EPEG 415: SWITCHGEAR AND

PROTECTION
CHAPTER 6: SUBSTATION
Samundra Gurung, PhD
Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Kathmandu University
 • Objectives
✓Classification of Electrical Substations

✓Components in Electrical Substation

✓Bus bar arrangement in Substations

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 • Substations are the points in the power network where
transmission lines and distribution feeders are connected
together through circuit breakers or switches via busbars and
transformers.

• This allows for the control of power flows in the network and
general switching operations for maintenance purposes.

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▪ Classification of Substations
Substation

Service Voltage level Locality

Application

Converter HV Outdoor
Step up
Step down Switching EHV Indoor
Primary distribution Collector Pole mounted
UHV
Secondary distribution Underground
HVDC
Industrial
Mobile Gas Insulated
Substation (GIS)
Mining
 • Types of Electrical Substations based on Applications
1) Step-up Substation:
• The step-up substations are linked to generating stations
directly as generation is achieved in lower voltages. Hence,
these voltages are needed to be stepped-up for economical
transmission of electrical energy over greater distance. The step-
up substation may have circuit breakers which are utilized for
transmission and generation circuits in the case when required
to be shut down. The specified voltages which are leaving the
step-up transmission are to be analyzed through customer’s
needs.

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 2) Step-down Substation:
• The step-down substations are linked with load centers as there
is a requirement of different voltage levels for various loads.
The step-down substations are capable to change the voltage
levels of transmission to usually 69kv. The lines of the
substation are then serving as a source to that of the distribution
substation. Moreover, some of the power is tapped from the
substation line to be used for industrial purposes in the way.

3) Primary Substation:
• The primary grid substations are linked with bulk load centers
alongside primary lines of transmissions. The voltages are
stepped-down at various voltage ranges for purpose of
secondary [Link] primary substations are the
interconnection between high voltage and medium voltage.
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 4) Secondary substation:
The secondary substations are the interconnection between
medium and low voltage.

5) Distribution Substation:
• The distribution substations are located at the place where
voltages of primary distribution are being stepped-down. These
voltages are for consumers to use for their actual loads. These
substations are having high-voltage bearable wires and
conductors having one neutral to ground and 4 live wires. The 3
phased voltage is of 34500 volts amid conductors and wires and
the voltage is about 19920 volts in single phase when it is
considered amid neutral to ground and conductor.

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 • Depending on the type of equipment used / Configuration, the
substations could be classified as:
• Conventional – Outdoor type with air-insulated equipment
• Indoor type with air-insulated equipment
• SF6 Gas Insulated Substation
• Outdoor type with gas-insulated equipment
• Indoor type with gas-insulated equipment
• Composite Substation or Hybrid Substation combination of
above two.

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 6) Mobile Substation:
• The mobile substations are only for a dedicated purpose and are
temporary in nature i.e. mainly for giant constructions. A
mobile substation is supposed to fulfill power requirements of
the under-construction structures. These substations are a
source of temporary electrical supply and its maintenance is
very easy. It has vibrant protection from blackouts, fires,
weather disturbance, and sabotage etc.

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 7) Industrial Substation:
• The industrial substations are also known as bulk substations
and are traditionally referred to as distributive substation,
however, these are for dedicated consumers only e.g. industries
requiring bulk power to be supplied.

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 8) Mining Substation:
• The area containing electrical switchgear (circuit breakers, fuses,
switches, and/or transformers), used for the purpose of
controlling power from the surface power system to the
underground mine power transmission.

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 ❑Types of substation based on service
1. Converter Substations
• As the name suggests, Converter substations contain equipment
that changes the frequency of current from higher to lower and
can also convert AC to DC or the reverse also.

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 2 Switching Substations
• A key function of these
switching station includes
switching the power line
without altering the
voltages as they are placed
in between the transmission
lines. It also isolates the
faulted portion of the
systems and de-energize
faulted equipment which
helps the grid operate with
stability.

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 3 Collector substations
• These substations are
primarily used in
distributed power
generation projects like
wind farms,
hydroelectric projects
etc where power flow
from multiple power
sources can be collected
and distributed to the
grid by stepping up the
transmission voltage.

