GRAPHIC ERA (DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY), DEHRADUN

SEMESTER 8TH

Name of Department: - Computer Science and Engineering

1. Subject Code: TOE 811 Course Title: Mobile Computing

2. Contact Hours: L: 3 T: 0 P: 0

3. Examination Duration (Hrs): Theory 3 Practical 0

4. Relative Weight: CIE 25 PRS 0 MSE 25 SEE 50 PRE 0

5. Credits: 3

6. Semester: 8

7. Category of Course: DC

8. Pre-requisite: Communication models and Protocols (TCS 53), Computer Networks

(TCS 604), Network Programming and Wireless Technologies (TCS 631)

9. Course After completion of the course the students will be able to:
Outcome**: CO1: Exemplify the concepts, techniques, protocols and architecture
employed in wireless local area networks, cellular networks, and
Adhoc Networks based on the standards
CO2: Describe and analyze the network infrastructure requirements to
support mobile devices and users.
CO3: Design and implement mobile applications to realize location-aware
computing
CO4: Asses the important issues and concerns on security and Data
management
CO5: Development of various scenarios for mobile computing system
CO6: Evaluate the concepts of mobile agents and mobile Adhoc algorithms
with the help of open source simulation tools.
10. Details of the Course:
Sl. Contact
Contents
No. Hours
Unit 1: Introduction, issues in mobile computing, overview of wireless
telephony: cellular concept, GSM: air-interface, channel structure,
1 9
location management:HLR-VLR, hierarchical, handoffs, channel
allocation in cellular systems, CDMA, GPRS.
Unit 2: Wireless Networking, Wireless LAN Overview: MAC issues,
IEEE 802.11, Blue Tooth, Wireless multiple access protocols, TCP over
2 wireless, Wireless applications, data broadcasting, Mobile IP, WAP: 9
Architecture, protocol stack, application environment, applications.
 Unit 3: Data management issues, data replication for mobile computers,
3 adaptive clustering for mobile wireless networks, File system, 9
Disconnected operations.

Unit 4: Mobile Agents computing, security and fault tolerance,

4 9
transaction processing in mobile computing environment.

Unit 5: Ad Hoc networks, localization, MAC issues, Routing protocols,

global state routing (GSR), Destination sequenced distance vector
5 routing (DSDV), Dynamic source routing (DSR), Ad Hoc on demand 9
distance vector routing (AODV), Temporary ordered routing algorithm
(TORA), QoS in Ad Hoc Networks, applications.
Total 45

11. Suggested Books:

SL. Name of Authors/Books/Publishers Edition Year of Publication
No. / Reprint
Textbooks
1. Dharma Prakash Agrawal, Qing-An Zeng, “Introduction 4nd 2016
to Wireless and Mobile Systems”, 4ed (Ie), Publisher:
Cengage Sp, 2016
2. J. Schiller,” Mobile Communications”, 2ed, Publisher: 2nd 2008
Addison Wesley, 2008
3. Raj Kamal, “ Mobile Computing”, 2ed, Publisher: 2nd 2011
Oxford University Press, 2011
Reference Books
1. Kumkum Garg, “Mobile Computing”, Publisher : 1st 2010
Pearson Education India; First edition, 2010
2. Yi-Bing Lin, Imrich Chlamtac, “Wireless and Mobile 1st 2008
Network Architectures, 1ed, Publisher:Wiley, 2008

12. Mode of Evaluation Test / Quiz / Assignment / Mid Term Exam / End Term Exam
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Infrastructure and ad-hoc networks

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
 INFRASTRUCTURE AND AD-HOC NETWORKS
2

• Many WLANs of today need an infrastructure network.

Infrastructure networks not only provide access to other networks,
but also include forwarding functions, medium access control etc.
• In these infrastructure-based wireless networks, communication
typically takes place only between the wireless nodes and the access
point (see Figure), but not directly between the wireless nodes.
3
INFRASTRUCTURE BASED NETWORKS
4

• The access point does not just control medium access, but also acts as a
bridge to other wireless or wired networks.
• Figure shows three access points with their three wireless networks and a
wired network.
• Several wireless networks may form one logical wireless network, so the
access points together with the fixed network in between can connect
several wireless networks to form a larger network beyond actual radio
coverage.
 AD-HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
5

• Ad-hoc wireless networks, however, do not need any infrastructure to work.

• Each node can communicate directly with other nodes, so no access point
controlling medium access is necessary.
• Figure shows two ad-hoc networks with three nodes each. Nodes within an ad-
hoc network can only communicate if they can reach each other physically, i.e., if
they are within each other’s radio range or if other nodes can forward the
message.
• Nodes from the two networks shown in Figure cannot, therefore, communicate
with each other if they are not within the same radio range.
 AD-HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
6
7

• In ad-hoc networks, the complexity of each node is higher because every

node has to implement medium access mechanisms, mechanisms to
handle hidden or exposed terminal problems, and perhaps priority
mechanisms, to provide a certain quality of service.

• This type of wireless network exhibits the greatest possible flexibility as it

is, for example, needed for unexpected meetings, quick replacements of
infrastructure or communication scenarios far away from any
infrastructure.
8
CHARACTERISTICS OF WIRELESS LANS

ADVANTAGES
- Very flexible within the reception area
o Ad-hoc networks without previous planning possible
o (almost) no wiring difficulties (e.g. historic buildings,
firewalls)
o More robust against disasters like, e.g., earthquakes, fire - or users pulling a
plug...
9
DISADVANTAGES

• Typically very low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s)

o Many proprietary solutions, especially for higher bit-
rates, standards take their time (e.g. IEEE 802.11)
• Products have to follow many national restrictions if working wireless, it
takes a vary long time to establish global solutions like, e.g., IMT-2000
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Design goals for wireless LANs

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
2
DESIGN GOALS FOR WIRELESS LANS

• global, seamless operation

• low power for battery use
• no special permissions or licenses needed to use the LAN
• robust transmission technology
• simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings
• easy to use for everyone, simple management
• protection of investment in wired networks
• security (no one should be able to read my data), privacy (no one should be able to
collect user profiles), safety (low radiation) transparency concerning applications and
higher layer protocols, but also location awareness if necessary
3
IEEE 802.11 STANDARD

• The IEEE standard 802.11 (IEEE, 1999) specifies the most famous family of WLANs in which
many products are available.

• As the standard’s number indicates, this standard belongs to the group of 802.x LAN
standards, e.g., 802.3 Ethernet or 802.5 Token Ring.
• This means that the standard specifies the physical and medium access layer adapted to the
special requirements of wireless LANs, but offers the same interface as the others to higher
layers to maintain interoperability.

• The primary goal of the standard was the specification of a simple and robust WLAN which
offers time-bounded and asynchronous services.
4
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

• Wireless networks can exhibit two different basic system architectures as

infrastructure-based or ad-hoc.
• Figure shows the components of an infrastructure and a wireless part as
specified for IEEE 802.11. Several nodes, called stations (STAi), are connected
to access points (AP). Stations are terminals with access mechanisms to the
wireless medium and radio contact to the AP.
• The stations and the AP which are within the same radio coverage form a basic
service set (BSSi).
• The example shows two BSSs – BSS1 and BSS2 – which are connected via a
distribution system.
5

• A distribution system connects several BSSs via the AP to form a single

network and thereby extends the wireless coverage area. This network is
now called an extended service set (ESS) and has its own identifier,
the ESSID.
• The ESSID is the ‘name’ of a network and is used to separate different
networks. Without knowing the ESSID (and assuming no hacking) it should
not be possible to participate in the WLAN.
• The distribution system connects the wireless networks via the APs with
a portal, which forms the interworking unit to other LANs.
6
7

• In addition to infrastructure-based networks, IEEE 802.11 allows the building of

ad-hoc networks between stations, thus forming one or more independent BSSs
(IBSS) as shown in Figure
• In this case, an IBSS comprises a group of stations using the same radio
frequency. Stations STA1, STA2, and STA3 are in IBSS1, STA4 and STA5 in IBSS2.
• This means for example that STA3 can communicate directly with STA2 but not
with STA5.
• Several IBSSs can either be formed via the distance between the IBSSs (see
Figure) or by using different carrier frequencies (then the IBSSs could overlap
physically)
8
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

MAC Issues in Mobile Computing

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
MAC ISSUES

• In IEEE 802 LAN/MAN standards, the medium access control (MAC, also
called media access control) sublayer is the layer that controls the hardware
responsible for interaction with the wired,optical or wireless transmission medium.
• The MAC sublayer and the logical link control (LLC) sublayer together make up the data
link [Link] the data link layer, the LLC provides flow control and multiplexing for
the logical link (i.e. EtherType, 802.1Q VLAN tag etc), while the MAC provides flow
control and multiplexing for the transmission medium.
There are three important MAC issues are:
1. Half Duplex operation
2. Time varying Channel
3. Burst channel errors
1. Half Duplex operation: In wireless , it s difficult to receive data when the transmitter is
sending the data , because (either send or receive but not both at a given time ) when node
is transmitting a large fraction of signal energy leaks into the receiver path. The transmitted
and receiver power levels can differ by order of magnitude.
2. Time varying Channel
Three mechanisms for radio signal propagation
a. Reflection: Occurs when a propagating wave impinges upon an object that has very large
dimensions than the wavelength of the radio wave. e.g. refletion occurs from the surface of
the earth and from buildings and walls.
b. Diffraction: Occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the receiver is
obstructed by surface with sharp edges.
c. Scattering:Occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of object.
3. Burst Channel errors: s a consequence of time varying channel and varying signals
strength errors are introduced in the transmission for wire line network the bit error rate
(BER) is the probability of packet error is small.
IEEE 802.11 WIRELESS LAN STANDARDS

• IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of LAN protocols, and specifies the set ofmedia
access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing wireless local
area network (WLAN) Wi-Fi computer communication in various frequencies, including
but not limited to 2.4 GHz,5 GHz,and 60 GHz frequency bands.
IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected to the wireless LAN.A
station can be of two types:
• Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally wireless routers thatform
the base stations or access.
• Client. − Clients are workstations,computers,laptops,printers,smartphones,etc.
Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at physical layer
level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation:
• Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through access points.
• Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc manner.
3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
4. Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points inESS.
ADVANTAGES OF WLANS

• They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networkedplaces.

