Structure 2.

1 The Ionic Model

(a) Bonding that exists between calcium and phosphorous is ionic bonding. It is an electrostatic
attraction of metal cations and non-metal anions held together in a crystal lattice. (Phosphorous
takes electrons from calcium)
- FYI: Ionic bonds exist between atoms with a large difference in electronegativity, where the more
electronegative atom takes an electron from the less electronegative atom, resulting in an anion
and a cation.

(b) Ca3P2
(c) -1 charge
- To form Ca(SCN)2, the charge on the thiocyanate must be -1 (Ca2+: 1 X (+2) = +2, SCN-: 2 X (-1) = -2)

(d) Magnitude of the lattice enthalpy is a measure of the strength of the ionic bond. The larger the
lattice enthalpy, the stronger the bond.
- FYI: Lattice enthalpies measure the strength of the forces between the ions in a crystal lattice.
Therefore, a higher lattice enthalpy corresponds to a stronger bond. Lattice enthalpy is influenced
by both the size of the ions and the ion charge. Smaller ions and higher charges result in stronger
bonds and, therefore, higher lattice enthalpies.

(e) O2- has a higher charge than F-. Higher charges result in greater lattice enthalpy.
- FYI: Higher charges result in higher lattice enthalpies because of stronger electrostatic attraction
between the ions.

(f) CaO (Calcium oxide), because it has a larger lattice enthalpy because of its stronger ionic bond.
- FYI: To melt an ionic compound, the electrostatic attraction between the ions must be overcome.
When the bond is stronger, the lattice enthalpy is higher; therefore, it takes more energy to break
the bonds.
(a) (i) Lithium chloride has ionic bonding, and hydrochloric acid has polar covalent bonding.
Electrostatic forces of attraction in ionic bonds are stronger than the intermolecular forces (London
and dipole-dipole interactions between molecules) in polar covalent bonding.
(ii) Calcium bromide has ionic bonding, and bromine has non-polar covalent bonding. Molten ionic
compounds have free moving charged particles and can conduct electricity. However, covalent
compounds do not have charged particles in their composition and cannot conduct electricity.
(iii) HI has polar covalent bonding, and Iodine has non-polar covalent bonding based on their
electronegativity difference. The London dispersion forces in Iodine are stronger than the
intermolecular forces between molecules (dipole-dipole) of Hydrogen Iodide.

(b) Bromine < Potassium < Potassium bromide → Intermolecular forces in potassium bromide are the
strongest because of ionic bonding. Even though potassium has metallic bonding, it only has one
valence electron, and covalent bonds have the weakest intermolecular forces.

- Bromine has pure covalent bonding; Potassium has metallic bonding; Potassium bromide has ionic
bonding.

Structure 2.2 The Covalent Model

(a) London dispersion forces
- FYI: Halogens are non-polar covalent molecules → only have London forces.

(b) Boiling point increases as the molar mass/ size of the molecule increases.

(c) (i) Permanent dipole-dipole interaction

- FYI: Cl is more electronegative than I, which indicates that ICl is highly polar. Therefore, ICl has
dipole-dipole interaction & London dispersion forces.

(ii) Higher, because dipole-dipole forces are stronger than London dispersion forces.
(a) London dispersion forces
(b) London dispersion forces and dipole-dipole interactions are present. As molar mass increases,
London dispersion forces become stronger.
- Boiling point increases from PH3 to SbH3.

(c) Bar drawn shorter than SbH3 (> -90 degrees Celsius)
- FYI: NH3 can form hydrogen bonds with other ammonia molecules, along as London dispersion
forces and dipole-dipole force. Therefore, it has a greater boiling point than the rest of the hydrides.

(d) NH3 can form hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds are stronger than/ require more energy to
overcome than London dispersion forces and dipole-dipole interactions.
- H.B. > dipole-dipole > L.D.F.
(a) As the size of an atom increases, the attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons decreases.
Therefore, the electronegativity of an atom decreases. As a result, the bigger the size of the atom,
the less attraction between nuclei and valence electrons of adjacent atoms. The polarity of a bond
depends on the electronegativity difference. The greater the electronegativity difference, the higher
the polarity of a bond.
(b)
- Cl2 is nonpolar covalent; the electronegativity difference between them is zero.
- HCl: [3.2 – 2.2 = 1.0]; since the electronegativity difference is below 1.8, the bond is polar covalent.
- NaCl: [3.2 – 0.9 = 2.3]; since the electronegativity difference is more than 1.8, the bond is ionic.
(a) diamond, graphene, Fullerene
(b) Bond angle is 120. It has a hexagonal structure with parallel layers.
- Each carbon in graphite has three electron domains giving them trigonal planar arrangement.