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 ❑Types of Substations by Operating Voltage Levels
• The substations classification below is based on the voltage
levels they operate and may vary from region to region
• High Voltage Substations (HV Substations) – Involving
voltages between 11 KV and 66 KV.
• Extra High Voltage Substations (EHV)– Involving voltages
between 132 kV and 400 kV.
• Ultra High Voltage(UHV) – Operating voltage above 400 KV.
• Direct-current high voltage (dc HV) – ±250 kV, ±400 kV, ±500
kV

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 ❑Types based on Locality / Design
• The following are types of substations based on locality.
1. Outdoor Substation: The outdoor substations are constructed
in the open air. These are also known as a 66KV
substation, 132KV substation, 220KV substation, and 400KV
substation etc. These days gas insulated substations are built
for high voltage systems.
2. Indoor Substation: The indoor substations are generally of
lower voltages and are built under a roof or closed
compartment. These substations are also known as 11KV
substations and 33KV substations etc.

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 3. Pole Mounted Substation: The pole mounted substations are
majorly distribution substations which are constructed on the
structure of two, four, or sometimes six or more poles. In such
substations, there is a need of mounting distribution transformers
over poles alongside isolator switches. The single pole is also
known as H pole and 4 pole structures are more relevant which
are operating at 25KVA, 125KVA, and 225KVA.
4. Underground Substation: The underground substations are
built in ground or subversive. These substations are built in
congested places where building open air/outdoor substations
are not possible. However, the design of such substations is very
complex. The usual voltage level of such substation varies from
34500/19920 to about 4160/2400 volts.

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 5. Gas Insulated Substation (GIS)
GIS are different from Air Insulated Substations as all the
substation equipment such as bus bars, circuit breakers, current
transformer, potential transformers and other substation
equipment are placed inside the modules filled with SF6 gas. SF6
gas having high dielectric property acts as insulating medium
between the live parts and ground. Generally, GIS are indoor
type and it requires substantially less space compared to the
conventional air insulated substations.

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 • Hybrid Switchgear
• The Hybrid switchgear is a mix of Air Insulated Substation
(AIS) and GIS technology and can be installed indoor as well as
outdoor. Outdoor installation is preferred because of the saving
in civil works of building.
• Following are the features of Hybrid Switchgear:
• Represents a complete bay
• Approx. 30% Less Switch Yard Area
• Approx. 9 No. Lesser Foundations per bay
• Quick installation
• Plug and Play Unit
• Dry Type Ring CTs
• Less damage in case of CT burst event.
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 ❑Components of Electrical Substation
• Instrument transformers
• Isolators
• Busbar
• Insulators
• Lightning arrestors
• Circuit breakers
• Relays
• Capacitor banks and Shunt reactors
• Batteries
• Wavetrap

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 1. Bus-bar
• A busbar structure is an assembly of bus conductors with
associated connection joints and insulating supports. It can have
bare or insulated conductors.
• A busbar is a grounded metal enclosure, containing factory-
mounted, bare or insulated conductors, which are usually
copper or aluminum bars, rods, or tubes (generally of
rectangular x-section).
• Each serves as a common connection between two or more
circuits. The incoming and outgoing lines are connected to the
bus bar.
• A rigid bus requires less area because the phase-to-phase
clearance is less for the rigid bus than for the strain bus.

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 • Experience shows that in seismic areas, the rigid bus is less
reliable than the strain bus and may break during earthquakes
• Strain bus may be more effective to earthquake loads.
• Strain bus requires larger phase-to-phase clearance to allow for
conductor swing due to wind and short circuit forces. This will
result in a larger substation area.

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 2. Insulators
• The insulators serve two purposes. They support the conductors
(or busbars) and confine the current to the conductors. The most
commonly used material for the manufacture of insulators
is porcelain.
• There are several types of insulators (e.g. pin type, suspension
type, post insulator etc.) and their use in the substation will
depend upon the service requirement.
• For example, post insulator is used for busbars. A post insulator
consists of a porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged cast iron
base. The hole in the cap is threaded so that busbars can be
directly bolted to the cap.

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 3. Isolators
• In power substations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of
the system for general maintenance and repairs. This is
accomplished by an isolating switch or isolator.
• An isolator is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open
a circuit under no load.
• In other words, isolator switches are operated only when the
lines in which they are connected carry no current.
• For example, consider that the isolators are connected on both
sides of a circuit breaker. If the isolators are to be opened, the
C.B. must be opened first.

