapid Hardening Cements
3. Extra Rapid Hardening Cements
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

4. Low Heat Portland Cements

5. Portland Slag Cements
6. Portland Pozzolana cements
7. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cements
8. White Portland Cements
9. Coloured Portland Cements
10. Hydrophobic Cements
11. High Alumina Cements
12. Super Sulphated Cements
13. Special Cements: a. Masonry Cements, b. Air Entraining Cement, c. Expansive Cements
Field Tests for Cements:
▪ Colour: Grey color with a light greenish shade. It is done by inspection.
▪ Physical properties: Cement should feel smooth when rubbed between the fingers.
▪ If hand is inserted in a bag, it should feel cool.
▪ If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, it should sink and should not
float on the surface.
▪ Presence of lumps: Cement should free from lumps.
Laboratory Tests for Cements:
1. Chemical composition test: This is the test in which the ratio of percentage of lime to
percentage of silica, alumina and iron oxide, when calculated by the formula (CaO – 0.7SO3) /
(2.8SiO2 + 1.2Al2O3 + 0.65Fe2O3) shall not be greater than 1.02 and not less than 0.66.
2. Normal (standard) consistency test: This test is to determine the normal consistency of a
cement paste which is defined as that consistency which will permit a Vicat plunger
having 10mm diameter and 50mm length to penetrate a depth of 33 to 35mm from the top of the
mould.
3. Initial and final setting time test: This test is to determine the initial & final setting time of
cement using suitable apparatus. Initial setting time is the time that elapses between the moment
the water is added to the cement, to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity. Final setting
time is the time that elapses between the moment the water is added to the cement and the time
when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained sufficient firmness to resist
certain pressure.
4. Soundness test: This test is to determine soundness of cement which indicates that the cement
paste, once it has set, does not undergo change in volume causing concrete to crack.
5. Strength test: This test is to determine the compressive strength and tensile strength of cement.
6. Fineness test: Fineness test of cement is done to determine the particle size of cement.
7. Heat of hydration test: Heat evolves during hydration of cement, the amount being dependent
on the relative quantity of clinker compounds. This test is used to determine the heat of hydration
of cement with an apparatus known as Calorimeter.
8. Specific gravity test: This test is to determine the specific gravity of cement which is an
important property. It is determined using an apparatus called Le Chatelier’s flask,
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Specific gravity = Weight of Cement / Weight of Displaced volume of Liquid.

PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)

Plain cement concrete (PCC) is a hardened mass obtained from a mixture of cement, sand, gravel,
and water in definite proportions. It does not contain a steel rod. These ingredients are mixed
together in a definite proportion to form a plastic mass which is poured into desired shape moulds
called as forms. This plastic mass hardens on setting and we get PCC. The hardening of this mixture
is caused by a chemical reaction between the cement and water. Plain cement concrete (PCC) has
good compressive strength and very little tensile strength, thus limiting its use in construction.
Plain concrete is used where good compressive strength and weight are the main requirements
and tensile stresses are very low.

Materials used in plain cement concrete

1. Cement: It is the chemically active ingredient of concrete. It shows binding properties after
reacting with water. It consists of silicates and aluminates of calcium which form a hardened mass
after mixing with water. Portland pozzolana cement is generally used for plain cement concrete.
2. Sand: Sand used for concrete work should be hard, durable, strong, well-graded, clean & should
meet the requirements specified for its use.
3. Aggregates: The bulk concrete is made up of aggregates. Aggregates are inert materials or
chemically inactive materials like crushed rock, sand, broken bricks, gravel, etc. Aggregates of size
less than 4.75 mm are known as fine aggregates and aggregates of size more than 4.75 mm size are
called coarse aggregates. Fine aggregate acts as a filler between the coarse aggregate and coarse
aggregates give the strength to concrete and provide workability to the concrete mix. The aggregates
should be hard, strong, durable, and well graded.
4. Water: Water is required for providing workability to concrete and also for the chemical reaction
of cement. The water used for mixing and curing of concrete should be clean and free from injurious
amounts of acids, alkalis, salts, or other chemical substances, which can harm concrete or steel.
Properties of plain cement concrete:
1. Compressive strength: The compressive strength of PCC lies between 200 to 500 kg/cm2.
2. Tensile strength: The tensile strength of plain cement concrete lies between 50 to 100 kg/cm2.
3. Density: The density of concrete ranges from 2200 kg/m3 to 2400 kg/m3.
4. Durability: It is more durable.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Uses of PCC: The following are uses of PCC:

1. It is used as a base below all types of foundations to provide a hard and level surface for
laying the foundation.
2. It is used at the plinth level to provide a hard and level surface for laying floor tiles & to act
as a damp proof course (DPC).
3. It is used as coping over top of parapet walls to protect the wall from rain.
4. It is used for pavements and roads.
5. It is used for mass concrete structures such as retaining walls.