• The LANs are scalable in nature, [Link] may be added or removed from the network
at a greater ease than wired LANs.
• The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the network is not
bounded by the length of the cables.

• Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.

• The equipment and setup costs are reduced.
DISADVANTAGES OF WLANS

• Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
• Greater care is needed for encrypting [Link],they are more prone to errors.
So, they require greater bandwidth than the wiredLANs.

• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

BLUETOOTH

• DOYOURSELF
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Data Management issues

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
DATA MANAGEMENT ISSUES
• Data management technology that can support easy data access from and to mobile devices is
among the main concerns in mobile information systems.

• Mobile computing may be considered a variation of distributed computing.

• The two scenarios in which mobile databases is distributed are:Among the wired components,
the entire database is distributed,possibly with full or partial replication.
• A base station or fixed host manages its own database with a DBMS like functionality, with
additional functionality for locating mobile units and additional query and transaction
management features to meet the requirements of mobile environments.
• Among the wired and wireless components, the database is distributed. Among the base stations
or fixed hosts and mobile units,the data management responsibility is shared.
• Here are some of the issues which arises in data management of the mobile databases:
1. Mobile database design –
Because of the frequent shutdown and for handling the queries, the global name resolution problem is
compounded.
2. Security–
• The data which is left at the fixed location is more secure as compared to mobile [Link] is mobile data is
less secure.
• Data are also becoming more volatile and techniques must be able to compensate for its loss.
• The most important thing needed in this environment is the authorizing access to critical data and proper
techniques.
3. Data distribution and replication –
• Uneven distribution of data among the mobile units and the base stations take place here.
• Higher data availability and low cost of remote access is there in data distribution and [Link]
problem of Cache management is compounded by the consistency constraints.
• The most updated data and frequently accessed data is provided by the Caches to the mobile [Link]
process their own [Link] is most efficient access of data and higher security is available.
• 4. Replication issues –
There is increase of costs for updates and signalling due to increase in number of replicas.
Mobile hosts can move anywhere and anytime.
• 5. Division of labour –
There is a certain change in the division of labour in query processing because of certain
characteristics of the mobile [Link] are some of the cases in which the client
must function independently of the server.
• [Link] models –
In mobile environment, the issues of correctness of transactions and fault tolerance are
[Link] transactions must satisfy theACID properties,these are atomic,consistency,
isolation, and durability.
• Depending upon the movement of the mobile unit, possibly on multiple data sets and through
several base station, a mobile transaction is executed [Link] the mobile
computers are disconnected, ACID properties gets hard to enforce. Because of the
disconnection in mobile units, there is expectation that a mobile transaction will be lived long.
7. Recovery and fault tolerance –
• Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to perform its function correctly even in the presence of
internal faults.
• Faults can be classified in two types: transient and [Link] any apparent intervention,a
transient fault will be eventually disappeared but a permanent fault will remain unless it is removed by
some external agency.
• The mobile database environment must deal with site, transaction, media, and communication failures.
Due to limited battery power there is a site failure at MU. If a voluntary shutdown occurs in MU, then it
should not be treated as a [Link] Mu crosses the cells, most frequently there will be a
transaction failures during [Link] to failure of MU, there is a big cause of network partitioning and
affection of the routing [Link] characterization of mobile computing is done by:
• Limiting resource availability
• Frequent disconnection
• High mobility
• Low bandwidth
8. Location based service –
One of the most challenging tasks which must be undertaken is determining the location of
mobile users, which must be undertaken in order to enable a location based service. A
cache information becomes sale when clients move location dependent. Eviction techniques
are important in this [Link] that arises in location and services are:
• User Privacy
• Diverse mobile mapping standards
• Market capability
• Interoperability
• 9. Query processing –
Because of the mobility and rapid resource changes of mobile units, Queryoptimization
becomes the most complicated.

• That is query processing is affected when mobility is considered.

• There is a need to returned a query response to mobile units that may be in [Link]
cost that affects the most in centralized environments is the input/output.

• Communication cost is the most important in distributed [Link] is possible to

formulate location dependent queries.
• There is difficulty in estimating the communication costs in distributed environments
because the mobile host may be situated in different [Link] is a requirement of
dynamic optimization strategies in the mobile distributed context.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 8II)

Data Replication for Mobile Computers

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
DATA REPLICATION FOR MOBILE COMPUTERS

• It is important for mobile computers,since disconnection or poorly connected portable

must rely primarily on their own data resource.

• Replication provides fast local access and higher reliability.

• It is required for availability, as well as for performance and reliability.
• It is more suitable handled by peer-to peer than client server models.
REPLICATION TYPES

1. Peer-to-Peer Replication
• It permits any replica of a data item to exchange update information with any other
replica.
• Two traveling replica can immediately trade updates when they have connectivity.
• Client/server replication permits a data item replica to transmits its update only to one
or more server replicas.

• They are transmitted from the servers to all the other clients.
• Clients/ server model of replication works very well in an office workstation setting – where
connectivity is generally available and communication pattern are mostly fixed.
• Clients/ server system that support multiple server replica for higher reliability and
performance must use peer-to-peer algorithms within the set of server replicas.
Note->
1. Peer-to-peer models for replication says nothing about the data access model used by the
actual application accessing the data.
2. Clients/ server applications uses replicated data maintained by a peer-to peer replication
system.
[Link]-BASED REPLICATION

• In this replicated data are batched together.

• In update propagation-based replication- it attempts to propagate update made at one
replica to the other replicas immediately, either directly or through some propagation
graph which minimizes communication costs.
• It follow disseminated (Distributed) updates rather than instant update propagation.
• It makes better use and gives better control of expensive, limitedbandwidth.
• Instant update has no effect when machines are disconnected.
• Reconciliation adds cost only at the time it is invoked
THE RUMOR REPLICATED FILE SYSTEM

• Rumor replicates files using a peer-to-peer, reconciliation based strategy.

• Rumor is a working system that can be used to replicate real data.
• The basic methods used by Rumor could be used by other systems to replicate different
types of data for the mobile environment.
• It correctly detects and handles various forms of conflicts- Update/update conflicts,
update/delete conflicts and name conflicts.
• It has version vectors to guarantee each update has unique signature.
• Rumor was designed to work at the user level, it is relatively portable notcompletely.
• It is implemented in an object oriented style , usingC++.
• An alpha version of Rumor is available on
[Link]
• UCLA is doing research on replication in mobile computing.
• The research includes- system for automatically caching necessary data on mobile computers
prior to disconnection, providing consistency.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Adaptive Clustering for Mobile WirelessNetworks

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
ADAPTIVE CLUSTERING FOR MOBILE
WIRELESS NETWORKS
• In this, nodes are organized into nonoverlappingclusters.
Three main advantages

1. First, it provides spatial reuse of the bandwidth due to nodeclustering.

2. Secondly, bandwidth can be shared or reserved in a controlled fashion in eachcluster.
3. Finally,the cluster algorithm is robust in the face of topological changes caused by
node motion, node failure and node insertion/removal.
• Personal communications and mobile computing require a wireless network infrastructure
which is fast deployable, possibly multihop, and capable of multimedia service support.
• The clusters are independently controlled and are dynamically reconfigured as nodes
move.

• The first infrastructure of this type was the Packet Radio Network (PRNET), developed in
the 70’s to address the battlefield (in the civilian sector) and disaster (fire,
earthquake)recovery communication requirements.

• PRNET was totally asynchronous and was based on a completely distributed architecture.
• It handled datagram traffic reasonably well,but did not offer efficient multimedia support.
• Recently,under theWAMIS (WirelessAdaptive Mobile Information Systems) [1] and
GlomoARPA programs several mobile,multimedia,multihop (M3) wireless network
architectures have been developed, which require some form of synchronous, time
division infrastructure.
• The synchronous time frame leads to efficient multimedia support implementations.
• However, it introduces more complexity
• and is less robust in the face of mobility and channel fading.
• Another important wireless network feature addressed is multihopping,[Link] ability
of the radios to relay packets from one to another without the use of base stations.
• Figure 1 shows the cellular model commonly used in the wireless networks.A,B,C,and D
are fixed base stations connected by a wired backbone. Nodes 1 through 8 are mobile
nodes.

• A mobile node is only one hop away from a base station.

• Communications between two mobile nodes must be through fixed base stations and the
wired backbone.
Multihopping:
• through wireless repeaters strategically located on campus.
• permits to reduce battery power and to increase network capacity.
• If a base station fails,a mobile node may not be able to access the wired network in a
single hop
• For example,in Figure 2,if base station B fails,node 4 must access base stations A or C
through node 2 or node 5 which act as wireless multihop repeaters.
• For above environment and scenario, there are an architecture and networking
algorithms.
• Which support a rapidly deployable radio communication.
• The network provide guaranteed quality of service to real time multimedia traffic among
mobile users.
• without requiring a fixed infrastructure.
A MULTI CLUSTER ARCHITECTURE

• There was a major challenges in multihops i.e. bandwidthreservation.

• This problem is solved, creating a multihop networks by creating clusters of radios in
such way that access can be controlled and bandwidth can be allocated in each cluster.
• Hierarchical clustering architecture for mobile radio networks are based on concept of
cluster head.

• Clusterhead works as local coordinator of transmission within the cluster.

