2.7.

Hypotheses development
2.7.1. Uncertainty
In the context of gamification, Leclercq, Poncin and Hammedi (2020) point out that
uncertainty is one of the key factors in gamified design, which can stimulate excitement and
curiosity, thereby increasing participants' satisfaction. This argument is supported by the
information gap theory, which suggests that when an individual perceives an information gap,
they are motivated to fill that gap, leading to increased engagement and enjoyment
(Loewenstein, 1994). Gamification, as defined by Deterding et al. (2011), uses game elements to
provide a "gameful experience" for users, where the feeling of enjoyment and thrill from
unexpected outcomes plays a vital role in enhancing satisfaction. Specifically, when users do not
know the exact result, or when the result is uncertain, the feeling of excitement and satisfaction is
amplified. Eppmann, Bekk and Klein (2018) further emphasize that uncertainty in a gamified
environment not only creates stimulation but also helps users feel engaged and entertained.
When users face uncertainty and anticipate a surprise, it becomes more enjoyable and rewarding,
enhancing the overall experience.
In the case of blind box design, Miao et al. (2023) highlight that uncertainty is a core
factor driving consumer engagement. Although the blind box design may seem simple, it is the
element of randomness that makes it exciting and creates a fun shopping experience. This
uncertainty leads to enjoyment as consumers open a blind box and discover the surprise inside.
Shen, Hsee and Talloen (2019) argue that in products with uncertainty, such as blind boxes,
consumers not only enjoy the process of anticipation but also find pleasure in the unexpected
outcomes, which increases their enjoyment.
The studies by (Juho Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) and Chou (2016) in the context
of gamification provide further support. J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa (2014) explain that
uncertainty in gamified systems can stimulate user participation, increase excitement, and lead to
a stronger feeling of satisfaction. Chou (2016) emphasizes that uncertainty is a crucial driver in
gamification that helps create engagement and positive emotional responses. In gamification,
uncertainty not only creates immediate enjoyment but also sustains user involvement in the
activity, just like when consumers engage in opening blind boxes. Therefore, we propose the
following hypotheses:
 H1-a: Uncertainty has a positive effect on enjoyment.
The study on blind boxes by Miao et al. (2023) also demonstrates that uncertainty in
blind box products increases consumer engagement and absorption. When consumers do not
know what item they will receive, they focus their attention on opening the box and discovering
the surprise inside. This not only increases excitement but also causes them to become fully
immersed in the process. Shen, Hsee and Talloen (2019) further explain that in products with an
element of uncertainty, such as blind boxes, consumers tend to invest all their energy into the
exploration, thus creating a state of absorption. This is a clear example of how uncertainty can
enhance absorption in gamified activities. Another theory that supports this argument is
Information Gap Theory by Loewenstein (1994b) , which states that uncertainty creates an
information gap that humans are naturally inclined to fill. When confronted with uncertainty,
participants feel a strong need to seek information and resolve this gap. This process leads them
to focus on the task and become immersed in finding a solution. This is particularly evident in
gamified systems, where uncertainty about outcomes increases participation and absorption
levels among players.
In the context of gamification, uncertainty plays a crucial role in keeping participants
engaged in the experience for longer periods and at deeper levels.
Eppmann, Bekk and Klein (2018)
highlight that absorption is an essential part of the gamified experience, where
participants are completely focused on the task at hand. J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa (2014) also
assert that uncertainty can enhance participation and absorption levels in gamified systems.
When participants are unsure of the exact outcome or reward, they become captivated by the
exploration and the resolution of this uncertainty. This results in them becoming fully immersed
in the experience, driven by curiosity and the desire to uncover the outcome. The flow state,
according to Csikszentmihalyi (1991) , is a psychological state where participants become
completely absorbed in an activity, losing track of time and the environment around them. He
emphasizes that when participants are uncertain of the result of an activity, they must focus
intensely on solving the task in order to achieve the desired outcome. This is when uncertainty
creates an additional challenge, which, according to him, is the key element that stimulates
participation and immersion in the activity. Therefore, uncertainty plays a role in increasing the
level of challenge in an activity, leading participants to enter a state of flow and absorption.
Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:
 H1-b: Uncertainty has a positive effect on absorption.
In gamification contexts, uncertainty plays a key role in encouraging participants to think
creatively in order to overcome challenges and achieve desired results. Both
Eppmann, Bekk and Klein (2018)
and J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa (2014) highlight that uncertainty in gamified
systems promotes creative thinking by encouraging participants to experiment and develop
creative approaches to problem-solving. The unpredictability of uncertainty invites users to step
outside of conventional patterns, encouraging them to think differently and explore novel ideas.
This heightened sense of adventure is a critical aspect of the creative process, as users are more
likely to experiment with unconventional solutions when they are not restricted by predefined
outcomes (Yang, Ye and Feng, 2021) . According to Csikszentmihalyi (1991), in his theory of
flow, uncertainty creates a challenge that participants must overcome, which stimulates creative
thinking. When the outcome of an activity is uncertain, participants must think creatively to find
solutions, thus creating an environment conducive to creative thinking. Uncertainty forces
participants to imagine and explore different possibilities, leading them to find creative solutions
to the problems they face. Miao et al. (2023) pointed out that the uncertainty in such products
sparks curiosity and encourages consumers to think creatively about the potential outcomes,
thereby boosting their creative thinking. Similarly, Shen, Hsee and Talloen (2019) argued that
uncertainty in gamified environments leads participants to invest energy into exploration and
speculation about outcomes, which promotes creative thinking as they have to come up with
solutions without knowing the exact result. Additionally, Loewenstein’s Information Gap Theory
further emphasizes the link between uncertainty and creative thinking. According to this theory,
uncertainty creates an information gap that individuals feel compelled to fill. When confronted
with uncertainty, participants feel a strong urge to explore and resolve this gap, stimulating
creative thinking as they devise new ways to fill this information void. This process drives
creativity, as participants must think creatively to resolve unclear issues. Therefore, we propose
the following hypotheses:
H1-c: Uncertainty has a positive effect on creative thinking.
Uncertainty, as a core component of gamification, plays a significant role in enhancing
the level of activation experienced by users. Activation refers to the heightened emotional state
often characterized by feelings of excitement, energy, and arousal during the activity
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018)
. The uncertainty principle, which is central to gamified systems, creates
an environment where the outcome is unknown, triggering a physiological and emotional
response that intensifies users' emotional involvement with the task. This sense of
unpredictability encourages individuals to invest more energy and focus in their interactions with
the system, resulting in higher levels of excitement and engagement (Behl et al., 2022) . The
anticipation of uncertain outcomes has been shown to stimulate arousal and energy, key
components of activation. In gamified environments, such as those involving blind boxes or
random rewards, uncertainty drives users to stay engaged and alert, fostering a sense of nervous
excitement as they await the outcome. This emotional engagement can elevate levels of energy,
keeping users motivated and activated throughout the experience (Leclercq et al., 2020) . The
presence of uncertainty taps into the human tendency to seek novel and stimulating experiences,
which in turn activates excitement and energy during the activity (Kim et al., 2018). As a result,
uncertainty becomes a catalyst for emotional activation, driving users to experience heightened
levels of excitement, enthusiasm, and energy as they navigate through the gamified experience.
Moreover, the concept of "sensation seeking" in gamification research suggests that users
are naturally drawn to uncertainty because it provides opportunities for new and stimulating
experiences, increasing the level of emotional and psychological arousal
(Zuckerman and Aluja, 2015)
. Uncertainty acts as a trigger for these sensations, thereby boosting activation during the
experience. This aligns with findings in gamification studies that demonstrate how uncertain and
unpredictable scenarios can amplify feelings of excitement and energy, leading to greater
engagement and involvement with the task (J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) . Therefore,
uncertainty positively impacts activation by intensifying the emotional and energetic state of
users, keeping them excited and involved in the experience. Therefore, we propose the following
hypotheses:
H1-d: Uncertainty has a positive effect on activation.
Uncertainty, as a central element in gamified experiences, is often introduced to enhance
engagement by generating excitement, anticipation, and challenge. The uncertainty principle in
gamification suggests that when users face an uncertain outcome, it creates a sense of curiosity
and involvement, thus improving the overall emotional experience
(Leclercq, Poncin and Hammedi, 2020).
In gamified systems, uncertainty is often associated with a sense of
unpredictability, triggering these positive feelings and ultimately making the experience more
enjoyable (Deterding et al., 2011). In this context, uncertainty is typically not seen as a negative
factor; on the contrary, it helps regulate emotional balance by minimizing negative feelings such
as frustration and boredom, which often arise from monotonous or predictable tasks
(Yang, Ye and Feng, 2021)
. The presence of uncertainty leads to a more stimulating experience, where the
user’s emotional state is characterized by heightened interest and engagement. This engagement
leads to the reduction of negative emotions because users remain focused on the potential
rewards and experiences associated with the uncertainty (J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) .
Moreover, in environments where uncertainty is present, like in gamified settings or blindbox
products, users are more likely to experience excitement rather than negative emotions, as long
as the uncertainty is mild and the rewards are perceived as achievable
(Koivisto and Hamari, 2019).
Specifically, in gamified contexts like purchasing blind boxes, uncertainty can lead to
greater excitement, as consumers are captivated by the unpredictability of the outcome by
minimizing negative feelings like boredom or disappointment. Therefore, uncertainty positively
impacts the absence of negative affect, creating a more enjoyable and engaging experience for
users. Furthermore, studies in the field of gamification have shown that uncertainty helps
enhance users' experiences by sparking curiosity and the desire to explore the outcomes
(Behl et al., 2022)
Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:
H1-e: Uncertainty has a positive effect on the absence of negative affect.
Leclercq, Poncin and Hammedi (2020) suggest that uncertainty in gamified systems
stimulates both engagement and the sense of dominance when participants feel they can
influence the outcome, even if it is unknown. The cognitive stimulation that arises when facing
uncertainty, as in the case of blind boxes, makes participants feel they can control the outcome
through their actions, thereby increasing their sense of dominance
(Juho Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014)
. Uncertainty not only encourages users to explore but also pushes them to feel they
can control the result through their choices and decisions. This is similar to blind boxes, where
participants do not know in advance what item they will receive, but they feel in control of the
outcome through their continuous decisions to participate. Furthermore, according to Behl &
Pereira (2021) and Feng et al. (2020), uncertainty in gamified experiences, particularly when
participants cannot predict the result, promotes cognitive stimulation and strategic decision-
making. This not only encourages participation but also increases the sense of power and
dominance, as participants feel they can control the situation through their creative and strategic
decisions. The uncertain outcomes in blind boxes provide an opportunity for participants to
control or alter their actions, thereby creating a sense of dominance over the situation they are
engaging in.
Csikszentmihalyi (1991) points out that in order to achieve a flow state, participants need
to feel that they are in control and competent in dealing with challenges. Uncertainty in gamified
experiences, such as blind boxes, creates a challenge that participants must face. When they feel
they can control the outcome (even though it is unpredictable), they experience a sense of
competence and control, which enhances their feeling of dominance. Furthermore, the flow
theory also emphasizes that when participants feel they can influence the outcome and control
the process, they will feel confident and empowered (Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). In
the case of blind boxes, although the outcome is uncertain, participants can still control their
involvement (e.g., deciding to continue participating in hopes of receiving a rare item). This
creates a sense of dominance, as they feel that their actions can affect the result, thereby giving
them control over the situation even though the final outcome is unknown. Therefore, we
propose the following hypotheses:
H1-f: Uncertainty has a positive effect on dominance.
In the context of consumer behavior, uncertainty has been identified as a key factor
influencing decision-making and purchase intentions. According to the information gap theory
(Loewenstein, 1994a), uncertainty creates a gap between what consumers know and what they
want to know. This gap triggers curiosity, motivating consumers to take action to reduce that
uncertainty, which in turn leads to increased involvement in the purchase process. In
environments such as blind box products, where uncertainty is an inherent feature, consumers are
driven by the desire to resolve this uncertainty and experience the thrill of discovery. This results
in heightened excitement, which boosts the likelihood of purchase (Zhang and Zhang, 2022a) .
This idea is supported by Miao et al. (2023) , who emphasize that uncertainty is a fundamental
aspect of blind box design, attracting consumers due to its random and surprising nature.
Consumers are not only enticed by the possibility of receiving a desirable product, but also by
the emotional experience of the unknown. The anticipation of uncovering the hidden product
maintains their curiosity and drives their engagement, thus encouraging repeat purchases. The
element of surprise becomes a key motivator, sustaining consumer interest and purchase
intentions over time.
 Furthermore, Zhang and Zhang (2022a) highlight that uncertainty in blind box products is
not just about curiosity but also about the positive emotions that arise once the uncertainty is
resolved. When consumers open a blind box, the emotional payoff of discovery – such as
excitement or satisfaction – plays a significant role in reinforcing their desire to make further
purchases. This aligns with the positive emotion theory (Lee and Qiu, 2009), which suggests that
uncertainty can lead to greater positive emotions when it is resolved, enhancing the overall
experience and further stimulating consumer engagement. In these gamified environments, the
uncertainty of not knowing what is inside the box creates a rewarding emotional experience once
it is resolved, thereby reinforcing purchase intentions. Additionally,
J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa (2014)
assert that uncertainty in gamified systems increases emotional arousal, which leads
to stronger consumer satisfaction and participation. The excitement of not knowing the outcome
and the anticipation of discovery make the buying experience more engaging and rewarding.
This increased emotional involvement has been shown to heighten consumers' willingness to
purchase, as they associate the resolution of uncertainty with positive emotional experiences
(Shen, Fishbach and Hsee, 2015). (Chou, 2016) further supports this by suggesting that, in
gamified settings, uncertainty leads to greater consumer satisfaction because of the emotional
responses it elicits. Consumers are drawn to the experience of discovering something new, which
triggers curiosity, positive emotions, and ultimately, a stronger purchase intention. Based on
these findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H1-g: Uncertainty has a positive effect on purchase intention.