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)

Concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in
resisting forces is called Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC). The reinforcing steel—rods, bars,
or mesh—absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete
structure. Plain concrete does not easily withstand tensile and shear stresses caused by wind,
earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces and is therefore unsuitable in most structural
applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the compressive strength of
concrete work together to allow the member to sustain these stresses over considerable spans.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete:

1. Strength: Reinforced concrete has very good strength in tension as well as compression. This
makes concrete a desired construction material.
2. Economy: Concrete constituents are widely available worldwide and inexpensive. Similarly,
the production cost of concrete is very low. There is an overall economy by using reinforced
concrete because its maintenance cost is low due to the long-lasting nature of reinforced
concrete. Reinforced concrete offers durability, resilience, low maintenance requirements and
energy efficiency in concrete structures thereby reducing operating costs related to operational
energy consumption, maintenance, and rebuilding following disasters.
3. Versatility: Concrete can be placed into various shapes of shuttering or formwork
configurations to form desired shapes, form, surface, texture and sizes at construction site. This
is because fresh concrete is flowable and is in liquid state. Therefore, it is more suitable for
architectural requirements.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

4. Durability: Reinforced Concrete structures are durable if designed and laid properly. The
material is not affected by weather such as rainfall and snow, and they can last up to 100 years.
Due to low permeability, concrete can resist chemicals dissolved in water such as
sulfates, chloride and carbon dioxide, which may cause corrosion in concrete, without serious
deterioration. That is why reinforced concrete is ideal for underwater and submerged
applications like for building structures, pipelines, dams, canals, linings and waterfront
structures.
5. Fire Resistance: The nature of concrete does not allow it to catch fire or burn. It can withstand
heat for 2–6 hours enabling sufficient time for rescue operations in case of fire. Reinforced
concrete buildings are more fire resistant than other commonly used construction materials like
steel and wood. It is suitable to fireproof steel and used in high temperature and blast
applications.
6. Ductility: The steel reinforcement imparts ductility to the reinforced concrete structures.
Ductility enables concrete to show sign of distress such as cracking and deflection if reinforced
concrete members experience overloading. This enables engineers to consider suitable measures
to prevent further concrete damages.
7. Seismic Resistance: Properly designed reinforced concrete structures are extremely resistant to
earthquakes.
8. Ease of Construction: Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires
less skilled labor for the erection of the structure.
9. Multi-Mode Application: One of the major advantages of concrete is its ability to be used in
different application methodologies. Concrete is hand applied, poured, pumped, sprayed, grouted
and also used for advanced applications such as shotcrete and tunnels.
Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete:
• Reinforced concrete structures are heavier than others like steel, wood and glass
structures.
• Concrete Buildings need massive formwork, centering, shuttering to be fixed. As a result,
it requires lots of site space and labor work.
• Concrete takes time to attain its full strength. So, it cannot be used immediately after
construction in contrast to steel structures.
• The main steps in using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing. All of this
affects the final strength.
• The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively higher.
• Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.
Applications of Reinforced Concrete:
1. Buildings
2. Bridges
3. Flyovers
4. Water Tanks
5. Roads
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

6. Floating Structures
7. Foundations
8. Marine Structures
9. Pipes and Conduits
10. Precast Works
11. Chimneys and Towers
12. Retaining Walls
13. Bunkers and Silos

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (PSC)