(c)
- Good electrical conductor, because graphite has delocalised electrons and can conduct electricity.
- Soft and slippery, because the weak London dispersion forces between the layers allow them to
slide over each other.
- Brittle
- High melting point, because graphite has a giant covalent structure held together by many strong
covalent bonds, leading to a high melting point.
(a)
(b) Carbon monoxide < Carbon dioxide < Methanol
- As the number of shared electrons increases, the strength of the bond increases and it shortens.
Therefore, triple bond length < double bond length < single bond length.

(c) Carbon-oxygen is a triple bond in a carbon monoxide and a double bond in carbon dioxide. A triple
bond is stronger than a double bond.
- As the number of shared electrons increases, the strength of the bond increases.
(a)

(b)
(c) Sigma bond
(d) Sideways overlap of p orbitals
- Physical evidence
o C—C bond lengths all equal (intermediate between single and double bonds)
o C—C bond strengths intermediate between single and double
- Chemical behaviour
o Unlike unsaturated hydrocarbon, undergoes substitution reactions to form
o Does not decolorise bromine water (or other addition reactions)
(a) (i) sp3 hybridisation
(ii) 109.5 degrees
(iii) Tetrahedral; the p orbitals are perpendicular to each other so it must be hybridised.
(b) (i) Electrons are concentrated along the bond.
(ii) Head on overlap/ end-to-end overlap
(iii) The paired s electrons are unpaired in hybrid orbitals. Hybridisation causes the energies of the
valence orbitals to become equal.
(a) Lower boiling points indicates that the London dispersion forces are getting weaker. This is because
the molar mass decreases.
(b) C—Cl bond is polar. CHCl3, CH2Cl2, and CHCl3 are all asymmetrical and have dipole-dipole
interactions. CCl4 is symmetrical and only has London dispersion forces between molecules. Dipole-
dipole interactions are stronger than London dispersion forces. Therefore, the student would expect
a lower boiling point for CCl4.
- FYI: the reason why CCl4 has the highest boiling point in actual, is because of its high molecular
mass, which explains very strong London forces that exceeds the dipole-dipole interactions in the
other 3 chloroalkanes.
(a) (i) 3 domains around each sulfur atom
(ii) SO2 has a bent shape and SO3 has a trigonal planar shape
- SO2 has two bonding pairs and one non-bonding pair, increasing repulsion
- SO3 has three electron domains that are bonding pairs

(b)
- SO2 is polar and has a non-bonding electron pair
- SO3 is non-polar and domains in SO3 do not create a net dipole moment, the bond angle is 120
degrees, and there are no non-bonding electron pairs on the central atom.
- FYI: SO3 is symmetrical, so there is no net dipole moment. SO2 is asymmetrical, leading to a net
dipole moment

(c) SO2 has a bond order of 1.5 whereas SO3 has a bond order of 1.33. So bonds in SO3 is shorter.
(d) SO2 has two resonance structures. Delocalised electrons can move from one bonding position to
another or be shared between identical bonding positions.
(a) (i)
(ii) N has a higher electronegativity than H
- N has a partial negative charge, and H has a partial positive charge.
- The bonding electron density is higher near N/ lower near H.
(iii) Trigonal pyramidal
(iv) The bond angle of ammonia is 107 degrees; the bond angle of ammonium ion is 109.5 degrees.
Ammonia has a smaller bond angle because lone pairs repel bonding pair more strongly than
bonding pairs repelling each other.

(b) Ammonia (NH3) has a higher boiling point due to hydrogen bonding. The electronegativity of
elements decreases down the group, so the other molecules form London dispersion forces
(induced dipole-dipole forces), and the interactions of these molecules are weaker than hydrogen
bonds. The boiling points increase from PH3 to SbH3 because the central atoms increase in size and
this allows the electron cloud to change shape more easily, so the London forces are stronger.
(a) (i) Octahedral

(ii)
(iii) Lone pair occupies an equatorial position (positioned 120 degrees to two S—F bonds/ bonding
pairs), as this minimises repulsion/ because lone pairs repel bonding pairs more strongly than
bonding pairs repel each other.