2.7.2. Aesthetic
Aesthetic design plays a crucial role in shaping user enjoyment within gamified
experiences, particularly in the context of blind boxes, where anticipation and emotional
engagement are central to user interaction. Enjoyment, as a core dimension of gameful
experiences, reflects the intrinsic pleasure users derive from engaging activities, influenced
significantly by the visual and sensory appeal of the experience
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018)
. Neuroscientific research also confirms this connection, showing that exposure to
aesthetically rich designs activates reward-related brain regions, such as the ventral striatum and
orbitofrontal cortex, which are responsible for processing pleasure and enjoyment
(Chatterjee and Vartanian, 2016)
. In the domain of artistic creativity and its relation to human experience,
research suggests that aesthetic perception is deeply intertwined with the brain’s reward system,
meaning that humans inherently seek out and derive enjoyment from visually engaging stimuli
(Zeki, 2001).
In the blind box context, where anticipation plays a key role, aesthetics significantly impact
expectation and excitement. When consumers perceive a blind box toy as visually attractive, they
are more likely to imagine owning the product, which fosters emotional attachment and
strengthens their motivation to participate in the gamified experience. According to Affective
Expectation Theory, the perception of an aesthetically appealing product not only enhances
perceived value but also intensifies positive emotional responses even before unboxing
(Oliver, 1993).
The mystery and excitement inherent in blind box mechanics further amplify this effect. If
a blind box toy features a striking design, it increases anticipation and enhances consumer
engagement within the gamified experience (J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) . Additionally,
when consumers perceive the toy as a "piece of art" (eye-catcher), they are more likely to
evaluate the unboxing experience positively, ultimately leading to higher enjoyment levels
(Miao et al., 2023).

Furthermore, according to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), aesthetically pleasing

products can fulfill intrinsic needs for visual stimulation, thereby enhancing entertainment value
and overall satisfaction (Ryan and Deci, 2000). A beautifully designed blind box toy not only
increases motivation to participate in the gamified system but also creates a sense of valuable
reward, reinforcing positive emotional states and long-lasting enjoyment throughout the
experience. Based on these theoretical and empirical insights, we propose the following
hypothesis:
H2-a: Aesthetic has a positive effect on enjoyment.
Aesthetic design plays an essential role in fostering positive interactive experiences,
particularly within gamified contexts, by enhancing users’ level of absorption. Absorption, a
critical dimension of gameful experiences, is closely linked to concepts such as flow and
immersion, characterized by a deep state of engagement, reduced awareness of surroundings, and
loss of time perception (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018). Aesthetically
appealing elements elicit positive emotional responses, such as enjoyment and satisfaction,
thereby intensifying users’ focus and facilitating deeper cognitive absorption
(Lavie and Tractinsky, 2004)
.
 From a cognitive-psychological perspective, Norman (2004) , in his Affective-Cognitive
Theory, argues that attractive designs reduce cognitive load and stimulate positive emotional
reactions, thereby increasing sustained attention. Visually appealing interfaces and products
enhance positive user experiences, minimize distractions, and facilitate smoother immersion into
the experience . Furthermore, neuroscientific studies indicate that aesthetic designs strongly
activate brain regions linked to reward systems, such as the orbitofrontal cortex and ventral
striatum, which support higher levels of focused engagement and absorption
(Chatterjee and Vartanian, 2016).