• It is dynamically selected among the set of stations
• Problem—
selection of clusterhead,it does extra work with respect to ordering stations.
To overcome this difficulty, another concept invoked….
• Fully distributed approach for cluster formation and intra-cluster communication.
• The system topology, divided into small partitions (clusters) with independentcontrol.
ClusteringAlgorithm
• Objective of the clustering algorithm is to partition the network into the several clusters.
• Optimal cluster size is dictated by the tradeoff between spatial reuse of the channel (which
drives toward small sizes), and delay minimization (which drives towards large sizes).
• Cluster size is controlled through the radio transmission power.
• For this algorithm, we have assumed that transmission power is fixed and is uniform across
the network.
• Within each cluster, nodes can communicate with each other in at most two hops.
• The clusters can be constructed based on node ID.
The following algorithm partitions the multihop network into some nonoverlapping clusters.
A1: Every node has a unique ID and knows the IDs of its 1-hop [Link] can be provided
by a physical layer for mutual location and identification of radio nodes.
A2: A message sent by a node is received correctly within a finite time by all its 1-hop neighbors.
A3: Network topology does not change during the algorithm execution.
Distributed Clustering Algorithm(G)
1. G: the set of ID’s of my one-hop neighbors and myself
2. {
3. if (my_id == min(G))
4. {
5. my_cid = my_id;
6. broadcast cluster(my_id,my_cid);
7. G = G - {my_id};
8. }
9. for (;;)
10. {
11. on receiving cluster(id, cid)
12. {
13. set the cluster ID of node id to cid;
14. if (id==cid and (my_cid==UNKNOWN or my_cid>cid))
15. my_cid = cid;
16. G = G - {id};
17. if (my_id == min(G))
18. {
19. if (my_cid==UNKNOWN) my_cid = my_id;
20. broadcast cluster(my_id,my_cid);
21. G = G - {my_id};
22. }
23. }
24. if (G==¢) stop;
25. }
26. }
• The cluster ID of each node is either equal to its node ID or the lowest cluster ID of its
neighbors.
• Every node has to decide its cluster ID once it becomes the lowest ID node in its
locality.
• Hence, every node can determine its cluster and only onecluster.
• from this algorithm each node only broadcasts one cluster message before the algorithm
stops.
• the time complexity is O(|V|) where V is the set of nodes.
Bandwidth in the Cluster Infrastructure-
• A node can at most transmit one packet per frame,the bandwith of a node is given
by

• Frame time of a cluster depends on how many nodes are in the cluster.
• Figure 15 shows the slots dedicated to node i in the cycle, which correspondto
node i ‘‘bandwidth’’.

• Figure 16, where the cycle time is 24.

Consider cluster C1,where frame size is equal to 6 [Link],the node bandwidth
in C1 is 24/6= 4. Since there are 3 VCs passing through node C, the available
bandwidth for node C is 1.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Coda File System and Disconnection operations

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
 CODA FILE SYSTEM
 What is Coda?
• It is a advanced network file system .
• Developed as a research project at Carnegie Mellon University since 1987 by system
group of [Link] in the SCS department.
• Coda was designed to be a scalable,secure,and highly available distributed file
system.

• Coda is a descendant of version 2 of the Andrew File System (AFS),

 FEATURES
Coda has many features that are desirable for network file systems.
1. disconnected operation for mobile computing
2. is freely available under a liberal license
3. high performance through client side persistent caching
4. server replication
5. security model for authentication, encryption and access control
6. continued operation during partial network failures in server network
7. network bandwidth adaptation
8. good scalability
9. well defined semantics of sharing, even in the presence of networkfailures
• Coda uses a local cache to provide access to server data when
the network connection is lost.
• During normal operation, a user reads and writes to the file system
normally,while the client fetches,or "hoards",all of the data the user
has listed as important in the event of network disconnection.
• If the network connection is lost, the Coda client's local cache serves
data from this cache and logs all updates.
• This operating state is called disconnected operation.
• Upon network reconnection, the client moves to reintegration
state;
• it sends logged updates to the servers.
• Then it transitions back to normal connected-mode
operation.
DESIGN GOALS

• Scalability
• Security
• High availability
• Naming and location transparency
• Failure transparency
ANDREW FILE SYSTEM (AFS)

• Coda is based on the Andrew File System (AFS), which was developed at Carnegie Mellon University
(CMU) in the 1980s.
• AFS was designed to support the entire CMU community, so it needed to handle a very large number of
workstations (5,000-10,000).
• AFS nodes are partitioned into two groups:
[Link] servers
• Centrally administered, relatively small in number.

[Link] workstations
• Many in number
• Give users and processes access to the file system.
OVERALL ORGANIZATION OF AFS
CODA ARCHITECTURE

• Same organization asAFS

• Every Virtue workstation hosts a user-level client processcalled
Venus, similar to NFS client
• Like NFS,Venus is responsible for providing access to files stored on
Vice servers
• Unlike NFS,Venus is also responsible for allowing continued
operation even if servers cannot be accessed
ARCHITECTURE OF VIRTUE(CLIENT)

• VFS layer inside the kernel handles interaction between user processes andVenus
• This provides transparency to client programs, which can use the same mechanisms to access
both local and remote file systems

• Venus communicates over the network via a user-level RPC mechanism

Architecture of Virtue (client)

• Venus runs as a user-level

process.
• Virtual File System (VFS) layer
that intercepts all calls from
client applications,
and forwards these calls
either to the local file system
or toVenus.
• Venus, in turn,communicates
with Vice file servers using a
user-level RPC system
ARCHITECTURE OF VICE(SERVER)

• Three processes run on Viceservers:

• File server to maintain local collection of files
• Authentication server
• Update process to keep metadata consistent among Viceservers
COMMUNICATION IN CODA

• Inter process communication is done via an RPC system called RPC2

• Reliable RPC protocol implemented on top of UDP
• “More sophisticated” than NFS’ such as ONC RPC, in NFS
• Provides support for side effects,multicasting
SIDE EFFECTS IN RPC2

• Side effects is a mechnism, allow the client and server to communicate via an
application-specific protocol.
• “Side effect” is kind of an odd name for this, don’t youthink?
• Application-specific connection setup at the server and the client is a“side
effect” of an RPC call
• Side effect implementation is completely independent of RPC2 system
• Useful for,e.g.,QoS-guaranteed communication for video streaming
SIDE EFFECTS IN RPC2
RPC2 MULTICASTING

• Let’s start with the motivation for this feature:

• As we’ll see in a moment,Vice servers keep track of which clients have a
local copy of a file.
• When a file is modified, a server invalidates clients’ local copies by
notification through RPC.
• If the server does this one call at a time, big performance problems arise.
(What if a client is hung or crashed? The server will just wait around!)
RPC2 MULTICASTING

• Multicasting essentially allows the server to send out a group of

RPC calls in parallel.
• Each RPC call runs in an independent thread on the server.
• The server spawns each of these threads, then waits for each
RPC thread to complete.
• “Healthy” clients will all receive the request as soon as possible
• If there are many crashed clients, the server can detect them all
at once rather than waiting for each crashed client to time out
in turn.
 PROCESSES
• Clients are represented by Venusprocesses.
• servers as Vice processes.
• both are internally organized as a collection of concurrent threads.
• Threads in Coda are nonpreemptive
• Threads operate entirely in user space.
• for continuous operation in the face of blocking I/O requests,a separate thread is
used to handle all I/O operations,
 NAMING
• Coda maintains a naming system analogous to that of
UNIX.
• Files are grouped into units referred to as volumes.
• A volume is similar to a UNIX disk partition (i.e.,an actual file system),but generally has a
much smaller granularity.
• It corresponds to a partial subtree in the shared name space as maintained by the Vice
servers.
• a volume corresponds to a collection of files associated with a user.
• volumes include collections of shared binary or source files,and so on.
• Volumes are important for two reasons.
First,they form the basic unit by which the entire name space is constructed.
• second, they form the unit for server-side replication.
• A mount point in Coda is a leaf node of a volume that refers to the root node of another
volume.
• only root nodes can act as mounting points (i.e., a client can mount only the root of a
volume).
• a volume from the shared name space is mounted in the client’s
name space,Veus follows the structure of the shared name space.
• Assume, each client has access to the shared name space by
means of a subdirectory called /afs.
• When mounting a volume, each Venus process ensures that the
naming graph rooted at /afs is always a subgraph of the complete
name space jointly maintained by the Vice servers, as shown in
Figure.
• The root of a volume may be mounted at a mount point within
another volume
• A single path name may span several mount points;Vice servers
return mounting info to Venus servers, which in turn mount
volumes within their local name space (similar to NFSv4)
SHARED NAME SPACE
FILE IDENTIFIERS
• Each file also has a 96-bit identifier,which is globally unique.
• First 32 bits are the Replicated Volume Identifier (RVID) of the replicatedvolume
that contains the file
• (Physical volumes are identified by VIDs and grouped into logical volumes identified by RVIDs)
• Remaining 64 bits are a file handled called a vnode,similar to a Unix inode.
• A logical volume represents a possibly replicated physical volume,and has an associated
Replicated Volume Identifier(RVID).
• Multiple replicas may be associated with the same RVID.
• Each physical volume has its own Volume Identifier (VID), which identifies a specific
replica in a location independent way.
• theVID to a volume location database which returns the current location of that
specific physical volume.
DISCONNECTED OPERATION

• Unlike NFS, Coda clients can continue to operate even when disconnected (recall
that disconnection means that an AVSG for some volume is empty; i.e. no server is
available)
• Clients simply operate on their local cached copies
• When the client reconnects and its modifications are transferred to a server,an
attempt at automatic conflict resolution is [Link] doesn’t always work, so
sometimes manual intervention is needed.
DISCONNECTED OPERATION