Concrete reinforced by either pre tensioning or post tensioning, allowing it to carry a greater load
or span a greater distance than ordinary reinforced concrete is called Prestressed Concrete (PSC). In
pre tensioning, lengths of steel wire or cables are laid in the empty mold and stretched. The
concrete is placed and allowed to set, and the cables are released, placing the concrete into
compression as the steel shrinks back to its original length. In post tensioning, the steel in the
concrete is stretched after the curing process. Prestressing places a concrete member in
compression; these compressive stresses counteract the tensile bending stresses of an applied
load. The process was developed by the French engineer Eugène Freyssinet in the early 20th
century.
Properties of prestressed concrete:
1. It has lighter members which creates saving in the materials.
2. These members are economical than R.C.C. members.
3. It possesses improved resistance to shearing forces.
4. The PSC members are stiffer than R.C.C. members.
Uses of Prestressed Concrete:
• Long span bridges
• High buildings
• Hollow slabs
• Simple span box girders
• Cable bridges
• Flat slab floor
Advantages of Prestressed concrete:
• Precast prestressed concrete is used in the construction of dynamically loaded structures
such as railway bridges and machine foundations and in the construction of long-span floors and
roofs.
• These members have more resistance to shear forces.
• These offer great technical advantages in comparison with other forms of construction.
• When fully pre-stressed, members are free from tensile stresses under working loads,
thereby having more efficiency when compared with RCC and other composite materials.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural Steel is a special kind of steel used for construction purposes. Due to its rigidity and
high strength-to-weight ratio, structural steel is mainly employed in buildings. It is used in
houses, warehouses, airplane hangars, educational facilities, bridges, stadiums, etc.
Properties of Structural Steel:
• Density: The density is 7750 to 8100 kg/m3.
• Young's Modulus of Elasticity: Typical values range from 190-210 GPa
• Poisson's ratio: The acceptable value ranges from 0.27 to 0.3.
• Tensile strength: Structural Steel has high tensile strength, so it is preferred over other
construction materials.
• Yield strength: The yield strength, also known as the yield point, is the stress at which an
object permanently deforms. When stress is removed, it does not revert to its former shape.
Carbon structural steel has a yield strength ranging from 187 to 758 MPa. The values of
structural steel constructed of alloys range from 366 to 1793 MPa.
• Shear strength: The shear strength of steel structure is specified at the failure under shear
stress, and it is about 0.57 times the yield stress of structural steel.
• Hardness: The resistance of an object to change in shape when force is applied is referred
to as hardness. There are three different types of hardness tests. Scratch, indentation, and
rebound are all terms used to describe the process of scratching and indenting, and the hardness
of structural steel manufactured with alloys ranges from 149 to 627 kg. Carbon structural steels
have a weight range of 86 to 388 kg.
• Melting point: Because there are so many different types of structural steel, there is no
standard melting point.
• Specific heat: The amount required to raise an object's temperature by a particular
quantity is known as specific heat or heat capacity. A higher specific heat value indicates that the
object has higher insulation capacity. The units of measurement are Joules per Kilogram Kelvin.
Specific heat for carbon structural steel ranges from 450 to 2081 J/kg-K, while for structural
alloy steel, it ranges from 452 to 1499 J/kg-K.
Types of Structural Steel: Carbon is the most often used commercial steel alloy. Increased
carbon content improves ability to harden and boosts hardness and strength. Conversely, carbon
increases brittleness and lowers weldability because of its propensity for forming martensite. As
a result, the carbon content in commercial steel can be both a blessing and a burden. Based on
the carbon content, the mechanical properties of different types of structural steel and their uses
are given below:
• Carbon steel: Steel in which the carbon content is up to 2% is known as carbon steel. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 410 to 440 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 to 400 MPa.
• High-strength carbon steel: These steels are used in structures such as transmission lines
and microwave towers. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 to 550 MPa, and the yield
strength is 350 to 400 MPa.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

• Medium and high strength micro-alloyed steel: Alloys such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, etc., are used to increase the strength while retaining the desired ductility. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa, and the yield strength is 300 to 450 MPa.
• High strength quenched and tempered steel: Heat treatment increases strength in this type
of steel. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa; the yield strength is 300 to
450 MPa.
• Weathering steel: These are corrosion-resistant steel and are often not painted. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 MPa.
• Fire-resistant steel: These steels are also known as thermo-mechanically treated (TMT)
steel and are used where the structures are more prone to fire.

CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS
Modern construction industry uses chemicals in a number of ways & in different applications to
enhance properties of existing construction materials, repair & retrofitting works & for
waterproofing works. The chemicals that are used to improve the properties of concrete are
broadly termed as admixtures & others are termed as construction chemicals.
Admixtures: Admixtures are a type of construction chemicals added to concrete, mortar or grout
at the time of mixing, to modify the properties, either in the wet state immediately after mixing
or after the mix has hardened. They can be a single chemical or a blend of several chemicals and
may be supplied as powders but most are aqueous solutions because in this form, they are easier
to accurately dispense into, and then disperse through the concrete.
Admixtures can be divided into three categories: -
• Active materials are those which react chemically with a component within the cementitious
materials.
• Surface active admixtures (surfactants) are generally split into two components (one
positively charged and the other negatively charged) and react with the air - water - solid
material interface within the mortar thereby resulting in orientation and adsorption.
• Passive or inert admixtures do not change their form but have a physical effect such as
light absorption and reflection as in the case of pigments.
Functions:
Increase slump and workability
Retard or accelerate initial setting
Reduce or prevent shrinkage
Modify the rate or capacity for bleeding
Reduce segregation
Decrease weight of concrete
Improve durability
Decrease the rate of heat of hydration
Reduce permeability
To make porous concrete
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