In gamification contexts specifically, (Juho Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) emphasize
that visually appealing designs enhance user engagement, encouraging users to actively interact
with the gamified system for extended periods. The interplay between aesthetic appeal and
gamification elements, particularly the element of uncertainty inherent in mechanisms such as
blind boxes, intensifies users’ affective expectations and curiosity, driving deeper immersion into
the activity (Miao et al., 2023). Similarly, Yang, Ye and Feng (2021) also report that attractive
designs not only heighten user satisfaction but also foster increased immersion, making the
experience more compelling and memorable. Moreover, Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
suggests that aesthetically attractive designs effectively fulfill intrinsic psychological needs such
as sensory stimulation and perceived competence, significantly increasing user interest, focus,
and sustained engagement within gamified experiences, thereby reinforcing absorption
(Ryan and Deci, 2000)
. Thus, grounded on the theoretical rationale and empirical evidence outlined
above, this study proposes the following hypothesis:
H2-b: Aesthetic has a positive effect on absorption.
Creative thinking, as a dimension of the gameful experience, refers specifically to users'
exploratory and imaginative experiences. It is characterized by moments when users feel
creative, adventurous, and eager to explore new possibilities within an activity
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018).
In the gamified context, particularly blind box mechanisms, aesthetics may
significantly facilitate such imaginative exploration and stimulate creativity. Aesthetic design is
recognized as a powerful trigger for positive emotions, directly impacting users' intrinsic
motivation to explore and experiment within gamified environments. According to
J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa (2014)
, visually attractive designs capture users' interest, promoting curiosity
and sustained engagement, thus enabling users to explore the environment more willingly.
Aesthetically appealing designs naturally encourage users to experience greater openness and
adventure, facilitating exploration of new possibilities and creative interpretations of the gameful
activity (Huotari and Hamari, 2017a) . From a cognitive perspective, aesthetic appeal promotes
flexible cognitive processing, prompting imaginative thinking and creative exploration
(Norman, 2004)
. A visually attractive gamified experience, such as blind boxes with artistic and appealing
designs, not only generates positive emotional responses but also stimulates cognitive processes
associated with creativity, including curiosity, openness to novelty, and the desire for discovery
(Miao et al., 2023) . Such aesthetic experiences increase intrinsic enjoyment, thereby enhancing
users' sense of adventure and willingness to explore new aspects of the gamified system.
Moreover, neuroscience research indicates that engaging with aesthetically pleasing
objects or environments activates brain regions associated with reward and pleasure, which also
correlate with enhanced creative thought processes (Chatterjee and Vartanian, 2016). The
combination of visual stimulation and the anticipation associated with the blind box experience
further intensifies users' exploratory behaviors and imaginative thinking, as aesthetic appeal
naturally aligns with the human propensity for novelty-seeking and discovery-oriented behaviors
(Yang, Asaad and Dwivedi, 2017) . In the specific case of blind boxes, the aesthetic dimension
contributes notably to creative exploration by enhancing the perceived uniqueness and value of
each potential outcome. Blind box products often incorporate attractive visual narratives and
designs, inspiring consumers to envision multiple imaginative scenarios and outcomes before
actual unboxing (Miao et al., 2023) . Consequently, the aesthetic experience itself becomes a
driver of creativity, enriching the exploratory dimension of the gamified environment. Based on
these theoretical arguments and empirical findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H2-c: Aesthetic has a positive effect on creative thinking.
Aesthetic experience has long been recognized as a crucial factor in shaping consumers'
emotional states and motivation when interacting with products. Previous research on product
experience suggests that aesthetics reflect a product’s ability to provide sensory satisfaction,
thereby contributing to positive emotional states such as excitement, curiosity, and enjoyment
(Desmet and Hekkert, 2007). In the context of gamification, aesthetic elements such as visually
appealing interfaces, pleasant sounds, and engaging tactile sensations not only enhance
immediate sensory satisfaction but also foster deeper engagement and heightened emotional
activation. From a psychological perspective, activation refers to the level of emotional energy
and excitement that users experience when interacting with gamified products or services
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018). Aesthetic features have been shown to stimulate activation by
creating sensory pleasure, thereby promoting positive emotions and increasing users' active
engagement. Furthermore, aesthetic features have the potential to create emotionally rich
interactions. According to (Norman, 2004), highly aesthetic products often trigger immediate
visceral responses, generating strong excitement and enthusiasm. These responses not only
enhance short-term engagement but also encourage prolonged immersive experiences, aligning
with the concept of activation in gamification research (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018) .
Empirical evidence from Tractinsky, Katz and Ikar (2000) further supports this notion, showing
that highly aesthetic interfaces significantly increase users' emotional arousal, helping them reach
an optimal state of engagement. Neuroscientific research further highlights that exposure to
aesthetically pleasing designs activates brain regions associated with pleasure, motivation, and
excitement, such as the ventral striatum and orbitofrontal cortex, which are also responsible for
processing reward anticipation (Chatterjee and Vartanian, 2016).
Additionally, aesthetic elements help build meaningful relationships between products
and users, strengthening emotional connections and motivational engagement.
Mugge, Schifferstein and Schoormans (2004)
found that products with attractive aesthetic characteristics
encourage greater attachment and care, leading to stronger emotional activation. Similarly,
Miao et al. (2023)
found that aesthetic attributes, particularly in gamified product contexts such as
blind boxes, heighten anticipation and excitement, thereby increasing activation. The Arousal
Theory of Aesthetics (Berlyne, 1971) supports this notion, proposing that aesthetically pleasing
stimuli naturally evoke higher levels of emotional and physiological arousal, thereby reinforcing
the activation response. These findings align with Self-Determination Theory
(Ryan and Deci, 2000)
, which emphasizes the importance of intrinsic motivation and the satisfaction of
psychological needs such as competence and autonomy in shaping user engagement. Aesthetic
elements enhance perceived competence by making interactions more intuitive, enjoyable, and
rewarding, thus increasing users' sense of control and mastery over their experience. This
heightened sense of competence and intrinsic satisfaction directly contributes to sustained
emotional activation, fostering excitement and energetic engagement rather than frustration or
disengagement (Hekkert, 2006; Huotari and Hamari, 2017a) . Based on these theoretical
perspectives and empirical findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
 H2-d: Aesthetic has a positive effect on activation.
Aesthetic experience plays a crucial role in shaping users’ emotional states, particularly
in the context of gamification. Previous studies have shown that aesthetic elements not only
enhance sensory satisfaction but also help reduce negative emotions such as frustration,
boredom, and anxiety (Desmet and Hekkert, 2007) . In gamification, aesthetics encompass
visually appealing design, pleasant sound effects, and visual harmony, all of which contribute to
a seamless and enjoyable experience (Huotari and Hamari, 2017a) . From a psychological
perspective, negative affect refers to the presence of distressing emotions such as frustration,
anxiety, or disengagement, which can diminish user motivation and experience
(Watson, Clark and Tellegen, 1988).
Poorly designed gamified systems can lead to cognitive overload, visual
clutter, and discomfort, all of which increase frustration and reduce engagement (Norman, 2004)
Conversely, harmonious aesthetic designs can alleviate cognitive strain, create a sense of ease,
and facilitate smoother interactions, thereby reducing the likelihood of negative affective
responses (Tractinsky, Katz and Ikar, 2000). Studies in user experience research further indicate
that high-aesthetic interfaces decrease stress levels and enhance user comfort
(Lindgaard et al., 2006).