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 • Figure 2 shows the use of isolators in a typical Substation. The
entire Substation has been divided into V sections. Each section
can be disconnected with the help of isolators for repair and
maintenance.

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 • For instance, if it is desired to repair section No. II, the
procedure of disconnecting this section will be as follows. First
of all, open the circuit breaker in this section and then open the
isolators 1 and 2. This procedure will disconnect section II for
repairs.

• After the repair has been done, close the isolators 1 and 2 first
and then the circuit breaker.

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 4. Circuit breaker
• A circuit breaker is an
equipment which can
open or close a
circuit under normal as
well as fault conditions. It
is so designed that it can
be operated manually (or
by remote control) under
normal conditions and
automatically under fault
conditions.

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 5. Transformers
• Transformers are an essential component for power
transmission and distribution. Their ratings originate from their
area of application, their construction, the nominal power and
the transformation ratio.
• A power transformer is used in a substation to step-up or step-
down the voltage. Except at the power station where a step-up
transformer is used to step-up generation voltage to a high
value (say 132 kV or 220 kV or more) for transmission of electric
power, all the subsequent substations use step-down
transformers to gradually reduce the voltage of electric supply
and finally deliver it at utilization voltage.

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 • The modem practice is to use 3-phase transformers in
substations. Although 3 single phase bank of transformers can
also be used.
• The use of 3-phase transformer (instead of 3 single phase bank
of transformers) permits two advantages.
• Firstly, only one 3-phase load-tap changing mechanism can be
used. Secondly, its installation is much simpler than the three
single phase transformers. The power transformer is generally
installed upon lengths of rails fixed on concrete slabs having
foundations 1 to 1-5 m deep.
• For ratings upto 10MVA, naturally cooled, oil immersed
transformers are used. For higher ratings, they are generally air
blast cooled

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 6. Instrument transformers
• Power lines in substations operate at high voltages and carry
current of thousands of amperes. Typical output levels of
instrument transformers are 1-5 amperes and 115-120 volts for
CTs and VTs, respectively.
• Voltage transformers (VTs) and current transformers (CTs) are
used to transform the power system level (called the primary
system level) of voltage and currents to the level required for
these applications (called secondary systems).
• The function of these instrument transformers is to transfer
voltages or currents in the power lines to values which are
convenient for the operation of measuring instruments and
relays.

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 • Depending on the requirements for those applications,
the instrument transformer design and construction can be
quite different. Generally, the metering ITs require high
accuracy in the range of normal operating voltage and current.

• Protection ITs require linearity in a wide range of voltages

and currents. During a disturbance, such as system fault or
overvoltage transients, the output of the IT is used by a
protective relay to initiate an appropriate action (open or dose a
breaker, reconfigure the system, etc.) to mitigate the disturbance
and protect the rest of the power system.
• Instrument transformers are the most common and economic
way to detect a disturbance

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 7. Protection relay
• The function of protective relays in a substation is to cause the
prompt removal from service of any element of a power
system when it suffers a short circuit, or when it starts to
operate in any abnormal manner that might cause damage or
otherwise interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the
system.
• The relaying equipment is aided in this task by circuit breakers
that are capable of disconnecting the faulty element when they
are called upon to do so by the relaying equipment.

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 • Circuit breakers are generally located so that each generator,
transformer, bus, transmission line, etc., can be completely
disconnected from the rest of the system. These circuit
breakers must have sufficient capacity so that they can carry
momentarily the maximum short-circuit current that can flow
through them, and then interrupt this current.
• They must also withstand closing in on such a short circuit and
then interrupting it according to certain prescribed standards.
• Fusing is employed where protective relays and circuit breakers
are not economically justifiable.

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 8. Lightning Arrestors
• The lightning arresters can be considered as the first ever
components of a substation. These are having a function of
protecting equipment of substation from high voltages and are
also limiting the amplitude and duration of the current’s flow.
• These are connected amid earth and line i.e. connected in line
with equipment in the substation. These are meant for diversion
of current to earth if any current surge appears hence by
protecting insulation as well as conductor from damages. These
are of various types and are distinguished based on duties.
• Lightning mast are also used in lightning prone areas
• Nowadays, Gapless arrestors (ZnO) are extremely popular

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 [Link]

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 ❑Rolling Sphere Method

• For more details see:

• IEEE Std. 998-1996. IEEE
Guide for Direct
Lightning Stoke
Shielding of Substations.