• Obviously this is not a perfect solution,but it may well be better than it sounds because
write-sharing a file is uncommon
• Rare for two processes to open the same file for writing
• Read-sharing is much more common, but this does not result in any conflicts
HOARDING

• The main challenge is to ensure that a client has cached copies of the files it will wantto
operate on after disconnection
• Coda clients use a strategy called hoarding – simply filling the cache in advance,while
the client is still connected
 HOARDING

• During the hoarding phase, a client continually works to update its cache
according to three conditions (next slide)
• Upon disconnection, the client enters the emulation phase: all operations
take place locally cached copies
• Upon reconnection, the client enters the reintegration phase: inconsistencies
with cached copies are resolved, and the client moves back to the hoarding
phase (or drops back to emulation if it is again disconnected during the
reintegration process)
HOARDING PRIORITY

• User may enter pathnames into a workstation’s hoard database to instruct

Coda to priorities certain files for hoarding
• Hoard database, together with historical data on file accesses, allows Coda to
calculate a priority for each file
• Coda then fetches copies of files in priority according to the following three
conditions:
1. There is no uncached file with higher priority than any cached file.
2. The cache is full, or no uncached file has nonzeropriority.
3. Each cached file is a copy of the one maintained in the client’sAVSG.
• (In other words: high-priority files must be cached first, we must cache as much
as we can, and the cache must be up to date.)
• Once these conditions are met, the cache is in equilibrium; this equilibrium is
rechecked every ten minutes.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 81I)

Wireless Multiple Access Protocols

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
MULTIPLE ACCESSTECHNIQUES

• Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a
finite amount of radio spectrum.
• In wireless communication systems,it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send
information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while receiving
information from the base station to the mobile station.
• A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base [Link] main aim in the cellular system design is to be able
to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a
given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
• There are several different ways to allow access to the [Link] includes mainly the following:
I. Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
II. Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
III. Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
IV. Space division multiple access (SDMA)
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques can be classified
as narrowband and wideband systems.
Narrowband Systems
• Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence bandwidth are called as Narrow
band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to use the same channel but allocates a unique time slot to
each user on the channel, thus separating a small number of users in time on a single channel.
Wideband Systems
• In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than the coherence
bandwidth of the [Link], multipath fading doesn’t greatly affect the received signal within a wideband
channel, and frequency selective fades occur only in a small fraction of the signal bandwidth.
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (FDMA)

• FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of FDMA are
as follows.
• FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access the network.
• If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other users.
• FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex thanTDMA.
• Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
• The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously and
continuously in FDMA.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA)

• In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used instead of [Link]
features of TDMA include the following.
• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes use of non-
overlapping time slots.
• Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence handsoff process is simpler.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are not required.
• TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots per frame to different
users.
• Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or reassigning time slot based
on priority.
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

• Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where several transmitters use
a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its features are asfollows.
• In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by separate frequency.
• CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
• While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same code can communicate
with each other.
• CDMA offers more air-space capacity thanTDMA.
• The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (SDMA)

• Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which is MIMO
(multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and satellite
communication. It has the following features.
• All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
• SDMA is completely free from interference.
• A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same frequency.
• The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA, can track a
moving user.
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
SPREAD SPECTRUM MULTIPLE ACCESS

• Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.

• There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −
• Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
FREQUENCY HOPPED SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS)

• This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the individual
users are varied in a pseudo random fashion within a wideband [Link] digital data is
broken into uniform sized bursts which is then transmitted on different carrier
frequencies.
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM (DSSS)

• This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal is
multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own code word which is
orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the user, the receiver must
know the code word used by the transmitter.
• The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another type of spread
spectrum. Time hopping is also another type which is rarely mentioned.
Since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with one
another, spread spectrum systems become bandwidth efficient in a multiple user
environment.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Unit-IV
Mobile Agent Computing

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
SOFTWARE AGENT AND MOBILE AGENT

• A software agent is an intelligent program that acts as a user’s personal assistant.

• Software agents endowed with the property of mobility are called mobile agents.
• Mobile agents perform a user’s task by migrating and executing on several hosts connected to the network
• An agent is defined as “a person whose job is to act for, or manage the affairs of, other people”.
• In the context of comput- ers, software agents refer to programs that perform certain tasks on behalf of the user.
• Imagine that you want to go on a trip to a new holiday destination. You contact your travel agent program and
describe your preferences and your constraints (such as how much money you are willing to spend, when you
want to travel, etc.).
• The travel agent program suggests where you can spend your holidays after consulting several information
sources such as tourist guides and flight schedules and verifying the availabil- ity of airline tickets and hotel
rooms.
• When you confirm your destination, the program books the flight tickets and reserves the hotel rooms for you.
Thus the software agent acts as your personal assistant.
SOFTWARE PROPERTIES

1. Intelligence: Software agents employ techniques from the field of artificial intelligence,
which empower them with a fair degree of intelligence and common sense.
• For example, the travel agent program should realize that people generally do not prefer
travelling by flights that depart or arrive at the airport late in the night and the agent
should avoid booking tickets on such flights.
• The travel agent program should be smart enough to bargain and arrange the trip so that
the overall expenditure for the trip is as low as possible without compromising on the
user’s preferences.
2. Autonomy:
• The agents themselves decide the sequence of actions to be performed to achieve the user’stask.
• This autonomy enables agents to operate without requiring human intervention. Once the specifications are given to the travel agent, it
should be able to proceed on its own to arrange the trip for the user without requiring the user to constantly monitor the agent.
3. Responsiveness:
• Agents perceive their environment (which may be the Internet, a collection of other agents, etc.) and respond in a timely fashion to
changes that occur in it.
• At the same time, agents should not simply act in response to their environment, they should be able to exhibit opportunistic, goal-
oriented behaviour and take the initiative when appropriate.
[Link] Ability :
• Software agents should provide a user- friendly interface so that the user can easily interact with the agent. Agents are social entities and
often communicate and collaborate with one another in order to complete their tasks.
• For example, the travel agent program of one user must be able to communicate with other travel agents to find out about hotels which
customers disliked and avoid such hotels.

5. Adaptability :
• Agents learn about the user’s behavior and adapt themselves to suit the user. Consider a search agent that re- trieves information for the
user from the Internet.

• The search agent should be able to learn about the type of information the user is interested in and adapt itself to deliver only the relevant
information to the user.
• Software agents can be classified as static agents and mobile agents.
• Static agents achieve their goal by executing on a single machine.
• On the other hand, mobile agents migrate from one computer to another in the network
and execute on several machines.
• Mobility increases the functionality of the mobile agent and allows the mobile agent to
perform tasks beyond the scope of static agents.

• For example, a travel agent program may visit several hosts such as an airline reservation
system, a hotel resources host, etc. in order to achieve its function.
• This eliminates the need to have all the relevant databases on one host. This article gives the
architecture of mobile agents and tradeoffs involved in using them.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Unit-IV
Mobile Agent Working and lifecycle

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
Working of Mobile Agents

• A mobile agent consists of the program code and the program execution state (the current values of
variables, next instruction to be executed, etc.). Initially a mobile agent resides on a com- puter called
the home machine.

• The agent is then dispatched to execute on a remote computer called a mobile agent host (a mobile agent
host is also called mobile agent platform or mobile agent server).
• When a mobile agent is dispatched the entire code of the mobile agent and the execution state of the
mobile agent is transferred to the host.
• The host provides a suitable execution environment for the mobile agent to execute. The mobile agent
uses resources (CPU, memory, etc.) of the host to perform its task.
• After completing its task on the host, the mobile agent migrates to another computer. Since the state
information is also transferred to the host, mobile agents can resume the execution of the code from
where they left off in the previous host instead of having to restart execution from the beginning.
• This continues until the mobile agent returns to its home machine after completing execution on the
last machine in its itinerary.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF A MOBILEAGENT