Additionally, the Aesthetic-Usability Effect suggests that highly aesthetic designs are
perceived as more intuitive and user-friendly, even when system functionality remains
unchanged (De Angeli, Sutcliffe and Hartmann, 2006) . Furthermore, the Arousal Theory of
Aesthetics (Berlyne, 1971) proposes that aesthetic elements create a calming effect, reducing
stress or sensory overstimulation, thereby preventing negative responses such as irritation or
boredom (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018). This is particularly relevant in the context of blind
box experiences, where anticipation and exploratory excitement are core elements, and any
design factor that disrupts positive emotions may affect user engagement and motivation
(Miao et al., 2023)
. Moreover, research on gameful experiences (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018)
emphasizes that aesthetic design fosters emotional connections between users and gamified
products. Elements such as vivid colors, smooth visual effects, and immersive sounds help users
feel more engaged in the experience, reducing unwanted disruptions and maintaining emotional
balance (Miao et al., 2023). Based on these theoretical perspectives and empirical findings, we
propose the following hypothesis:
H2-e: Aesthetic has a positive effect on the absence of negative affect.
 Aesthetic experience significantly shapes users' perceptions of control, autonomy, and
mastery when interacting with gamified products. Prior literature suggests that aesthetically
appealing design not only fosters sensory satisfaction but also promotes a sense of clarity,
structure, and predictability, which are fundamental to the experience of dominance and
autonomy in user-product interactions (Tractinsky, Katz and Ikar, 2000) . According to
Hekkert (2006),
aesthetic pleasure derived from well-structured and harmonious product designs helps
users easily perceive and process the environment, enhancing their sense of control and
autonomy. Although Hekkert primarily emphasizes aesthetic pleasure, his insights regarding
structure, order, and ease of processing imply that users interacting with aesthetically pleasing
designs are likely to experience heightened perceptions of influence and mastery, central
dimensions of dominance.
Dominance, as defined in gamification research, refers to users' psychological perception of
being in control, influential, and autonomous within the interaction experience
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018).
Aesthetic elements such as intuitive interfaces, harmonious visual structures,
and coherent feedback mechanisms significantly reinforce these perceptions. Specifically,
visually appealing designs reduce cognitive load and create a sense of ease and predictability
(Tractinsky, Katz and Ikar, 2000) . Consequently, users experience higher levels of confidence
and autonomy, enhancing their perception of being in charge of their interactions with gamified
products.
Furthermore, the Aesthetic-Usability Effect (De Angeli, Sutcliffe and Hartmann, 2006)
provides additional theoretical support, indicating that visually pleasing systems are perceived as
easier to use, thus promoting user confidence and reinforcing a sense of mastery and dominance.
This cognitive fluency and sense of empowerment resulting from aesthetic appeal align closely
with Self-Determination Theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000), which highlights autonomy as a crucial
psychological need for sustained engagement. Users interacting with aesthetically refined
gamified products are likely to perceive higher control over the interaction, enhancing their sense
of dominance within the experience. Empirical evidence further supports this notion. Research
by Eppmann, Bekk and Klein (2018) in the context of gamification identifies dominance as a
core dimension of gameful experiences, emphasizing the importance of fostering users' feelings
of mastery, influence, and autonomy. Aesthetically appealing environments enable users to
navigate smoothly, interact intuitively, and confidently engage with the system, thereby
reinforcing their perceived influence and control over their experiences (Miao et al., 2023) In the
context of blind boxes, aesthetic elements contribute substantially to users' sense of agency
during the unboxing process. Attractive visual cues, tactile satisfaction, and sensory harmony not
only elevate the immediate pleasure but also foster a deeper perception of personal control and
influence over the outcomes. This aesthetic-driven empowerment is essential to users feeling "in
charge," influential, autonomous, and confident, reducing potential negative reactions associated
with uncertainty and enhancing the overall engagement
(Xi and Hamari, 2019; Miao et al., 2023)
. Based on these theoretical perspectives and supporting empirical evidence, we propose
the following hypothesis:
H2-f: Aesthetic has a positive effect on dominance.
Aesthetic experience plays a critical role in shaping consumer purchase behavior,
particularly in gamified consumption models like blind box purchases. Prior research suggests
that aesthetically pleasing product designs enhance perceived value, emotional engagement, and
sensory gratification, which in turn increase consumers’ willingness to purchase (Hekkert, 2006).
The visual appeal of a product, including balance, symmetry, color harmony, and material
quality, contributes to positive affective responses that reinforce consumer attachment and
desirability (Desmet and Hekkert, 2007). In gamified consumption experiences, aesthetic appeal
differentiates products and enhances their hedonic value, making aesthetically designed blind
box products more compelling and increasing consumer engagement (Miao et al., 2023).
Purchase intention is strongly driven by affective responses such as excitement, enjoyment, and
perceived exclusivity (Desmet and Hekkert, 2007). The Processing Fluency Theory suggests that
aesthetically refined designs facilitate cognitive ease, making products more attractive and
desirable (Reber, Schwarz and Winkielman, 2004) . Additionally, the Aesthetic-Usability Effect
indicates that consumers tend to perceive aesthetically appealing designs as more intuitive and
user-friendly (Tractinsky, Katz and Ikar, 2000) . This cognitive bias extends to consumer
products, where enhanced aesthetic appeal often leads to higher perceived quality and
desirability (Hekkert, 2006), reinforcing motivation to purchase (Miao et al., 2023). This effect is
especially relevant in the blind box market, where aesthetic-driven excitement and anticipation
enhance the perceived value of uncertain outcomes, making the experience more engaging and
increasing purchase likelihood (Miao et al., 2023) . Empirical studies indicate that aesthetic
elements mediate the relationship between blind box design and purchase intention by enhancing
enjoyment, activation, and emotional involvement (Miao et al., 2023) . Moreover, Self-
Determination Theory posits that intrinsically rewarding experiences drive engagement and
purchase behavior. Aesthetic appeal enhances perceived autonomy and competence in product
interaction, fostering a more immersive and satisfying purchasing experience (Hekkert, 2006).
Given the integral role of aesthetics in shaping emotional responses and consumer satisfaction, it
is evident that aesthetic attributes positively influence purchase intention, particularly in
gamified consumption models such as blind boxes. Based on these theoretical perspectives and
empirical findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H2-g: Aesthetic has a positive effect on purchase intention.