(b) (i)
(ii)
(iii) Structure A, because formal charges are minimised.
(a) Butane, because increased number of bonds has increased London dispersion forces as molecule
size increases down the homologous series of alkanes.
(b) Ethanoic acid, because it has both carbonyl and hydroxyl group in the carboxylic acid. There is an
increased hydrogen bonding between molecules as there are as there are 2 electronegative oxygen
atoms per molecule to form attraction with, compared to one oxygen in the alcohol.
(c) Propanol, because it can form hydrogen bonds due to the hydroxyl groups, which are a stronger
intermolecular force of attraction than dipole-dipole interaction in the ketone due to the polar
carbonyl group.
(a) Two of the amino acids did not separate. A different solvent should be attempted (Try a different,
less polar solvent).

(b) Rf= distance travelled by the spot / distance travelled by the solvent
(c) w = leucine, x = glycine, y = asparagine, z = alanine
(d) Amino acid, z, is polar because the mobile phase (water) is polar. Z moved the furthest and has the
highest Rf.
(e) Hexane is non-polar. The amino acids would not separate and remain near the starting line.
(f) Graphite will not dissolve in the solvent and move up the TLC. Ink would dissolve in the solvent and
move up the TLC.
(a) 18 valence electrons

(b)
(c) Trigonal planar, 120 degrees.
(d) The carbon-oxygen bonds are polar due to the electronegativity difference between C—O. There is a
net dipole moment with increased electron density around the oxygen atoms due to the asymmetry
of the formate ion.

(a) (i) Carbonate

(ii)
(iii) Trigonal planar
(iv) The bond angles are 120 degrees due to resonance/ delocalisation.
(b) (i) The electronegativity difference for Si and O is smaller than for Ca and O, so the bonding in SiO 2 is
polar covalent (whereas the bonding in CaCO3 is ionic.
(ii) Liquid CaCO3 is electrically conductive and SiO2 is electrically insulating, because liquid CaCO3
contains ions that can carry a current when voltage is applied, while SiO 2 does not.
- FYI: A material is electrically conductive if it contains charged particles that can move in response to
an applied voltage, allowing the material to complete a circuit. Although the ions in a salt are
charged, solid salts such as CaCO3 are not conductive because the ions are fixed in place and cannot
move when a voltage is applied. Melting the solid breaks some of the bonds between the ions, so
they can move more freely and carry a current. SiO2 is a covalent material, so does not contain ions
in either the solid or liquid form. The atoms in the material can move more freely in the liquid but
are neutral in charge, so the material remains non-conductive.

(a) Resonance structures show the possible positions of a double bond/ how pi electrons are shared
between multiple atoms.
(b) sp3, because the N atoms have four electron domains has three bonds and one non-bonding
electron pair. It does not form a double bond nor a pi bond.

(c)
(d) The molecular geometry is trigonal planar at N, so is better represented by structure B.
(a) (i) P4O6 is trigonal pyramidal
(ii) P4O10 is tetrahedral
(iii) Repulsion between non-bonding pairs is stronger than between two bonding pairs. But P—O
single bonds is P4O10 are repelled by two pairs of bonding electrons (in P=O bond). Additional
repulsion of double bond matches repulsion of non-bonding.
(iv) P4O10 does not obey octet rule (whereas P4O6 does); as it forms 5 bonds (more than 8 valence
electrons) → expanded octet

(b) Pi bonding electrons are delocalised/ shared over all P—O bonds.
(a) Hydrogen bonding
(b) (i) The boiling point of A and B are lower than the value for ethanoic acid, because only London
dispersion forces can form between the molecules, and these are weaker than hydrogen bonds.
(ii) A has a higher boiling point, because molecules of A are linear/ less branched and this allows
them to pack more tightly together (larger area is accessible for London interactions). Branching
increases the average separation of molecules.
(iii) Interactions between water molecules must be broken when a solute is added (solution is
formed). Water forms hydrogen bonds and dipole-dipole interaction of the solutes A and B with
water are much weaker.