1. The mobile agent is created in the Home Machine.

2. The mobile agent is dispatched to the Host Machine A for execution.
3. The agent executes on Host Machine A.
4. After execution the agent is cloned to create two copies. One copy is dispatched to Host Machine B
and the other is dis- patched to Host Machine C.
5. The cloned copies execute on their respective hosts.
6. After execution, Host Machine B and C send the mobile agent received by them back to the Home
Machine.
7. The Home Machine retracts the agents and the data brought by the agents is analyzed. The agents
are then disposed.
EVENTS OCCURS IN MOBILE AGENT’S LIFE CYCLE
A mobile agent experiences the follow- ing events in its lifecycle:
i. Creation: a brand new agent is born and its state is initialized.
ii. Dispatch: an agent travels to a new host.
iii. Cloning: a twin agent is born and the current state of the original is duplicated in the
clone.
iv. Deactivation: an agent is put to sleep and its state is stored on a disk of the host.
v. Activation: a deactivated agent is brought back to life and its state is restored from
disk.
vi. Retraction: an agent is brought back from a remote host along with its state to the
home machine.
vii. Disposal: an agent is terminated and its state is lost forever.
Properties of Mobile Agents
Mobile agents have the following unique properties.
1. Adaptive Learning:
• Mobile agents can learn from experiences and adapt themselves to the environment.
• They can monitor traffic in large networks and learn about the trouble spots in the
network.
• Based on the experiences of the agent in the network the agent can choose better routes to
reach the next host.
2. Autonomy:
• Mobile agents can take some decisions on its own.
• For example, mobile agents are free to choose the next host and when to migrate to the
next host.
• These decisions are transpar- ent to the user and the decisions are taken in the interestof
the user.
3. Mobility: Mobile agents have the ability to move from one host to another in the network.
Advantages of Mobile Agents
1. Reduction in Network Load
• The interactions in a distributed system are often achieved using communication protocols.
• These protocols involve transfer of large volumes of data stored at remote hosts over the network to a
central processing site resulting in high network traffic.
• An alternative to using communication protocols is the use of mo- bile agents. Mobile agents are
dispatched to the remote hosts containing the data.
• The agents perform the computations at the remote hosts and return back with the results. Since
computations are moved to the data storage location instead of moving data to the computing location,
network load is reduced.
2. Overcome Network Latency
• Consider a manufacturing plant in which many critical real time systems are controlled through a
network. Controlling many systems through a network involves significant delays, which are not
acceptable for critical real time systems.
• To overcome this problem, mobile agents can be directly dispatched from the central controller in the
manufacturing plant to the real time systems. The agents act locally and directly execute the controller’s
directions.
3. Protocol Encapsulation
• Protocols enable components of a distributed system to communicate and co-ordinate their activities.
• However, protocols evolve over a period of time and new features such as better security may be introduced in the protocol. It is a
cumbersome task to upgrade the protocol code at all locations in the distributed system.
• Mobile agents offer a solution to this problem. The mobile agent code can encapsulate the protocol. When a protocol is upgraded,
only the mobile agent has to be altered.
4. Asynchronous and Autonomous Execution
• Mobile agents operate asynchronously. Once a mobile agent is dispatched from the home machine, the home machine can disconnect
from the network.
• The mobile agent executes autonomously without the intervention of the home machine. The home machine can reconnect at a later time
and collect the agent.
5. Fault Tolerance
• Mobile agents react dynamically and autonomously to the changes in their environment, which makes them robust,and fault tolerant.
• They have the ability to distribute themselves in the network in such a way as to maintain the optimal configuration for solvingthe
particular problem.
• If a host is being shut down, all agents executing on that machine will be warned and given time to dispatch themselves and continue
their operation on another host in the network.
DISADVANTAGES OF MOBILE AGENTS
• The main drawback of mobile agents is the security risk involved in using mobile agents. Security risks in a mobile computing environment are two
fold.
• Firstly a malicious mobile agent can damage a host. For example a virus can be disguised as a mobile agent and distributed in the network causing
damage to the host machines that execute the agent.
• On the other hand a malicious host can tamper with the functioning of the mobile agent. Most experts suggest that this risk is far more difficult to deal
with.
• To illustrate this scenario, consider a mobile agent that visits the servers of several airlines to buy a ticket for the lowest price.
• A malicious airline server can try to obtain sensitive price information from the mobile agent (such as the prices quoted at the servers previously visited
by the mobile agent).

• The malicious server may tamper with the mobile agent and increase the prices quoted by other airlines thereby giving it an unfair advantage. Some
servers may even try to steal the credit card number from the mobile agent.
• The defense mechanisms suggested try to prevent malicious actions in the first place. These include safe programming languages that prevent mobile
agents from performing malicious actions on the hosts.
• If a malicious action does occur then the defense mechanisms detect it as soon as possible and take remedial action. One of the schemes proposed is to
introduce a tracing mechanism that records the execution of the mobile agent at each host.
• When the agent is dispatched to the next host, the trace is also sent. Using this trace, malicious actions can be detected and the malicious host can be
identified. However, in spite of significant development in the field of cryptography there still exist many security issues that need to be addressed in
mobile agents.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Unit-IV
Applications of Mobile Agents

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE AGENTS
Although no universally used application (normally called killer application) has been developed
for them, mobile agents are suitable for the following applications
1. Parallel Computing:
• Solving a complex problem on a single computer takes a lot of time. To overcome this,
mobile agents can be written to solve the problem.
• These agents migrate to computers on the network, which have the required resources and
use them to solve the problem in parallel thereby reducing the time required to solve the
problem.
2. Data Collection:
• Consider a case wherein, data from many clients has to be processed. In the traditional client-
server model, all the clients have to send their data to the server for processing resulting in
high network traffic.
• Instead mobile agents can be sent to the individual clients to process data and send back
results to the server, thereby reducing the network load.
E-commerce:
• Mobile agents can travel to different trading sites and help to locate the most appropriate deal, negotiate the
deal and even finalize business transactions on behalf of their owners.
• A mobile agent can be programmed to bid in an online auction on behalf of the user. The user himself need
not be online during the auction.
Mobile Computing:
• Wireless Internet access is likely to stay slow and expensive. Power consumption of wireless devices and high
connection fee deter users from staying online while some complicated query is handled on behalf of the user.
• Users can dispatch a mobile agent, which embodies their queries, and log off, and the results can be picked up
at a later time.
• Distributed computing involving several computers in a network can be achieved using message
passing or remote procedure calls (RPC).

• The recently developed mobile agent technology adds a new dimension to distributed computing.
• Experts suggest that mobile agents will be used in many Internet applications in the years to come.
• However there still exist many technical hurdles that need to be tackled, the most important of
them being security.

• Only when security issues are properly addressed, will the mobile agent technology be widely
accepted
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TIT 811)

TCP overWireless

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
TCP OVERWIRELESS

1. Need forTCP overWireless

• The existing Internet employs TCP/IP as its protocol stack.
• Many of the existing applications require TCP as the transport layer for reliable transfer of data packets.
Accessing the Internet is essential for commercial applications, while voice and other data communications
utilize the underlying Internet backbone.
• For wireless networks to become popular, support for the existing applications and compatibility
with the wired Internet must be provided.
• Therefore, it is imperative that wireless networks also adopt and supportTCP for reliable transfer of data.
 TCP OVERWIRELESS……

2. Limitations ofWiredVersion ofTCP

• The primary concern in the use of conventional TCP over wireline networks is packet loss, because congestion can be present
at various nodes in the network.
• In such systems where congestion is the only source for errors,TCP congestion avoidance mechanisms are extremely useful.
• However, the same cannot be said about wireless networks, as errors can be introduced due to inherent use of air
as a medium of packet transport.
• Errors can also be attributed to the mobility of users in the network. In such cases, TCP’s congestion-avoidance and error-
recovery mechanisms lead to unnecessary retransmissions, thereby leading to inefficient use of available wireless bandwidth.
• In the following subsection, a summary of the various approaches used to improve the efficiency of TCP over wireless networks
is given. These strategies range from modifying link layer modules to using split TCP.
 TCP OVERWIRELESS……

3. Solutions for WirelessEnvironment

• The scarce spectrum imposes a fundamental limit on the performance of the wireless channel,and MSs have limited computing
resources and severe energy constraints.
• Due to these characteristics,a lot of work has been done to optimize the performance of the protocol stack.
• The network layering principle provides good abstraction in the network design and its effectiveness has been most demonstrated
by the [Link],this leads to a noticeable loss in overall efficiency.
• Wireless networks are interference limited, and the information delivery capability of a transmission link is closely dependenton
the current channel [Link] a result, the notion of congestion is quite different from that in a wirednetwork.
• Physical and link layer characteristics have important impact on network [Link] networks operate in an inherent
broadcast medium. Hence, adoption of physical and link layer broadcast can very often lead to transmission schemes that are
efficient in resource usage, (e.g., power consumption) and could result in substantial improvement of performance and resource
usage efficiency.
 TCP OVERWIRELESS……

• An adaptive architecture is desirable where each layer of the protocol stack responds to the local
variations as well as to the information from other layers.
• However, since there are many existing application layer protocols that use TCP, any modification of the
transport layer of the fixed hosts is not feasible.
• Changes can be made only on MSs and mobile access points to ensure compatibility with existing
applications. Such changes should be transparent to the application layer software that runs on top of the
transport layer.
 TCP OVERWIRELESS……

Approaches to improving the performance of TCP overwireless

i. End-to-End Solutions

ii. Link Layer Protocols

iii. SplitTCPApproach
 TCP OVERWIRELESS

i. End-to-End Solutions (refer Chapter 9 Network Protocols at page no 209-10 for detailed study
of [Link] book Introduction toWireless and mobile system edition 3) :
• End-to-end protocols attempt to make the TCP sender handle losses through the use of two
techniques.
• First, they use some form of selective acknowledgments to allow the sender to recover from multiple
packet losses in a window, without resorting to a coarse timeout.
• Second, they attempt to have the sender distinguish between congestion and other forms of losses
using an explicit loss notification (ELN) mechanism.
 TCP OVERWIRELESS

ii. Link Layer Protocols (refer Chapter 9 Network Protocols at page no 210-11 for
detailed study of [Link] book Introduction to Wireless and mobile system
edition 3) :
There are two main classes of techniques employed for reliable link layer protocols:
1. Error correction using techniques such as FEC
2. Retransmission of lost packets in response to ARQ messages
 TCP OVERWIRELESS

iii. SplitTCPApproach (refer Chapter 9 Network Protocols at page no 210-11 for detailed study of
[Link] book Introduction toWireless and mobile system edition 3) :
• Split connection protocols split each TCP connection between a sender and receiver
into two separate connections at the BS-one TCP connection between the sender
and the BS, and the other between the BS and the MS.
• Over the wireless hop, a specialized protocol may be used that can tune into the wireless environment.
• Name of the protocols for same work as
--Indirect-TCP (I-TCP)
--M-TCP protocol
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Unit-V
Mobile Adhoc Network and Routing Protocols

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
MOBILE ADHOC NETWORK

• Mobile
• Random and perhaps constantly
changing

• Ad-hoc
• Not engineered
• Networks
• Elastic data applications which use
networks to communicate
• Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs): Autonomous networks consisting ofrouting
nodes that are free to move about.
• May be connected to a larger network
• e.g. the Internet, or operate as an isolated intra-network.
• The nodes can be extremely mobile and a lot depends on the nature of the nodes
and routers
• The mobile devices, the wireless medium and the ad hoc nature of the network
give rise to some problems that are common to a wide variety of wireless
topologies.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MANET