2.7.3. Scarcity
In consumer behavior research, scarcity is recognized as a powerful factor that
significantly influences consumer experience and emotional engagement. Lynn (1991) argues
that scarcity creates a sense of urgency and desire, making products more valuable and attractive
in the eyes of consumers. When a product becomes scarce, consumers feel they must act quickly
to own it, triggering excitement and satisfaction during the purchase process (Lynn, 1992). The
anticipation and the feeling of owning something rare often lead to greater enjoyment and
satisfaction compared to owning more commonly available products. In the context of
gamification, scarcity plays a similar role in increasing emotional engagement and enjoyment.
Chou (2016) emphasizes that scarcity within gamified systems such as limited-time rewards or
exclusive opportunities generates excitement and anticipation, which in turn enhances user
involvement and enjoyment. This excitement stems from the uncertainty about whether the user
will achieve the desired outcome, creating an emotionally charged and thrilling experience
(J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014)
When users do not know for sure whether they will succeed,
the feeling of excitement and enjoyment is amplified, as the unpredictable elements of the
gamified experience play a key role in creating fun (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018).
This enjoyment is also closely tied to the desire for ownership of unique or "social"
products. Research has shown that consumers tend to enjoy products more when they perceive
them as scarce because it satisfies their need for uniqueness and social status
(Snyder and Fromkin, 1980)
. Consumers experience greater enjoyment when they perceive a product as
unique and rare, which enhances the pleasure derived from owning it
(Lynn, 1991; Tian, Bearden and Hunter, 2001)
. Moreover, in blind box designs, Miao et al. (2023) assert that
scarcity plays a crucial role in driving consumer engagement and excitement. The randomness
and limited availability of blind box items generate thrill and anticipation, making the experience
more enjoyable as consumers open the box and discover what’s inside.
Shen, Hsee and Talloen (2019)
also highlight that for products with uncertainty, such as blind boxes, consumers not only
enjoy the process of anticipation but also derive pleasure from the unexpected outcomes, which
increases their overall enjoyment. Based on these findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H3-a: Scarcity has a positive effect on enjoyment
In consumer behavior research, absorption refers to the state of being fully immersed or
engaged in an activity, where attention is entirely devoted to the task at hand, often leading to a
deep sense of involvement and satisfaction. Lynn (1991) suggests that scarcity can trigger a
heightened focus and engagement from consumers as it creates a sense of urgency and
exclusivity. When a product is perceived as scarce, consumers are more likely to invest cognitive
and emotional resources into the task of acquiring it, increasing the likelihood of becoming
absorbed in the experience (Lynn, 1992). The anticipation and concentration on securing a scarce
product encourage individuals to become deeply involved in the activity, leading to increased
absorption. In the context of products like blind boxes, Miao et al. (2023) demonstrate that
scarcity amplifies consumers' focus and absorption. The random nature of blind boxes, coupled
with their limited availability, makes the act of opening the box more engaging, as consumers are
invested in the surprise and uncertainty of what they might receive. The scarcity element further
deepens their involvement in the process, as consumers focus their attention entirely on the
possibility of obtaining a rare or desirable item, which enhances their absorption in the
experience.
The concept of absorption in the context of gamification further supports this
relationship. (Chou, 2016) asserts that scarcity within gamified systems, such as limited-time
rewards or opportunities, can enhance user engagement by increasing the level of attention and
involvement. When users are faced with scarce rewards or limited chances of success, they
become more absorbed in the task, as the desire to achieve the goal and the uncertainty
surrounding the outcome motivates them to invest more cognitive resources
(J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014)
. The intensity of the experience is heightened because consumers' attention is
fully directed toward obtaining the scarce reward, creating an immersive environment where
users become deeply focused on the task. Additionally, the theory of flow, developed by
Csikszentmihalyi (1991), suggests that individuals are most likely to experience absorption when
they are fully engaged in an activity that presents a challenge within their skill set. Scarcity
introduces an element of challenge and unpredictability, which can align with the flow state, as
users must navigate through uncertainty while attempting to secure the scarce product or reward.
This alignment of challenge and skill is crucial for fostering absorption, as consumers' attention
is consumed by the task, increasing their immersion and enjoyment
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018)
. Based on these findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H3-b: Scarcity has a positive effect on absorption
Creative thinking in the context of gamification is not only related to problem-solving
abilities but also encompasses exploratory and imaginative experiences. These are moments
when users feel creative, adventurous, and capable of exploring new possibilities. According to
motivation and user experience theories, gamification elements can stimulate these experiences
by introducing uncertainty and encouraging users to actively engage in interaction
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018).
Among these elements, scarcity plays a crucial role in fostering
creativity and exploration, particularly in gamified systems with randomness, such as blind
boxes. From a psychological perspective, scarcity triggers anticipation and sparks imagination.
Research in consumer behavior suggests that when a product or experience is scarce and
unpredictable, it stimulates consumers’ imagination by compelling them to visualize potential
outcomes and how they might interact with the product (Miao et al., 2023) . This effect is
particularly evident in blind box unboxing, where scarcity and surprise heighten curiosity and
enhance users’ creative thinking during the interaction (Shen, Hsee and Talloen, 2019) . When
unboxing a blind box, users are not merely receiving a reward but embarking on an exploratory
journey, where they imagine different possibilities before discovering the actual outcome.
Furthermore, scarcity induces a sense of adventure and excitement in the exploration
process. According to Flow Theory, uncertain yet challenging experiences can immerse users in
a state of deep engagement, where they feel curious, creative, and eager to explore
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). In the case of blind boxes, the rarity of valuable items heightens users’
excitement and curiosity about the potential possibilities, activating an adventurous mindset and
creativity during the experience (Hamari and Koivisto, 2014) . Research on gamification also
suggests that uncertainty in scarce rewards can create an "illusion of control", where users feel
they can influence or explore multiple outcomes, thereby reinforcing exploratory thinking and
imagination (Huotari and Hamari, 2017a) . Additionally, Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
(Ryan and Deci, 2000) highlights that intrinsic motivation increases when users experience
autonomy and exploration. Scarcity, when effectively designed in gamified systems like blind
boxes, acts as a motivational driver, encouraging users to feel more creative and willing to
explore new possibilities. When confronted with uncertainty caused by scarcity, users tend to
think in multiple directions about potential outcomes, leading to enhanced imaginative and
adventurous engagement (J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) . Moreover, research on scarcity-
driven marketing strategies suggests that uncertainty and exclusivity both effects of scarcity
enhance curiosity and imagination ( Snyder and Fromkin, 1980 ;
Tian, Bearden and Hunter, 2001
). When consumers interact with a gamified system incorporating scarcity, they are more
likely to develop exploratory behaviors, such as visualizing possibilities before acquiring the
product or imagining different potential outcomes (Miao et al., 2023). This indicates that scarcity
not only enhances motivation but also actively shapes how users think and explore their
experiences, reinforcing their creative thinking. Based on these findings, we propose the
following hypothesis:
H3-c: Scarcity has a positive effect on creative thinking.
In consumer behavior research, scarcity is known to significantly influence emotional
engagement and excitement. When products are scarce, consumers often perceive them as more
valuable, which induces a sense of urgency and excitement, driving higher levels of emotional
arousal (Lynn, 1991). The feeling of scarcity makes people desire the product more, as they
anticipate that the opportunity to obtain it may be limited (Lynn, 1992). This scarcity-induced
excitement can lead to heightened emotional states such as nervous energy and increased
anticipation during the decision-making process, which aligns with the concept of activation - a
state of excitement and heightened emotional engagement (Miao et al., 2023). In gamified
context, scarcity is often employed to spark curiosity and involvement, which in turn increases
consumers’ emotional engagement. Scarcity introduces uncertainty regarding the outcome,
which enhances the sense of unpredictability and anticipation, elements that are central to
activation (Leclercq, Poncin and Hammedi, 2020) Research by (Chou, 2016) emphasizes that
scarcity within gamified systems such as limited-time rewards or exclusive opportunities creates
excitement and anticipation. The uncertainty experienced when facing a scarce product can
amplify the emotional intensity of the situation, creating a stimulating environment for the
consumer. Research on gamification and consumer behavior suggests that scarcity increases the
excitement of obtaining something rare, especially when coupled with uncertainty, and this
emotional arousal leads to greater activation (Deterding et al., 2011; Koivisto and Hamari, 2019)
Additionally, scarcity is associated with a consumer’s desire for uniqueness. The perception that
a product is scarce makes it seem more exclusive, thereby increasing its perceived value and
desirability. This, in turn, triggers an emotional response, where consumers experience
heightened excitement and energy, further contributing to activation (Wu and Hsing, 2006) .
Moreover, scarcity's effect on activation is closely tied to the concept of the “need for
uniqueness” and the desire for rare experiences. (Snyder and Fromkin, 1980) suggest that
scarcity satisfies the consumer's need for distinctiveness, which enhances emotional engagement
with the product. When users perceive a product as rare or exclusive, it increases their emotional
response, making the experience more exciting and pleasurable
(Tian, Bearden and Hunter, 2001)
. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:
H3-d: Scarcity has a positive effect on activation.
Scarcity has long been recognized as a critical psychological driver that influences
consumer emotions and engagement. Research in consumer behavior suggests that scarcity
generates a heightened sense of urgency and anticipation, which can shift consumers' focus away
from negative emotions such as frustration or boredom and toward an engaging and immersive
experience (Lynn, 1991, 1992). This is particularly relevant in the context of gamification, where
the introduction of scarcity-based mechanics such as limited-time rewards, exclusive items, or
blind box designs creates an element of unpredictability that enhances excitement and motivation
while simultaneously reducing negative emotional responses
(J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014
; Chou, 2016 ). From a psychological perspective, scarcity can contribute to an optimal
gameful experience by fostering what Eppmann, Bekk and Klein (2018) refer to as
repromotional balance a state in which users experience minimal negative affect, such as
frustration, anxiety, or boredom, while engaging in a gamified activity. This balance occurs
because scarcity-based mechanics introduce controlled uncertainty, which enhances engagement
without overwhelming users. For example, Miao et al. (2023) found that in blind box product
designs, the anticipation of acquiring a rare item led to heightened excitement and engagement,
ultimately reducing negative emotional responses. Similarly, Shen, Hsee and Talloen (2019)
highlight that scarcity-induced uncertainty can generate thrill and anticipation, shifting users’
focus away from potential frustration or disengagement and toward an enjoyable experience.
Moreover, gamification research suggests that the motivational effects of scarcity are
closely linked to the concept of self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000), which posits
that intrinsic motivation is key to maintaining engagement, and satisfaction of three basic
psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness leads to more positive emotional
experiences. Scarcity in gamified contexts can enhance intrinsic motivation by providing
uncertainty and challenges, which trigger engagement without causing frustration. The
uncertainty inherent in scarcity creates a more dynamic and rewarding experience, offering users
the satisfaction of overcoming obstacles in pursuit of rare rewards. This feeling of control over
one’s actions in the face of uncertainty contributes to the absence of negative affect such as
boredom or frustration, aligning with SDT’s emphasis on the importance of autonomy and
competence (Ryan and Deci, 2000).
Scarcity-based mechanics, when designed effectively, can contribute to this satisfaction
by providing users with a sense of challenge and achievement, thereby minimizing the likelihood
of disengagement or negative affect (J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) . This aligns with
findings from studies on digital engagement, where limited-time challenges and exclusive game
elements were found to enhance user motivation while mitigating feelings of boredom or
frustration (Huotari and Hamari, 2017). Furthermore, empirical studies on scarcity-based
marketing strategies reinforce the idea that scarcity not only increases perceived value and desire
but also reduces negative affect by shifting consumer focus toward anticipation and excitement
( Snyder and Fromkin, 1980 ; Tian, Bearden and Hunter, 2001 ). When users perceive a gamified
experience as rare or exclusive, they are less likely to experience disengagement or
dissatisfaction, as the perception of uniqueness contributes to greater enjoyment and a reduced
sense of loss (Hamari and Koivisto, 2014). Based on these theoretical and empirical insights, we
propose the following hypothesis:
H3-e: Scarcity has a positive effect on the absence of negative affect.
Scarcity is a powerful factor in increasing the perceived value of a product or experience
within a gamified environment. BROCK (1968) pointed out that when a product or experience
becomes scarce, it creates higher desirability and perceived value. This stems from the
exclusivity that consumers experience when they possess a rare item. When scarcity is combined
with gamification elements, it not only increases desire but also creates a sense of power and
control. According to the theory of special ownership, when participants can own rare rewards or
items, they feel more influential and in control within the context of the game (Snyder, 1992).
Dominance, according to Eppmann, Bekk and Klein (2018) , is not just about control, but also
about the sense of power and autonomy in a gamified experience. When a participant feels they
have control over a rare item, it leads to a feeling of dominance, as they feel superior and able to
influence the outcome within the game. Huotari and Hamari (2017a) further emphasize that in
gamified environments, when participants are faced with rare rewards or outcomes, the feeling of
dominance becomes stronger because they perceive the power derived from the scarcity and
uniqueness they possess.
In the case of blind box design, scarcity plays a key role in creating a sense of dominance
and satisfaction for participants. Miao et al. (2023) highlight that the randomness in blind box
design makes consumers more excited, as they not only enjoy the process of opening the box but
also feel a sense of power and control when they can possess something rare that others cannot
have. This increases their dominance within the gamified experience. Additionally, the studies
by (J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) and Chou (2016) in the context of gamification further
support this hypothesis, arguing that scarcity not only enhances satisfaction but also drives user
participation and increases the feeling of dominance. Scarcity in gamification not only triggers
enjoyment and excitement but also makes participants feel more powerful within the game
environment, especially when they possess valuable items that others do not have. Thus, based
on these theoretical frameworks and empirical findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H3-f: Scarcity has a positive effect on dominance.
Scarcity has long been recognized as a key psychological factor influencing consumer
decision-making, particularly in shaping purchase intention. When a product or experience is
perceived as scarce, it creates a sense of urgency and exclusivity, leading consumers to assign
greater value to the opportunity and increasing their likelihood of making a purchase
(Lynn, 1991, 1992).
This effect is particularly significant in gamified systems, where scarcity-based
mechanisms such as blind boxes, limited-time rewards, and exclusive in-game purchases are
strategically designed to heighten users’ motivation to act quickly and secure the opportunity
before it disappears (J Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014) . From a psychological perspective,
scarcity triggers loss aversion, a fundamental concept in behavioral economics that suggests
individuals are more motivated to avoid losses than to gain equivalent rewards
(Tversky and Kahneman, 1991).
When a product is perceived as scarce, consumers fear missing out (FOMO),
which increases their urgency to act, leading to higher purchase intention (Wu et al., 2012). This
aligns with findings from digital marketing and gamification research, where limited-time offers
and exclusive products have been shown to enhance consumers' willingness to purchase due to
their perception of rarity and potential regret if they miss the opportunity (Miao et al., 2023). In
the case of blind boxes, scarcity further amplifies this effect by introducing uncertainty and
anticipation, making the purchasing process not just transactional but also emotionally engaging
(Shen, Hsee and Talloen, 2019) . Scarcity plays a crucial role in perceived value enhancement,
where consumers view limited-quantity items as more desirable and prestigious (
Snyder and Fromkin, 1980
; Tian, Bearden and Hunter, 2001 ). When users believe that a product is rare or
exclusive, they perceive it as having greater worth, increasing their inclination to purchase it.
This effect is particularly strong in gamified shopping environments, where limited-edition items
or event-exclusive rewards create a competitive purchasing dynamic, reinforcing the urgency to
buy (Hamari and Koivisto, 2014).
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Ryan and Deci, 2000) provides a framework for
understanding how scarcity can enhance intrinsic motivation, ultimately influencing purchase
decisions. When consumers engage with scarce products in gamified settings, they experience a
heightened sense of autonomy and competence, as acquiring a rare item feels like an
achievement. This sense of accomplishment, coupled with the anticipation of unlocking
something unique, reinforces their desire to make a purchase (Huotari and Hamari, 2017a) .
Empirical research on digital consumer behavior suggests that scarcity-driven marketing tactics,
such as flash sales, time-sensitive discounts, and exclusive product drops, significantly impact
purchase behavior by increasing perceived urgency and emotional attachment to the product
(Cialdini, 2001; Lynn, 1992). In the context of gamification, these tactics translate into limited-
time in-game rewards or exclusive purchase opportunities, further driving users toward making
immediate purchase decisions (Miao et al., 2023). Based on these theoretical and empirical
insights, we propose the following hypothesis:
H3-g: Scarcity has a positive effect on purchase intention.
2.7.4. Gameful Experience
[Link]. Enjoyment
In the context of blind boxes, the uncertainty about the gift inside sparks consumers’
curiosity and triggers positive emotions, leading to an enjoyable unboxing experience.
Miao et al. (2023)
observed that the mystery inherent in blind box designs creates an engaging “unboxing
ceremony” that captivates consumers’ attention. Similarly, Shen, Hsee and Talloen (2019)
highlighted that consumers tend to devote their full attention to the discovery process during
unboxing, resulting in heightened excitement and satisfaction. In line with Loewenstein’s
Information Gap Theory which posits that individuals are driven to fill gaps in information the
process of unveiling a blind box satisfies the desire for resolving uncertainty, thereby eliciting
pleasure and enthusiasm. Moreover, research on gamification consistently supports the notion
that the enjoyment derived from engaging, game-like experiences plays a critical role in driving
purchase intention. For instance, Juho Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa (2014) demonstrated that
positive emotional states during gamified activities increase consumers’ desire to own the
product. Huotari and Hamari (2017a) further argued that gameful experiences strengthen the
emotional bond and trust between consumers and brands, which in turn enhances purchase
intention. Additionally, Kim, Costello and Lee, (2020) found that the entertaining aspect of
online shopping can elevate the perceived value of a product, making consumers more inclined
to buy. Finally, Krath, Schürmann and von Korflesch, (2021) concluded that a positive mood
serves as a powerful catalyst for consumer behavior, further reinforcing the likelihood of
purchase.
In summary, when consumers experience enjoyment during the blind box unboxing
process, they not only enjoy the fun and mystery of the experience but also develop a positive
attitude toward the brand, ultimately increasing their purchase intention. Therefore, we propose:
H4-a: Enjoyment has a positive effect on purchase intention.