To make colored concrete

To protect from chemical attack, increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement & increase
strength (compressive, tensile, or flexural)
Increase bond between existing and new concrete
Types of admixtures:
Plasticizers- Used to fluidify mix & improve the workability of concrete, mortar or grout.
Anionic surfactants & Nonionic surfactants are used as plasticizers.
Superplasticizers- Used to produce flowing, self levelling, self-compacting concrete.
Sulphonated malanie formaldehyde condensates, sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde
condensates are used as super plasticizers.
Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers- Used to slow down the chemical process of hydration so
that concrete remains fluid & workable for a longer time, specially when hot weather concreting
is done. Calcium sulphate is most common retarder.
Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizers- Used to increase the rate of early strength
development in concrete. Some soluble carbonates, silicates & fluosilicates are used as
accelerators.
Air-entraining Admixtures- Used to incorporate air bubbles in concrete so that the properties of
concrete in terms of its permeability, segregation, bleeding etc. are modified. Natural wood
resins, animal & vegetable oils, alkali salts etc. are used as air entrainers.
Pozzolanic or Mineral Admixtures- Used to modify certain properties of fresh & hardened
concretes & mortars. Fly ash, silica fume, surkhi, rice husk ash are some artificial pozzolans
used.
Damp-proofing and Waterproofing Admixtures- Used to make concrete water proof & dense.
Soda, potash soaps, calcium soaps etc. are some damp-proof admixtures used.
Gas forming Admixtures- Used to introduce gas in concrete so that there is reduced settlement &
improved bond with reinforcing bars. Most common agent is aluminium powder.
Air-detraining Admixtures- Used to reduce excessive air entrainment in concrete. Tributyl
phosphate is most commonly used.
Alkali-aggregate Expansion Inhibiting Admixtures- Used to reduce the effect of alkali aggregate
reaction in concrete. Aluminium powder & lithium salts are used as inhibitors.
Workability Admixtures- Used to improve or enhance workability of concrete. Bentonite clay,
fly ash, hydrated lime etc. are used as admixtures.
Grouting Admixtures- Used in grouting operations depending on the site requirements.
Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures- Used to decrease the rate of corrosion of steel in concrete.
Calcium lignosulphate, sodium nitrate & calcium nitrate are good corrosion inhibitors.
Bonding Admixtures- Used to increase bond strength between old & new concrete. Rubbers,
polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate etc. are used as bonding admixtures.
Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures- Used in concrete to protect it from fungus,
germs & insect attacks. Polyhalogenated phenols, copper compounds are used as admixtures.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Colouring Admixtures- Used to impart colour to concrete. Metallic oxides & mineral pigments
are used.
Construction chemicals: These are chemicals not used as admixtures but used in concrete related
activities in construction. Some common chemicals used are:
Concrete Curing Compounds- These are used to cure concrete not just in fresh state but also after
removal of formwork. Some compounds are synthetic resin, wax, acrylic & chlorinated rubber.
Polymer Bonding Agents- Used to improve the adhesion of new concrete or mortar to old
surface.
Polymer Modified Mortar for Repair and Maintenance- Polymer modified mortar is used for
effective repair of concrete structures.
Mould Releasing Agents- These are used to reduce the bond between formwork & concrete so
that demoulding becomes easy.
Installation Aids- These are used to plug holes in a concrete structure that are made for
installation or fixing of certain objects like wash basin, lamps etc.
Floor Hardners and Dustproofers- These are used over floors to make them wear resistant, dust
free & non slip.
Non-Shrink High Strength Grout- These are used in different grouting operations to improve the
permeability of the grout used on a structure.
Surface Retarders- These are used to achieve exposed aggregate finish on architectural concrete.
Bond-aid for plastering- These chemicals are used over a structure to form a key with plaster.
Ready to use Plaster- It is a pre-mixed material in dry form with good sand & cement in different
proportions for different plastering uses.
Guniting Aid- These help in accelerating the setting, hardening, sealing & bonding of materials
in guniting & shotcreting processes.
Construction Chemicals for Waterproofing- These are chemicals used for different kinds or
situations of water-proofing.

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING

FOUNDATION
A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the
loads are transmitted. Super- structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level.