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 9. Wave-trap
• The wave trapper is one of the substation components which is
placed on the incoming lines for trapping of high-frequency
waves. The high-frequency waves which are coming from
nearby substations or other localities are disturbing the current
and voltages, hence its trapping is of great importance. The
wave trapper is basically tripping high-frequency waves and is
then diverting the waves into telecom panel.

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 10. Batteries
• Some of the important substation parts such as emergency
lighting, relay system, and automated control circuitry are
operated through batteries. The size of the battery bank is
depending on the voltage required for operation of the DC
circuit respectively.
• The storage batteries are of two basic types i.e. acid-alkaline
batteries and lead-acid batteries. The lead acid batteries are of
the most common type and used in substations in abundance as
these provide high voltages and are cheaper in cost.

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 11. Capacitor bank
• The capacitor bank is defined as a set of numerous identical
capacitors which are connected either in parallel or series inside
an enclosure and are utilized for the correction of power factor
as well as protection of circuitry of the substation.
• These are acting like the source of reactive power and are thus
reducing phase difference amid current and voltage. These are
increasing the capacity of ripple current of supply and avoid
unwanted selves in the substation system.
• The use of capacitor banks is an economical technique for
power factor maintenance and for correction of problems
related to power lag.

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 12. Shunt Reactors
• A shunt reactor is an inductor (or a coil) connected from conductor to
ground. Shunt reactors absorb Vars, producing the opposite effect of shunt
capacitors.
• Utilities use reactors to perform the following functions:
–Cancel Effects of Transmission Lines' Shunt Capacitance — Utilities install
shunt reactors at the terminals of long transmission lines to reduce the
voltage rise effects of the lines' shunt capacitance. Installing shunt reactors
may affect normal switching procedures.
- Limit Fault Current Magnitude — Utilities may insert reactors in series
with operating bus sections and often insert reactors in series with
distribution circuits to limit fault current magnitude. This is particularly
useful at substations that are close to generating stations and on major
transmission facilities, where fault current magnitude may exceed the circuit
breaker's interrupting rating. Utilities also insert reactors in the distribution
substation transformer neutral to limit the ground fault current flow.

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 • Filter for Undesirable High-Frequency Signals — Utilities use reactors in
conjunction with capacitors to filter out high-frequency signals from the power
line voltages. This application is particularly important at HVDC line converter
terminals in filtering the harmonic frequencies created by the converter
equipment.

• Voltage Regulation — Utilities use reactors to maintain voltage within preset

limits by absorbing Vars.

• Shunt reactor banks for high-voltage applications are usually immersed in oil-
filled tanks similar to power transformers. The operating considerations
identified for transformers also apply to oil-immersed reactor banks.
• For low-voltage applications (e.g., distribution applications), utilities use dry-type
air-cooled units. These units require little or no maintenance.

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 ▪ Design of a typical substation 11/66kV Substation
Load current=1kA (Example)
1) CBs
Vaccum CB (11kV, Symm. Current =20kA)
SF6 CB(66kV, Symm. Current =20kA)
2) Isolators
66kV (Load current = 1kA)
3) Cables
XLPE, 11kV, 1kA, 50m
4) Instrument transformers
CT=1000:1A, PT=66kV:110
5) LA
9kVrms and 60kV rms

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 Overview of Substation

Check the link below

• [Link]
andruSurdu

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 ▪ Design of a typical substation 11/132kV Substation

Generator = 5MW, 0.8 power factor (lag), X’’ =0.2 pu

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 ❑Bus-bar arrangements in Substation
1. Single bus bar
2. Single bus bar system with sectionalization
3. Double bus bar with single breaker
4. Double bus bar with two circuit breakers
5. Breakers and a half with two main buses
6. Main and transfer bus bar
7. Double bus bar with bypass isolator
8. Ring bus

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 1. Single bus bar systems:

• It consists of a single bus bar and all the incoming and outgoing lines are
connected to the same bus bar as shown in Fig. 13.3.
• Here, the 11 kV incoming lines are connected to the bus bar through isolators
and circuit breakers.
• Three-phase, 400 V and single-phase, 230 V outgoing lines are connected
through isolator, circuit breaker, and step-down transformer from the bus bar.
• This type of arrangement is suitable for DC stations and small AC stations.
• The major drawback of this system is that, if the fault occurs on any section of
the bus bar, the entire bus bar is to be de-energized for carrying out the repair
work. So, this results in a loss of continuity of service of all feeders.
• Similarly, the periodical maintenance work on bus bars can also be carried out
only by disconnecting the whole supply.