[Link]. Absorption
In the context of blind boxes, "absorption" refers to the degree to which consumers
become deeply immersed in the unboxing experience losing track of time and focusing entirely
on uncovering the mystery inside. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1991) , a state of flow is
achieved when individuals are so absorbed in an activity that external distractions fade away. In
blind box experiences, the inherent mystery not only arouses curiosity but also compels
consumers to invest significant cognitive and emotional energy to "decode" the unknown
element, thereby creating a more intense and engaging experience (Miao et al., 2023). Research
on gamification has shown that such deep immersion (or absorption) is a key factor in enhancing
the overall user experience. Shen, Hsee and Talloen (2019) observed that when products possess
an element of mystery, consumers tend to devote their full attention to deciphering the surprise,
which prolongs the engagement with the experience. From the perspective of Loewenstein’s
Information Gap Theory, a larger gap in information encourages individuals to invest more
mental resources and attention to fill that gap. In the case of blind boxes, this drive to resolve
uncertainty translates directly into a heightened state of absorption.
Furthermore, studies by J Hamari et al. (2014) and Huotari and Hamari (2017a) have
demonstrated that higher levels of absorption not only enhance user engagement but also
strengthen the emotional connection between consumers and the brand. When consumers are
fully immersed in the blind box experience, they are more likely to appreciate the value of the
product and form positive attitudes toward the brand. Kim, Costello and Lee, (2020) further
argue that deep immersion in the exploratory process enables consumers to process detailed
product information more effectively, thereby facilitating the conversion of positive experience
into actual purchase behavior. Krath, Schürmann and von Korflesch, (2021) also emphasize that
absorption can create a robust emotional bond with the brand, which is critical in influencing
purchase decisions. Based on these arguments, we propose:
H4-b: Absorption has a positive effect on purchase intention.