• DynamicTopologies: Network topology which is typically multi-hops,may change randomly and rapidly with time,it can form
unidirectional or bi-directional links.
• Bandwidth constrained,variable capacity links:Wireless links usually have lower reliability,efficiency,stability and capacity as
compared to wired [Link] throughput of wireless communication is even less than a radio’s maximum transmission rate
after dealing with the constraints like multiple access,noise,interference conditions,etc.
• Autonomous Behavior: Each nodes can act as a host and router,which shows its autonomous behavior.
• Energy Constrained Operation:As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy.
Mobile nodes are characterized with less memory, power and light weightfeatures.
• Limited Security: Wireless network are more prone to security threats.A centralized firewall is absent due to its distributed
nature of operation for security, routing and hostconfiguration.
• Less Human Intervention:They require minimum human intervention to configure the network,therefore they are
dynamically autonomous in nature.
PROS AND CONS OF MANET

Pros:
• Separation from central network administration.
• Each nodes can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
• Self configuring and self healing nodes, does not require human intervention.
Cons:
• Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions,etc.
• Lack of authorization facilities.
• More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AD HOC NETWORKS
MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL ISSUES

The main functions and the design issues of this layer are
1. Providing services to the network layer
2. Framing
3. Error Control
4. Flow Control
1-SERVICES TOTHE NETWORK LAYER

The primary function of this layer is to provide a well defined service interface to network
layer above [Link] types of services provided can be of three types −

• Unacknowledged connectionless service

• Acknowledged connectionless service
• Acknowledged connection - oriented service
FRAMING

• This layer encapsulates each data packet from the network layer into frames that are
then transmitted.
• A frame has three parts, namely−
• Frame Header
• Payload field that contains the data packet from network layer
• Trailer
3. Error Control
The layer ensures error free link for data [Link] issues it caters to with respect to
error control are −
• Dealing with transmission errors
• Sending acknowledgement frames in reliable connections
• Retransmitting lost frames
• Identifying duplicate frames and deleting them
• Controlling access to shared channels in case of broadcasting
4. Flow Control
• The layer regulates flow control so that a fast sender does not drown a slow [Link]
the sender sends frames at very high speeds, a slow receiver may not be able to handle it.
There will be frame losses even if the transmission is [Link] two common approaches
for flow control are −
• Feedback based flow control
• Rate based flow control
MANET ROUTING PROTOCOLS

• In MobileAd hoc Network (MANET),nodes do not know the topology of their network,
instead they have to discover it by their own as the topology in the ad-hoc network is
dynamic topology.
• The basic rules is that a new node whenever enters into an ad-hoc network, must
announce its arrival and presence and should also listen to similar announcement
broadcasts made by other mobile nodes.
1. Pro-active routing protocols:
These are also known as table-driven routing protocols. Each mobile node maintains a
separate routing table which contains the information of the routes to all the possible
destination mobile nodes.

2. Reactive routing protocols:

These are also known as on-demand routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is
discovered only when it is required/[Link] process of route discovery occurs by
flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two
major phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.
3. Hybrid Routing protocol:
It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active routing protocols.
These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the zone and position of
the source and destination mobile nodes. One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol
is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Unit-V
Routing Protocols Discussions
(Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol)

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
DESTINATION SEQUENCED DISTANCE
VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOL (DSDV)

• It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector

routing protocol of the wired networks as the name suggests. It is based on the Bellman-
ford routing [Link] vector routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc
networks due to count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution Destination Sequenced
Distance Vector RoutingProtocol (DSDV) came into picture.
• Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing table
maintained by each node.A node will include the new update in the table only if the entry
consists of the new updated route to the destination with higher sequence number.
• To understand what is DSDV we must first understand DVR.
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
PROTOCOL

• Every router maintains its own routing table

• Every router knows how many routers are there
in the network
• Every routing will be having information about
neighboring nodes
WIRELESS NODES

N1
1
N5 3 N2

6
4

N4 N3
2
 RT for N3 RT for N4

ROUTING TABLES
RT for N2 Dest Dis. Nxt. Dest Dis. Nxt.
RT for N 1 . .
Dest Dis. Nxt. Dest Dis. Nxt. N1 ∞ -
N1 ∞ -
. .
N2 6 N2 N2 ∞ -
N1 0 N1 N1 1 N1
N3 0 N3 N3 2 N3
N2 1 N2 N2 0 N2
N4 2 N4 N4 0 N4
N3 ∞ - N3 6 N3
N5 ∞ - N5 4 N5
N4 ∞ - N4 ∞ -
N5 ∞ - N5 3 N5
Dest Dis. Nxt.
.
RT for N5 N1 ∞ -
N2 3 N2
N3 ∞ -
N4 4 N4
N5 0 N5
UPDATION OF ROUTING TABLES

• The algorithm was developed in 1990s, so for saving the BW only distance
vector array was shared with neighbors.
• Every nearby node will share its distance vector array to neighbors
• The neighbor will then select the shortest path for the next node
 FOR N1

NewRT for N1 Dis.

N1
1 Dest Dis Nxt 1 N1->N2 and N2->N2
N5 3 N2 N1 0 N1 1 + 0=1
0
N2 1 N2 N1->N2 and N2->N3
6 1 + 6=
N3 7 N2,N3 7
6 ∞
4 N4 ∞ - N1->N2 and N2-> N4
3 1 + ∞=∞
N5 4 N2,N5
N1->N2 and N2-> N5
N4 N3 1 + 3=4
2
 FOR N2

In the same way N2 will update its routing table and

N3 and N5 will share the distance vector array with
N2 but at this time it will only take minimum
distance route.
N1
1 NewRT for N2
N5 3 N2 Dest Dis. Nxt.
.
N1 1 N1
6
4 N2 0 N2
N3 6 N3
N4 7 N5,N4
N4 2 N3
N5 3 N5
 FOR N3

• In the same way N3 will update its routing table and N2 and N4 will share the distance
vector array with N3 but at this time it will only take minimum distance route.

N1
1 NewRT for N3
N5 3 N2 Dest Dis. Nxt.
.
N1 7 N2,N1
6
4 N2 6 N2
N3 0 N3
N4 2 N4
N4 2 N3
N5 6 N5
 FOR N4

NewRT for N4
Dest Dis. Nxt.
N1 .
1
N5 3 N2 N1 8 N5,N2,N
1

6 N2 7 N5,N2
4
N3 2 N3
N4 0 N4

N4 N3 N5 4 N5
2
 FOR N5

N1
1 NewRT for N5
N5 3 N2 Dest Dis. Nxt.
.
N1 4 N2,N1
6
4 N2 3 N2
N3 6 N4,N3
N4 4 N4
N4 2 N3
N5 0 0
COUNT TO INFINITY PROBLEM

1 1 1 Internet
C A/2 B/2

B will reach to internet with the cost of 1 and will send the matrix/array to neighbors (in
this caseA).
 COUNT TO INFINITY CONTD. (NORMAL
OPERATION)

1 1 1
C A/2 B/2 Internet

Step1- ∞ ∞ 1

First pass- ∞ 2 1

Second pass- 3 2 1
COUNT TO INFINITY CONTD.

1 1 1
C A/2 B/2 Internet

• Now suppose the B’s link to the internet has been broken
• B has not informed any of its neighbor about link failure,it just changed the number in its
matrix to infinite.
• C will say toA that I will take you to the internet in the cost of 3 (but C will indirectly
want to reach internet viaA),soA will increase its cost to (3+1) 4.
COUNT TO INFINITY CONTD.

• Now A will broadcast to C that I will take you to the internet in the cost of 3(but
indirectly it was C who was connected to the internet). Now C will increase its costfor
reaching internet to (4+1) 5.

• Here the main problem arise,the upcoming figure will make it clear.
 COUNT TOINFINITY

1 1 1
C A/2 B/2 Internet

Pass 1- 3 2 ∞

Pass 2- 3 4 3

Pass 3- 5 4 5

Pass 4- 5 6 5

Pass n- ∞ ∞ ∞
DESTINATI
ON
SEQUENCE • Now DSDV solves the previously explained count
to infinity problem
D • In this protocol there is another area of timestamp

DISTANCE in the routing table that will help to remove count

to infinity problem

VECTOR
ROUTING
 ROUTING SCENARIO (DSDV)

1 1
A B C

Des. Nxt Dis timestam Des. Nxt Dis. Timestam

hop p hop p
B B 1 101 A A 1 104
C B 2 105 ( in C C ∞ 108
next step it
will be
ADVANTAGES OF DSDV

• The availability of paths to all destinations in network always shows that less delay is
required in the path set up process.
• The method of incremental update with sequence number labels,marks the existing wired
network protocols adaptable to Ad-hoc wireless [Link], all available wired
network protocol can be useful to ad hoc wireless networks with less modification.
DISADVANTAGES OF DSDV

• DSDV requires a regular updates of its routing tables,which uses up battery power and a
small amount of bandwidth even when the network is idle.
• Whenever the topology of the network changes, a new sequence number is necessary
before the network re-converges; thus, DSDV is not suitable for highly dynamic or large
scale networks.(As in all distance-vector protocols,this does not perturb traffic in regions
of the network that are not concerned by the topology change.)
APPLICATIONS

• PotentialWSN applications include security,traffic control,industrial and manufacturing

automation,medical or animal monitoring where no infrastructure exists.
• Another application of DSDV protocol is the Multimedia Guidebook,which is based on
sensors communicating through an Ethernet to provide multimedia information via
Bluetooth to the user’s mobile device.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Unit-V
Routing Protocols Discussions

Global State routing (GSR) Protocol

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
2 INTRODUCTION
• Global State Routing (GSR) is based on Link State (LS) routing.
• In the LS routing method, each node floods the link state information
directly into the whole network (global flooding) once a link change
between itself and its neighbors is detected.
• A node gets to know the whole topology by obtaining link
information.
• LS routing works well in static topology networks.
• If links change quickly at high mobility, frequent global flooding will
lead to huge control overhead (large amount of small packets).
3 ORGANIZATION
 We call this scheme "global state routing" (GSR), where
nodes exchange vectors of link states among their neighbors
during routing information exchange.