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 • The equipment connections are very simple, and hence, the system is very
convenient to operate. This arrangement is not popular for voltages above 33
kV. The indoor 11 kV substations often use single bus bar arrangements.

• Merits:
• Each of the outgoing circuits requires a single-circuit breaker. So, this type of
arrangement is the cheapest one.
• The relaying system is simple.
• The maintenance cost is low.
• The bus bar potential can be used for the line relays.

• Demerits:
• Maintenance without interruption of supply is not possible.
• Expansion of the substation without shutdown is not possible.

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 2. Single bus bar system with sectionalization

• The sectionalization of the bus bar ensures continuity of supply on the other
feeders, during the time of maintenance or repair of one side of the bus bar.
The whole of the supply need not be shut down.
• The number of sections of a bus bar is usually 2 or 3 is a substation as shown
in Fig. 13.4, but actually it is limited by the short-circuit current to be handled.
• Another advantage of sectionalization is that the circuit breaks of low
breaking capacity can be used on the sections as compared to the previous
case.
• In case of duplicate feeders, they are connected to different sections of the bus
bars so that in the event of a fault on one of the bus bar sections, the feeders
connected to it are immediately transferred to the healthy-bus bar section and
the faulty section is isolated.

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 • Advantages:
• The operation of this system is simple as in case of the single bus bar.
• The maintenance cost of this system is comparable with the single bus bar.
• For maintenance or repair of the bus bar, only one half of the bus bar is
required to be de-energized. So complete shut down of the bus bar is
avoided.
• It is possible to utilize the bus bar potential for line relays.

• Disadvantages:
• In case of a fault on the bus bar, one half of the section will be switched off.
• For regular maintenance also, one of the bus bars is required to be de-
energized.
• For maintaining or repairing a circuit breaker, it is required to be isolated
from the bus bar.
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 3. Double bus bar with single breaker

• This system is shown in Fig. 13.5. It consists of two identical bus bars, one
is the main bus bar and another one is spare bus bar. Each bus bar has the
capacity to take up the entire substation load.
• Each load may be fed from either bus bar. The infeed and load circuits can
be further divided into two separate groups based on operational
considerations (maintenance or repair).
• Any bus bar may be taken out for maintenance and cleaning of insulators.
• With the help of bus coupler, the incoming and/or outgoing lines are
connected to any bus bar through isolator and circuit breaker. This system
is adopted when the voltage is greater than 33 kV.
• This arrangement does not permit breaker maintenance without causing
interruption in supply.

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 • Advantages:
• Permits some flexibility with two operating buses.
• Any main bus may be isolated for maintenance.
• The circuit can be transferred readily from one bus to another by using
bus-coupler and bus selector disconnect switches.

• Disadvantages:
• One extra breaker is required for the bus coupler.
• Three switches are required per circuit.
• High exposure to bus faults.
• If bus coupler fails, the entire substation runs out of service.

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 4. Double bus bar with two circuit breakers
• Figure 13.6 shows the schematic diagram of double bus bar arrangement
with two breakers per circuit. This is a simple and flexible arrangement. It
is expensive, and hence, is rarely used.
• When it is used, it is used in large generating stations which require a
high-security connection.
• It provides the best maintenance facilities for maintenance to be carried
out on the circuit breakers.
• Thus, when one circuit breaker is opened for maintenance or repair works,
the load can be transferred on to the other circuit breaker very easily.

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 • Advantages:
• Two circuit breakers in each circuit.
• Has flexibility to connect the feeder circuits to any bus.
• For service maintenance any breaker can be taken out.
• High reliability.

• Disadvantages:
• More expensive.
• If circuits are not connected to both buses, the bus bar loses half the circuit
for breaker failure and interprets supplies.