[Link]. Creative thinking

In the context of blind boxes, the uncertainty about the item inside not only creates an
element of surprise but also actively stimulates consumers’ creative thinking. Miao et al. (2023)
note that the mystery inherent in blind boxes drives consumers to envision multiple usage
scenarios rather than passively waiting for the reveal. This active engagement in “decoding” the
hidden item indicates that creative thinking is triggered during the unboxing process.
Leclercq, Poncin and Hammedi, (2020)
argue that creative thinking goes beyond mere absorption; it
involves consumers actively “weaving” together unique possibilities by imagining innovative
ways to use, display, or integrate the product into their lives. Similarly,
Shen, Hsee and Talloen (2019)
suggest that encouraging creative thinking enables consumers to “write their own script”
during the unboxing process, leading to a deeper and more memorable experience. From a
theoretical standpoint, Loewenstein’s Information Gap Theory posits that when individuals face
a gap in information, they are motivated to invest cognitive effort to fill that gap. In the case of
blind boxes, the uncertainty about the contents prompts consumers to engage in creative thought
to resolve this gap, thereby enhancing their overall engagement. Moreover, research on
gamification indicates that an experience enriched by creative thinking can strengthen the
emotional connection and trust consumers develop toward a brand, ultimately increasing
purchase intention (Juho Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014; Huotari and Hamari, 2017a) .
Kim, Costello and Lee, (2020)
further demonstrate that when consumers actively generate ideas about
potential uses of the product during the unboxing process, they tend to evaluate the product more
favorably, which in turn increases their likelihood of purchasing. In addition,
Krath, Schürmann and von Korflesch, (2021)
emphasize that the intrinsic joy and internal motivation arising from
creative engagement make the experience more personalized and compelling, thereby further
driving purchase behavior. In summary, when the uncertainty of a blind box stimulates creative
thinking, consumers actively fill the information gap by imagining various usage scenarios. This
process not only deepens their personal engagement with the experience but also reinforces a
positive emotional connection with the brand, ultimately increasing their purchase intention.
Based on these arguments, we propose:
H4-c: Creative thinking has a positive effect on purchase intention.

[Link]. Activation
In the context of blind boxes, the key factor is not only the element of surprise but also
the degree to which consumers become energized during the unboxing process. Activation
reflects the state of heightened arousal and excitement experienced when interacting with a
product or service (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018). When consumers achieve a high level of
activation, they tend to feel alert and enthusiastic, which increases their willingness to explore
and engage actively in purchase-related behaviors (Bagozzi, Gopinath and Nyer, 1999) . This
heightened state of arousal helps maintain focus and boosts the motivation to transition into
concrete actions, such as considering a purchase (Ryan, Rigby and Przybylski, 2006) . In blind
boxes, the activation experience is particularly intensified by the randomness and scarcity of the
contents. As consumers unbox blind boxes without knowing what lies inside, the element of
mystery triggers feelings of curiosity, nervous excitement, and the anticipation of potentially
obtaining a rare item (Miao et al., 2023). This unexpected element transforms the unboxing
process into an entertaining, lottery-like experience, where the thrill of not knowing the outcome
further elevates the activation state. As consumers experience this high activation, they are more
likely to seek to maintain that positive energetic state, which in turn increases their purchase
intention. Moreover, activation may reinforce consumers’ confidence in the value of the blind
box. When individuals experience intense arousal and excitement, they tend to rationalize that
the hidden item must be valuable or “worth it” (Chitturi et al., 2008), prompting them to make a
quick purchase decision. In summary, activation through increased excitement, anticipation of
unexpected rewards, and enhanced perceived value motivates consumers to engage in purchasing
behavior. Therefore, we propose:
H4-d: Activation has a positive effect on purchase intention.

[Link]. Absence of negative affect

In the context of blind boxes, the absence of negative affect defined as the lack of
feelings such as annoyance, disappointment, or tension during the interaction with the
product/service (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018) - indicates that consumers maintain a relaxed
and comfortable state. This positive emotional state contributes to a favorable impression of the
brand or product.
From a psychological perspective, negative emotions such as anxiety or fear of risk are known to
significantly impede consumers’ purchase decisions (Dholakia, 2000) . When these negative
emotions are absent, psychological barriers decrease, leading consumers to become less hesitant
and more receptive to spending (Frijda, 1986). This state of ease and reduced pressure
encourages them to focus on the product’s appealing features rather than worrying about
potential losses or unfavorable outcome (Taylor, 1990). In the specific context of blind boxes,
the inherent element of surprise and randomness may sometimes trigger concerns about
receiving an undesired item or wasting money. However, if consumers do not experience strong
negative emotions i.e., if there is an absence of negative affect they are more likely to actively
enjoy the unboxing process, perceiving it as an entertaining adventure (Miao et al., 2023) . This
absence of negative affect alleviates tension and increases consumer confidence in their purchase
decisions, particularly when they seek to maintain or recreate a fully gameful experience. In
summary, when consumers experience an absence of negative affect, they are less constrained by
fear or hesitation, which facilitates the conversion of their positive emotional state into a
concrete purchase decision. Therefore, we propose:
 H4-e: Absence of negative affect has a positive effect on purchase intention.

[Link]. Dominance

In the context of blind boxes, dominance represents the degree of control or the sense of
mastery that consumers experience during a gameful interaction
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018)
. This concept reflects consumers’ belief that they have the capability and knowledge to
grasp or navigate the outcome, rather than being completely at the mercy of chance. When
consumers experience high levels of dominance, they feel confident about “succeeding” or
“achieving their goal” during the interaction. Specifically, in blind box scenarios, the inherent
randomness can often lead to hesitation and fear of receiving an undesirable item or wasting
money. However, the sense of dominance helps mitigate these anxieties. Miao et al. (2023)
explain that when consumers trust their ability to analyze, time their purchase appropriately, or
understand the probability of obtaining a rare item, they feel less passive in the face of
randomness. This self-assurance transforms the blind box experience into a more appealing one,
where consumers perceive themselves as “playing wisely” rather than relying solely on luck.
Furthermore, when consumers clearly perceive dominance, they are more inclined to view a
purchase decision as the logical next step to “affirm” their sense of control. In other words,
beyond just experiencing momentary pleasure, the feeling of mastery reinforces their confidence
in the value received from the blind box (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018) . This increased
confidence further propels them to make purchase decisions without hesitation. In summary, by
enhancing excitement, reducing uncertainty, and reinforcing the perceived value, a high level of
dominance motivates consumers to overcome indecision and actively engage in purchasing.
Therefore, we propose:
H4-f: Dominance has a positive effect on purchase intention.

2.7.5. Self – control

Self-control is defined as an individual’s psychological capacity to regulate thoughts,
emotions, and behaviors, enabling them to resist short-term temptations in favor of long-term
goals
(Tangney, Baumeister and Boone, 2004; Baumeister, Vohs and Tice, 2007; Haws, Bearden and Nenkov, 2
In the context of gamified experiences where emotional and cognitive
stimulation is prevalent self-control plays a crucial role in shaping consumer responses.
Specifically, self-control represents a finite cognitive resource that determines whether a
consumer can suppress impulsive tendencies and engage in reflective evaluations when faced
with emotionally intense experiences such as excitement, immersion, or imaginative elaboration,
which often drive impulsive consumption
(Vohs and Faber, 2007; Roberts and Manolis, 2012; Moayery, Cantín and M
Prior literature has consistently found that individuals with
low self-control are more susceptible to emotional and contextual cues, and tend to act on
impulse, while those with high self-control retain cognitive capacity for rational evaluation and
behavioral inhibition (Muraven and Baumeister, 2000; Hagger et al., 2010) . Therefore, in
gamified contexts, self-control is expected to moderate the strength and direction of the
relationship between various gameful experience dimensions and purchase intention. Enjoyment
captures the sense of pleasure, satisfaction, and fun that consumers experience during
engagement with gamified applications (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018) . This emotionally
positive state has been shown to promote user engagement and increase purchase intention by
reinforcing intrinsic motivation (Miao et al., 2023) . The extent to which enjoyment influences
purchase intention may vary depending on consumers’ self-control, particularly their ability to
regulate impulsive emotional reactions during gamified interactions. Consumers with lower self-
control often struggle to regulate immediate emotional responses, making them more susceptible
to positive emotions such as enjoyment, thereby leading to impulsive actions like spontaneous
purchasing. This occurs due to limited self-regulatory capabilities, making it challenging for
these individuals to resist the desire to prolong positive feelings, and quickly translating these
emotions into stronger purchase intentions (Sultan, Joireman and Sprott, 2012) . However, ego-
depletion theory suggests that self-control is a limited resource
(Baumeister and Heatherton, 1996)
. Enjoyment, though pleasant, acts as a stimulus that can accelerate the depletion of this
resource especially among those already low in self-control. These consumers may lack the
cognitive ability to evaluate whether their behavior aligns with longer-term goals. In contrast,
consumers with higher self-control tend to manage positive emotional responses from gamified
experiences more effectively. They are better at delaying gratification and maintaining evaluative
processes, which buffer them from impulsive purchasing (Moayery, Cantín and Martíns, 2019).
Therefore, enjoyment is more likely to trigger impulsive buying in consumers with lower self-
control, while its impact on purchase intention is attenuated among those with higher self-control
who are able to regulate and reflect on their emotional responses. Based on the detailed
arguments above, the moderating hypothesis is explicitly proposed as follows:
 H5-a: Self-control moderates the relationship between enjoyment and purchase
intention.