 Based on the link state vectors, nodes maintain

a global knowledge of the network topology and optimize
their routing decisions locally.

 It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually

extends the link state routing of the wired networks.
 ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR MANET
4
 Description about the LSR with algorithm
 Link state routing is a technique in which each router shares the
knowledge of its neighborhood with every other router in the
internetwork.

 Some notations for algorithm: -

c( i , j) : Link cost from node i to node j. If i and j nodes are not directly linked,
then c(i , j) = ∞.

D(v): It defines the cost of the path from source code to destination v that has
the least cost currently.

P(v): It defines the previous node (neighbor of v) along with current least cost
path from source to v.

N: It is the total number of nodes available in the network.

5 Algorithm for LSR

Initialization

N = {A} // A is a root node.

for all nodes v
if v adjacent to A
then D(v) = c(A,v)
else D(v) = infinity
loop
find w not in N such that D(w) is a minimum.
Add w to N
Update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N:
D(v) = min(D(v) , D(w) + c(w,v))
Until all nodes in N
  Description about the GSR
6
• GSR protocol uses and maintains three tables for every node
individually.
1) Distance Table : Contains the distance of a node from all the nodes
in network.

2) Topology Table : contains the information of Link state data along

with the sequence number which can be used to determine when
the information is updated last.

3) Next Hop Table :contain the information about the

immediate neighbor of a particular node.
 Advantages
7 • GSR greatly reduces the control overhead as it avoids flooding for
disconnects/reconnects and updates are time triggered than event triggered.
• The routing accuracy of GSR is comparable to an ideal LS scheme and thus superior
to the traditional DBF.
• A bandwidth function can be used to realize QoS routing.

Disadvantages
• The main disadvantage is the large size of the routing message.
• As the entire topology table is broadcasted with each update, a considerable amount
of bandwidth is consumed.
• The latency of the link state change propagation depends on the update period,
meaning that it has to be carefully chosen.
8 USED CASES OF GSR (APPLICATIONS)

 GSR can be applied anywhere where there is little or no communication

infrastructure or the existing infrastructure is expensive or inconvenient to
use.

 Military Battlefield: Military equipment now routinely contains some sort

of computer equipment.

 Commercial Sector: Ad hoc can be used in emergency/rescue operations

for disaster relief efforts, e.g. in fire, flood, or earthquake.

 Personal Area Network (PAN): Short-range MANET can simplify the

intercommunication between various mobile devices (such as a PDA, a
laptop, and a cellular phone).
9

• To provide an efficient routing solution for wireless, mobile

networks.

• The routing accuracy of GSR is comparable to an ideal LS

scheme and thus superior to the traditional DBF, although it
doesn’t require individual link state broadcasting which may
cause serious consumption of wireless bandwidth.

• As a result, GSR is more desirable for a mobile environment

where mobility is high and bandwidth is relatively low.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Unit-V
Routing Protocols Discussions

Dynamic source routing (DSR)

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun
2
ROUTING OVERVIEW

• RFC 4728 has been used for DSR routing protocol.

• There are two schemes for transferring message from one node to another named as:
• Destination routing: Source specifies only destination in messageheader.
• Source routing: Complete path to destination is specified in messageheader.
• Intermediate node just forward to next specified hop.
3
APPLICATIONS

• Personal area networking

• cell phone,laptop,earphone,wrist-watch
• Military environments
• soldiers, tanks,planes
• Civilian environments
• Taxi-cab network
• meeting rooms
• sports stadiums
• boats, small aircraft
• Emergency operations
• search-and-rescue
• policing and fire fighting
4
WHAT IS DSR?

• The Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) is a simple and efficient routing protocol
designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes.
• DSR allows the network to be completely self-organizing and self-configuring,without
the need for any existing network infrastructure or administration
5
DSR PROTOCOL ACTIVITIES
6
ROUTE DISCOVERY

• The source sends a broadcast packet which contain source address, destination address,
request ID and path.

• If a host acknowledges a packet before, discards it.

• Otherwise, the node looks up its routecache.
• Node discovering route only when [Link]’s why knows as reactive routing
protocol.
7
DSR EXAMPLE

Node S wants to send packet to D.

It will broadcast RREQ packet.
8
DSR EXAMPLE

 S will broadcast message which will be received byA,B and C.

 As C does not know about route D it will insert it’s own address and again
broadcasts to S,B and G.
9
DSR EXAMPLE

 S will discard the packet as the packet was discarded by S itself.

 B also discards as it receives multiple copies of the packet with same ID.
 A inserts it’s own address as it also don’t know where D is and broadcasts.
10
DSR EXAMPLE

 The process continues and when D find’s it’s own address in destination field,
D would know that node S wants a route to D.
11
DSR EXAMPLE

From packet D would understand that

the packet is coming from S->B->F->D,
so it will follow the reverse path.
12
RREP (ROUTE REPLY)

• Destination(D) will send RREPLY packet to source by following the

reverse path.

Now S knows route to D, it will attach the

data and route in header and send to D.
13 WHAT IF AFTER SENDING DATA TO NODE D.
AFTER SOME TIME S WANTS TO SEND
DATAAGAIN?

• Again route discovery process?

1) Not efficient
2) Time consuming
• Node S will cache(store) route to D.
• In future if S wants to send it will get route from cache.
14 WHAT IF AFTER SENDING ROUTE TO S NODE,
CONNECTION BETWEEN F AND D GOT DISCONNECTED?

• This is where Route maintenance come into picture.

15
ROUTE MAINTENANCE

• If any link is broken,

information is
broadcasted to make
them update their
cached route.
16 ROUTE ERROR
17 ROUTE ERROR:

• If the next hop link is broken when a data packet is being forwarded, a RouteError
(RERR) is generate and propagated backwards.

• RERR contains the failed link info.

18
DSR OPTIMIZATION: ROUTE CACHING

• Each node caches a new route it learns when any node sends RREQ and RREP
message to other intermediate nodes. Hence makes the protocol moreefficient.
• When node S finds route [S,B,F,D] to node D, node S also learns route [S,B,F] to
node F.
 ADVANTAGES OF DSR

• Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate

19
• reduces overhead of route maintenance
• Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead
• A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination, due tointermediate
nodes replying from local caches

Disadvantages of DSR
• Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing
• Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TOE 811)

Unit-V
Routing Protocols Discussions

Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
AD HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR (AODV)

• Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Routing is a routing protocol for mobile
ad hoc networks (MANETs) and other wireless ad hoc networks.
• AODV is a reactive protocol: the routes are created only when they areneeded
• At each node,AODV maintains a routing table
• a routing-entry not recently used is expired
• Route discovery is based on query and reply cycles, and route information is stored in all
intermediate nodes along the route in the form of route table entries.
• It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. It is an extension of dynamic source
routing protocol (DSR) and it helps to remove the disadvantage of dynamic source
routing protocol.
• In DSR, after route discovery, when the source mobile node sends the data packet to
the destination mobile node, it also contains the complete path in its header. Hence,
as the network size increases, the length of the complete path also increases and the
data packet’s header size also increases which makes the whole network slow.
• Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The main
difference lies in the way of storing the path, AODV stores the path in the routing table
whereas DSR stores it in the data packet’s header itself.
• It also operates in two phases in the similar fashion: Route discovery and Route
maintenance
• Route Requests (RREQs), Route Replies (RREPs), and Route Errors(RERRs) are
the message types defined by AODV.

• RREQ messages are used to initiate the route-finding process.

• RREP messages are used to finalize the routes.

• RERR messages are used to notify the network of a link breakage in an active route.

• The AODV protocol is only used when two endpoints do not have a valid active route
to each other.

• Nodes keep a “precursor list” that contains the IP address for each of its neighbors
that are likely to use it for a next hop in their routing table.

• Route table information must be kept for all routes even short-lived routes.
AODV WORKING

• Operate on two phase

● Route discovery
● Route maintenance

• Source node will not carry the complete path

• Each node only knows its previous and next hop info

• Each node maintain route cache

AODV – ROUTE DISCOVERY

● When a node wishes to send a packet to some destination –

○ It checks its routing table to determine if it has a current route to the destination
➔ IfYes,forwards the packet to next hop node
➔ If No, it initiates a route discovery process
● Route discovery process begins with the creation of a Route Request (RREQ) packet
● The packet contains – source node’s IP address, source node’s current sequence number,destination
IP address, destination sequence number
● Packet also contains broadcast ID number
● Broadcast ID gets incremented each time a source node uses RREQ
● Broadcast ID and source IP address form a unique identifier for the RREQ
● Broadcasting is done via Flooding
ROUTE REPLY (RREP)

This RREP is unicast along the reverse-routes of the intermediate nodes until it reaches the original
requesting node

RREP packet
● Source_addr
● Destination_addr
● Destination sequence
● Hop count
Route Error

● Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message

● When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all active neighbors are informed
● Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error (RERR) messages, which also update destination sequence numbers
Properties of AODV

● AODV discovers routes as and when necessary

- Does not maintain routes from every node to every other
● Routes are maintained just if necessary
- Does not maintain routes from every node to every other
● Every node maintains its monotonically increasing sequence number -> increases every time the node notices change in the neighborhood
topology
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TIT 811)