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 5. Breakers and a half with two main buses

• The schematic diagram of this arrangement is shown in Fig. 13.7. This

method is an improved version of double bus bar with two circuit
breakers and uses lesser number of circuit breakers.

• In this method, one spare breaker is provided for every two circuits.
When the breaker (own) is taken out for maintenance, the protection is
complicated since it must associate the central breaker with the feeder.

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 • Advantages:
• This system is more economical as compared to a double-bus double-
breaker arrangement.
• A fault in a breaker or in a bus will not interrupt the supply.
• Addition of circuits to the system is possible.
• High reliability.
• Any main bus can be taken out of service at any time for maintenance.

• Disadvantages:
• 1.5breaker per circuit.
• The relaying becomes more complicated as compared to that in a single-
bus arrangement.
• The maintenance cost is higher.

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 6. Main and Transfer bus bar
• The schematic diagram of this commonly used arrangement is shown in
Fig. 13.8. This arrangement is an alternative to the double bus bar scheme.
• In this arrangement any line circuit breaker can be taken out for
maintenance and repair without affecting the supply. This is done by
closed transfer circuit breaker and changing the load to transfer bus bar
and then removing the line breaker from service.
• Only one breaker at a time can be removed from service and the transfer
breaker takes its place when it is out of service.
• In a substation, to work on a bus bar, it is often necessary to remove it
from service. This is possibleonly by transferring the load to the other bus
bar. This is not possible in this scheme. Hence, the absenceof this facility to
remove any bus bar from service is the only drawback.

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 • Advantages:
• It ensures supply in case of bus fault. In case of any fault in a bus, the circuit can
be transferred to the transformer bus.
• It is easy to connect the circuit from any bus.
• The maintenance cost of substation decreases.
• The bus potential can be used for relays.

• Disadvantages:
• Requires one extra breaker for the bus tie.
• Switching is somewhat complicated while maintaining a breaker.
• Failure of bus or any circuit breaker results in shutdown of entire substation.

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 7. Double bus bar with bypass isolator
• This is a commonly used arrangement also known as sectionalized double
bus bar arrangement and is shown in Fig. 13.9.
• This is a combination of a double-bus and main transfer-bus scheme. Any
of the bus bars can act as a main bus and another bus is used as the
transfer bus.
• The advantage of this method is that any circuit breaker or any bus bar can
be taken out for service without affecting the supply.
• In substations, it is frequently necessary to take bus bar or the circuit
breaker out of service for maintenance or repair.
• So this scheme is the recommended one both because it is simple and
economical.

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 8. Ring bus
• This is an extension of the sectionalized bus bar arrangement. By using
two bus couplers, as shown in Fig. 13.10, the ends of the bus bars are
returned upon themselves to form a ring.
• The sectionalizing and bus coupler are in series. There is a greater
flexibility of operation.
• This is not a commonly used arrangement at present.
• Different types of ring or mesh buses utilized are:
i. Simple ring.
ii. Rectangular ring.
iii. Circulating ring.
iv. Zigzag ring.

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 • Advantages:
• Low initial and ultimate cost.
• Flexible operation for breaker maintenance.
• Any breaker can be removed for maintenance without interrupting load.
• Required only one breaker per circuit.
• Does not use main bus.
• Disadvantages:
• It is necessary to trip two circular breakers to isolate a faulted line, which
makes the relaying quite complex.
• It is necessary to supply potential to relays separately to each of the
circuits.
• It is difficult to add any new circuit to the ring.

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 SB: Single breaker
MTB: Main & Transfer Bus
DBSB: Double bus Single breaker
RB: Ring breaker
B-1/2: Breaker and a Half
DBDB: Double bus Double breaker

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Single Bus-Bar System
Double Bus-Bar System
Single Bus-Bar Sectionalized System
Main Bus and Transfer Bus
 Readings

No. Book Details

1 IEEE Guide for Bus Design in Air Insulated Substations Optional
(IEEE Std 605TM-2008)
2 Design Guide for Rural Substations Optional
3 Switchgear Protection and Power Systems by Sunil S. Rao Chapter 17 (Optional)

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 References

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Bauer, P. A Multi-Objective Optimization Framework for Offshore Wind Farm Layouts and
Electric Infrastructures. Energies 2016, 9, 216. [Link]
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6. [Link]
generation-t-d/transmission-switching
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