(c) (i)
 (ii) The electrical conductivity increases when ethanoic acid dissolves, because the ions in solution
can move and carry a current in response to an applied voltage.
- An electrical current can be conducted through a solution only if it contains mobile ions. The ions
move between the electrodes in response to the applied potential difference. The dissolution of
ethanoic acid increases the number of mobile ions in the solution, increasing the electrical
conductivity.

(a) (i) Lithium chloride has ionic bonding, and Hydrochloric acid has polar covalent bonding.
Electrostatic forces of attraction in ionic bonds are stronger than the intermolecular forces (London
and dipole-dipole interactions between molecules) in polar covalent bonding.
 (ii) Calcium bromide has ionic bonding, and bromine has non-polar covalent bonding. Soluble ionic
compounds have free moving charged particles and can conduct electricity. Covalent compounds do
not have charged particles in their composition. They cannot conduct electricity.
(iii) HI has polar covalent bond and I2 has non-polar covalent bonding based on their
electronegativity difference. The London forces in I2 are stronger than the intermolecular forces
between molecules (dipole-dipole) of HI.

(b) Bromine < Potassium < Potassium bromide. Intermolecular forces in potassium bromide are the
strongest because of ionic bonding. Even though potassium has metallic bonding, it only has one
valence electron. Covalent bonds have the weakest intermolecular forces.
(a) There are 6 valence electrons around the Aluminium atom, so Aluminium has fewer than 8 valence
electrons, which does not obey the octet rule.

(b) (i)
(ii) Trigonal planar geometry in AlCl3 changes to tetrahedral geometry in Al2Cl6.
(c) (i) Iodine has two non-bonding (lone pair) electrons while aluminium does not. Therefore, electron
domain geometry is octahedral.
(ii) Molecular geometry is square planar, as repulsion is minimised by lone pairs occupying axial/
equatorial positions.
(a) Dipoles, lone pairs, two hydrogen bonds with water drawn per ethanol molecule compared to one
hydrogen bond drawn with water per dimethyl ether molecule.

Like this:

(b) Chloroethane will be less soluble than ethanol and dimethyl ether. Therefore, it will not be able to
form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Dipole-dipole interactions are weaker than hydrogen
bonds.
(a) The COOH (carboxylic acid) group, because it donates proton (hydrogen ion).
(b) (i) The H atom consists of proton and an electron, and the electron is removed to produce the
hydrogen ion.
(ii) Water bonds react with the H+ ion/ COOH (group) to produce H3O+.
(c) The charged side chains form ionic bonds (ion-dipole interaction). Acid-base reactions lower the
charge of the side chains, so the interactions between side chains become weaker/ are replaced by
dipole-dipole forces.
(a) Allotrope is different forms of the same element/ different bonding arrangements of the atoms of
an element in the same physical state.
(b) Graphite
(c) The B atom only shares six/ three pairs of valence electrons, so it does not have a complete octet of
electrons in its outer shell → does not obey the octet rule.
(d) (i) Trigonal planar
(ii) The lone pair of the N atom is shared with the B atom to form the dative bond. Dative bonding
must be present because there are only three electron domains around the N atom. / All the
electrons of the N atom must be involved in bonding. / A lone pair on the N atom would produce a
tetrahedral (electron domain) geometry.
(iii) Resonance/ delocalisation occurs in the bonding arrangement, as the dative/ double bond is
shared between the three bond positions.
(e) The layers in graphite interact by London dispersion forces. The layers in boron nitride interact by
dipole-dipole forces. Dipole-dipole forces are stronger than dispersion forces, and this makes it
harder for the layers to slide over each other.
 Structure 2.3 The Metallic Model

(a) Delocalised electrons (= can move between ion lattice) and lattice of positive ions.
(b) Malleable, ductile, high melting points, high electrical conductivity, and high thermal conductivity.
(c) Sodium chloride is ionically bonded, and ions are fixed in a rigid lattice. Sodium metal is metallically
bonded, and while the sodium cations are also in a lattice, the cations are not fixed. They can move
past one another, making sodium metal ductile and malleable.
(a) The higher the charge on the ion, the stronger the metallic bond. Smaller ionic radius correlates to a
stronger metallic bond.
(b) Melting points of Li and K are lower than Ti because Li and K ions carry a charge of 1+. In contrast, Ti
ions carry a charge of 2+ or 4+. The melting point of K is lower than Li because K+ has 3 complete
energy level and a larger ionic radius than Li+ with only one complete energy level.
(a) Vanadium exhibits stronger metallic bonding, therefore a higher melting point. This is because
Vanadium has more delocalised electrons/ unpaired valence electrons.
(b) Both metals have delocalised electrons that are able to move freely through the metal lattice.
- In order to conduct electricity, there must be electrons that are able to move freely through the
material. In metals, unpaired valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom and instead
are able to form a sea of delocalised electrons. These delocalised electrons are responsible for a
metal’s conductivity.