TCP overWireless,Mobile IP

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
 TCP OVER WIRELESS CONTD…

i. End-to-End Solutions (refer Chapter 9 Network Protocols at page no 209-10 for detailed study
of [Link] book Introduction toWireless and mobile system edition 3) :
• End-to-end protocols attempt to make the TCP sender handle losses through the use of two
techniques.
• First, they use some form of selective acknowledgments to allow the sender to recover from multiple
packet losses in a window, without resorting to a coarse timeout.
• Second, they attempt to have the sender distinguish between congestion and other forms of losses
using an explicit loss notification (ELN) mechanism.
 TCP OVER WIRELESS CONTD…

ii. Link Layer Protocols (refer Chapter 9 Network Protocols at page no 210-11 for
detailed study of D.P. Agarwal book Introduction to Wireless and mobile system
edition 3) :
There are two main classes of techniques employed for reliable link layer protocols:
1. Error correction using techniques such as FEC
2. Retransmission of lost packets in response to ARQ messages
iii. SplitTCPApproach (refer Chapter 9 Network Protocols at page no 210-11 for detailed study of
[Link] book Introduction toWireless and mobile system edition 3) :
• Split connection protocols split each TCP connection between a sender and receiver
into two separate connections at the BS-one TCP connection between the sender
and the BS, and the other between the BS and the MS.
• Over the wireless hop, a specialized protocol may be used that can tune into the wireless environment.
• Name of the protocols for same work as
--Indirect-TCP (I-TCP)
--M-TCP protocol
MOBILE IP
• Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol,IP) that allows the users to move from one
network to another with the same IP address.
• It ensures that the communication will continue without user’s sessions or connections being dropped.
• Mobile Node (MN):
It is the hand-held communication device that the user caries e.g. Cell phone.
• Home Network:
It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs to as per its assigned IP address (homeaddress).
• Home Agent (HA):
It is a router in home network to which the mobile node was originally connected
• HomeAddress:
It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home network).
• Foreign Network:
It is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its home network).
• Foreign Agent (FA):
It is a router in foreign network to which mobile node is currently [Link] packets from the home agent are sent to the
foreign agent which delivers it to the mobile node.
• Correspondent Node (CN):
It is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile node.
• Care of Address (COA):
It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving away from its home network.
MOBILE IP CONTD…
 MOBILE IP CONTD…

Working:
• Correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contains correspondent node’s address (Source) and home
address (Destination).
• Packets reaches to the home agent. But now mobile node is not in the home network, it has moved into the foreign network. Foreign
agent sends the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established between the
home agent and the foreign agent by the process of tunneling.
• Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet
via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation.
• Now, home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which the source address is the home address and destination is the
care-of-address and sends it through the tunnel to the foreign agent.
• Foreign agent, on other side of the tunnel receives the data packets, decapsulates them and sends them to the mobile node.
• Mobile node in response to the data packets received, sends a reply in response to foreign agent. Foreign agent directly sends the reply
to the correspondent node.
 MOBILE IP CONTD…

• Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:

• Agent Discovery:
Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent advertisement [Link] mobile node receiving the agent
advertisement messages observes whether the message is from its own home agent and determines whether it is in the home network
or foreign network.
• Agent Registration:
Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent, sends registration request (RREQ) to the foreign agent. Foreign agent in turn, sends the
registration request to the home agent with the care-of-address. Home agent sends registration reply (RREP) to the foreign [Link] it
forwards the registration reply to the mobile node and completes the process of registration.
• Tunneling:
It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a
tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation. It takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the care-
[Link] home agent receives a packet from correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet with source address as home
address and destination as care-of-address.
 MOBILE IP CONTD…

• Route Optimization in Mobile IP:

The route optimization adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to the
correspondent node.
• The binding cache contains bindings for mobile node’s home address and its current care-of-
address.
• Every time the home agent receives a IP datagram that is destined to a mobile node currently
away from the home network, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to update
the information in the correspondent node’s binding cache.
• After this the correspondent node can directly tunnel packets to the mobile node.
1
MOBILE COMPUTING (TIT 811)

Mobile IP,Wireless Application Protocol

Dr. SANTOSH KUMAR

(Professor)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Graphic Era Deemed to be University,Dehradun
MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL (MOBILE IP)
Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that allows the users to move from one network to
another with the same IP address. It ensures that the communication will continue without user’s sessions or connections being dropped.
Terminologies:
• Mobile Node (MN):
It is the hand-held communication device that the user caries e.g. Cell phone.
• Home Network:
It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs to as per its assigned IP address (home address).
• Home Agent (HA):
It is a router in home network to which the mobile node was originally connected
• Home Address:
It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home network).
• Foreign Network:
It is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its home network).
• Foreign Agent (FA):
It is a router in foreign network to which mobile node is currently connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign
agent which delivers it to the mobile node.
• Correspondent Node (CN):
It is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile node.
• Care of Address (COA):
It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving away from its home network.
WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL

• Browser
• “Micro browser”, similar to existing web browsers

• Script language
• Similar to Javascript, adapted to mobiledevices

• Gateway
• Transition from wireless to wired world

• Server
• “Wap/Origin server”, similar to existing webservers

• Protocol layers
• Transport layer, security layer, session layer etc.

• Telephony application interface

• Access to telephony functions
WAP - KEY FEATURES
A programming model similar to the Internet's
• Though WAP is a new technology, but it reuse the concepts found on the Internet. This reuse enables a quick introduction ofWAP-based
services, since both service developers and manufacturers are familiar with these concepts today.
Wireless Markup Language (WML)
• You must be using HTML language to develop your web-based application. Same way,WML is a markup language used for authoring WAP
services, fulfilling the same purpose as HTML does on the Web. In contrast to HTML,WML is designed to fit small handheld devices.
WMLScript
• Once again, you must be using Java Script or VB script to enhance the functionality of your web applications. Same way, WMLScript can be
used to enhance the functionality of a service, just as Java script can be utilized in HTML. It makes it possible to add procedural logic and
computational functions to WAPbased services.
Wireless Telephony Application Interface(WTAI)
• The WTAI is an application framework for telephony services. WTAI user agents are able to make calls and edit the phone book by
calling special WMLScript functions or by accessing special URLs. If one writes WML decks containing names of people and their phone
numbers, you may add them to your phone book or call them right away just by clicking the appropriate hyperlink on the screen.
Optimized protocol stack
• The protocols used in WAP are based on well-known Internet protocols, such as HTTP and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
but they have been optimized to address the constraints of a wireless environment, such as low bandwidth and high latency.
WAP - ARCHITECTURE
WAP is designed in a layered fashion,so that it can be extensible,flexible,and [Link] a result,theWAP protocol stack is divided into five layers −
Layers of WAPProtocol
Application Layer

• WirelessApplication Environment (WAE).This layer is of most interest to content developers because it contains among other things,device
specifications,and the content development programming languages,WML, andWMLScript.
Session Layer
• Wireless Session Protocol (WSP).Unlike HTTP,WSP has been designed by theWAP Forum to provide fast connection suspension and reconnection.
Transaction Layer
• WirelessTransaction Protocol (WTP).TheWTP runs on top of a datagram service, such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and is part of the standard
suite ofTCP/IP protocols used to provide a simplified protocol suitable for low bandwidth wireless stations.
Security Layer
• WirelessTransport Layer Security (WTLS).WTLS incorporates security features that are based upon the establishedTransport Layer Security (TLS)
protocol [Link] includes data integrity checks,privacy,service denial,and authentication services.
Transport Layer
• Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP).TheWDP allowsWAP to be bearer-independent by adapting the transport layer of the underlying [Link]
presents a consistent data format to the higher layers of the WAP protocol stack, thereby offering the advantage of bearer independence to application
developers.
• Each of these layers provides a well-defined interface to the layer above [Link] means that the internal workings of any layer are transparent or invisible
to the layers above [Link] layered architecture allows other applications and services to utilise the features provided by the WAP-stack as [Link]
makes it possible to use theWAP-stack for services and applications that currently are not specified byWAP.
 WAP - ENVIRONMENT
• Wireless Application Environment (WAE), the uppermost layer in the WAP stack, provides an environment that enables a wide
range of applications to be used on the wireless [Link] have earlier discussed about the WAP WAE programming model. In
this chapter, we will focus on the various components ofWAE.
Components ofWAE
Addressing Model
• A syntax suitable for naming resources stored on [Link] use the same addressing model as the one used on the
Internet that is Uniform Resource Locators (URL).
Wireless Markup Language (WML)
• A lightweight markup language designed to meet the constraints of a wireless environment with low bandwidth and small
handheld [Link] Wireless Markup Language is WAP's analogy to HTML used on the [Link] is based on the
Extensible Markup Language (XML).
WMLScript
• A lightweight scripting language. WMLScript is based on ECMAScript, the same scripting language that JavaScript is based on. It
can be used for enhancing services written in WML in the way that it to some extent adds intelligence to the services; for
example,procedural logic, loops,conditional expressions,and computational functions.
Wireless Telephony Application (WTA,WTAI)
• A framework and programming interface for telephony [Link] (WTA) environment provides a means to create
telephony services usingWAP.
• Hardware and Software Requirement
• At minimum developingWAP applications requires a web server and aWAP [Link] simulator software while developing aWAP application is
convenient as all the required software can be installed on the development PC.
• Although,software simulators are good in their own right,noWAP application should go into production without testing it with actual hardware.
The following list gives a quick overview of the necessary hardware and software to test and developWAP applications −
• A web server with connection to the Internet
• AWML to developWAP application
• AWAP simulator to testWAP application
• A WAPgateway
• A WAP phone for final testing.
• Microsoft IIS orApache onWindows or Linux can be used as the web server and NokiaWAPToolkit version 2.0 as theWinWAP simulator.
• ConfigureWeb Server forWAP
• In theWAP architecture,the web server communicates with theWAP gateway,accepting HTTP requests and returningWML code to the gateway.
The HTTP protocol mandates that each reply must include something called a Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)type.
• In normal web applications,this MIME type is set to text/html,designating normal HTML [Link] on the other hand could be specified as
image/gif or image/jpeg for [Link] this content type specification, the web browser knows the data type that the web server returns.