(c) Tin has weaker metallic bonds/ fewer delocalised electron resulting in lower melting point, softer
metal, and low strength to weight ratio/ mechanical strength.

(a) (i) Lithium chloride has ionic bonding, and hydrochloric acid has polar covalent bonding.
Electrostatic forces of attraction in ionic bonds are stronger than the intermolecular forces (London
and dipole-dipole interactions between molecules) in polar covalent bonding.
(ii) Calcium bromide has ionic bonding, and bromine has non-polar covalent bonding. Molten ionic
compounds have free moving charged particles and can conduct electricity. However, covalent
compounds do not have charged particles in their composition and cannot conduct electricity.
 (iii) HI has polar covalent bonding, and I2 has non-polar covalent bonding based on their
electronegativity difference. The London dispersion forces in Iodine are stronger than the
intermolecular forces between molecules (dipole-dipole) of Hydrogen Iodide.

(b) Bromine < Potassium < Potassium bromide → Intermolecular forces in potassium bromide are the
strongest because of ionic bonding. Even though potassium has metallic bonding, it only has one
valence electron, and covalent bonds have the weakest intermolecular forces.

- Bromine has pure covalent bonding; Potassium has metallic bonding; Potassium bromide has ionic
bonding.
(a) (i) The melting point decreases, because the size of the metal atom (ionic radius) increases down
the group, so the nuclei are less strongly attracted electrostatically to the delocalised electrons.
(ii) The bonding in LiBr is more covalent than the bonding in NaBr.

(b) (i) Lithium contains delocalised electrons which are mobile and can move in response to an applied
voltage and carry and current. Lithium bromide contains ions which are not free to move and
cannot move in response to an applied voltage and cannot carry a current.
(ii) The ionic bonds are broken, and ion-dipole interaction form with water. The ions in the solution
can move in response to an applied voltage.

Structure 2.4 From Models to Materials

(a) 1.6

(b) Average electronegativity = 2.6 → polar covalent

(c) Bond type would not differ/ is also polar covalent.

- FYI: Bond type is dependent on the type of atoms that are bonded, not the quantity of those atoms.
Therefore, only the bond between a single Fe and O needs to be analysed for both FeO and Fe 2O3,
resulting in the same difference in electronegativity and average electronegativity. This results in the
same bond type.
(a)
- Complete combustion of an alkane or alcohol produces carbon dioxide and water.
- Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide (or carbon) and water.

(b) The presence of a double bond in ethene can be tested by adding bromine water, Br 2 (aq) to it. A
colour changes from brown to colourless would verify the presence of a double bond.

(c) Polyethene
(a) Amide

(b)
(c) The carboxylic acid and hydroxyl groups may react to produce an ester group.

(d) The amide group can form hydrogen with water in both polymers. B contains hydroxyl groups, so it
can form additional hydrogen bonds making it more soluble.
(a) Tertiary because the carbon atom is bonded to three carbon atoms.

(b) (i)
(ii) Compound A is but-2-ene, isomers are but-1-ene, and 2-methypropene / 2-methylprop-1-ene
(iii) A change from yellow/ orange to colourless
(iv) The molecular formula is C8H16. Empirical formula is CH2. Combustion reveals the empirical
formula/ percentage composition. The compound (A and B) has the same empirical formula.
(a)

(b) Esterification is a reversible/ equilibrium reaction, because the product/ ester groups can react with
water to regenerate the starting materials (= hydrolysed)
(c) The alkene group can undergo addition polymerisation/ free radical addition (C=C bonds react
together to produce C—C single bonds), where the polymers are linked together by C—C bonds,
and this makes the polymers less flexible/ less able to deform under an applied force.