Absorption characterizes a deep psychological immersion wherein consumers become fully

engaged and lose awareness of time and surroundings during their interaction with gamified
systems (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018) . Such immersive experiences, closely aligned with
the concept of "flow" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991), often generate a desire to extend or repeat the
experience, leading to heightened purchase intention (Miao et al., 2023) . While absorption
facilitates deep engagement, its influence on purchase intention is likely shaped by individual
differences in self-control, especially under conditions of reduced self-awareness and cognitive
resources. Specifically, individuals with low self-control who experience high absorption are
likely to face severe reductions in self-awareness and cognitive resources.
Muraven and Baumeister (2000)
argue that strong immersive states substantially deplete the limited cognitive
resources available for effective self-regulation, a phenomenon known as ego depletion.
Consequently, these individuals are more likely to resort to emotion-driven automaticity
(Vohs and Faber, 2007; Hedgcock, Vohs and Rao, 2012),
rapidly transforming immersive experiences
into immediate purchase intentions without deliberate evaluation of longer-term consequences.
In contrast, consumers with high self-control typically possess stronger capabilities to regulate
their attentional focus and maintain self-awareness even in highly immersive experiences.
Despite experiencing a deep state of absorption, their self-awareness remains relatively intact,
allowing them to continue critical evaluations and deliberate effectively about their actions
(Roberts and Manolis, 2012) . These consumers are less likely to immediately convert their
immersive states into impulsive purchase intentions, as they maintain the cognitive resources
necessary for aligning their behaviors with long-term objectives. Moreover,
Hoch and Loewenstein (1991)
highlighted self-control’s crucial role in determining whether consumers
retain sufficient rational awareness to resist impulsivity during narrowed attentional states, such
as high absorption. Therefore, absorption not only influences consumer behavior through
positive emotions but also impairs rational control mechanisms by constricting attentional scope
and diminishing self-awareness, particularly among those with low self-control. Thus, based on
the comprehensive arguments presented above, the following hypothesis is proposed clearly:
 H5-b: Self-control moderates the relationship between absorption and purchase
intention.

Creative thinking emerges within gamified experiences as a state wherein consumers

engage with products imaginatively and exploratively (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018) . It
stimulates curiosity, novelty-seeking, and envisioned benefits, often contributing to consumers’
intention to act on their imagined product experiences
(Mathwick, Malhotra and Rigdon, 2001; Miao et al., 2023)
. While creative elaboration can enhance product appeal, its effects on
purchase decisions are moderated by the consumer’s self-regulatory capacity. Consumers with
low self-control tend to easily succumb to appealing imaginative scenarios and creative ideas.
Due to limited cognitive and behavioral regulation, these individuals struggle to restrain vivid
fantasies regarding the product's potential value, rapidly converting creative thinking into
immediate purchase intentions. In this scenario, creative thinking intensively stimulates positive
yet unverified mental imagery, thereby heightening the likelihood of impulsive purchase
behavior (Rook and Fisher, 1995; Vohs and Faber, 2007). However, from the perspective of ego-
depletion theory, consumers with greater self-control can better allocate mental resources to
evaluate the feasibility and realism of creative ideas before acting on them
(Baumeister, Vohs and Tice, 2007).
These individuals are more capable of engaging in delayed decision-making and
reflective judgment. As a result, for high self-control consumers, creative thinking does not
directly and strongly translate into impulsive purchase intentions; instead, it initiates a
deliberative assessment process. Moayery, Cantín and Martíns (2019) corroborated that high
self-control individuals in digital settings were more resistant to imaginative cues and exhibited
lower susceptibility to impulsive triggers. Thus, while creative thinking may generate
spontaneous appeal for all consumers, its ability to influence purchase behavior is significantly
shaped by the level of self-control. Based on these logical and clearly articulated arguments,
hypothesis H5-c is formally proposed as follows:

H5-c: Self-control moderates the relationship between creative thinking and purchase
intention.

Prior literature has consistently found that individuals with low self-control are more
susceptible to emotional and contextual cues, and tend to act on impulse, while those with high
self-control retain cognitive capacity for rational evaluation and behavioral inhibition
(Muraven and Baumeister, 2000; Hagger et al., 2010).
Therefore, in gamified contexts, self-control is
expected to moderate the strength and direction of the relationship between various gameful
experience dimensions and purchase intention. Activation denotes a state of heightened arousal,
motivation, and energy often triggered by gamified design elements such as surprise, challenge,
or uncertainty (Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018) . This state can energize consumers to act
quickly and decisively, especially when paired with external stimuli like countdown timers or
randomized rewards. For consumers with low self-control, activation is particularly potent in
overriding deliberative processing and amplifying impulsive tendencies. According to ego-
depletion theory, intense stimulation consumes self-regulatory resources
(Baumeister and Heatherton, 1996)
, making low self-control individuals more prone to purchase impulsively
when they experience high activation. In emotionally charged environments such as blind box
mechanisms, the interplay between uncertainty and activation can rapidly exhaust their cognitive
reserves, resulting in swift, uncalculated purchase decisions (Roberts and Manolis, 2012). Such
individuals often find it difficult to pause or assess the utility and value of the product under
stimulation. Consumers with high self-control are better equipped to regulate their arousal and
maintain reflective evaluation even under conditions of high activation. As noted in the original
argument, they are more likely to slow down, reassess the purpose of the purchase, and consider
its alignment with long-term goals. This ability to engage in higher-order reasoning is reinforced
by their capacity to preserve cognitive resources and employ strategies that buffer external
stimuli (Moayery, Cantín and Martíns, 2019) . Thus, the influence of activation on impulsive
purchasing is expected to be particularly pronounced for those with lower self-control, whereas it
is moderated or dampened among those with higher self-control. Therefore, while activation may
directly increase purchase intentions, the extent of this influence is expected to be moderated by
self-control. Low-self-control individuals may exhibit an exaggerated response to arousal,
whereas high-self-control individuals remain anchored in reflection and control. Based on these
theoretical arguments, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H5-d: Self-control moderates the relationship between activation and purchase

intention.
 The absence of negative affect refers to a psychologically comfortable state in which
consumers feel free from irritation, stress, or frustration during a gamified experience
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018).
While often overlooked, this emotional stability can play a key role in
determining whether consumers are willing to remain engaged or proceed with a purchase.
Emotional discomfort can quickly deplete psychological resources, particularly for individuals
with low self-control. Baumeister, Vohs and Tice (2007) emphasize that negative emotions, even
in subtle forms, consume self-regulatory resources. Consumers with low self-control, who
already possess limited regulatory capacity, are more vulnerable to the draining effects of
discomfort. As a result, the absence of negative affect becomes a necessary condition for
maintaining their engagement and purchasing motivation. When emotional friction is low, these
individuals are less likely to experience disruption in their decision-making flow. This builds
upon the earlier argument by emphasizing the psychological mechanism behind this sensitivity:
for low-self-control individuals, emotional discomfort however mild can trigger disproportionate
reactions such as avoidance, disengagement, or rejection of the purchase context altogether. On
the other hand, emotional ease facilitates uninterrupted engagement and makes the consumption
process feel safer and more intuitive, especially when cognitive resources are already scarce.
High self-control individuals, in contrast, can tolerate mild negative emotions without substantial
interference in their judgment processes. Their regulatory capacity enables them to process
decisions based on goals, needs, or value propositions rather than transient emotional states. As
such, emotional comfort becomes a significant predictor of purchase intention only for
consumers with lower self-control, while those with higher self-control remain relatively
unaffected. Thus, based on the detailed theoretical reasoning above, hypothesis H5-e is
formulated as follows:

H5-e: Self-control moderates the relationship between absence of negative affect and
purchase intention

Dominance, as a gameful experience outcome, reflects the consumer’s perceived sense of

power, control, and autonomy while interacting with a gamified environment
(Eppmann, Bekk and Klein, 2018)
. This sense of empowerment can increase confidence and reduce hesitation,
thereby facilitating purchase decisions. However, for consumers with low self-control, perceived
dominance may foster overconfidence and impulsivity rather than reflective decision-making.
According to Roberts and Manolis (2012), low-self-control individuals tend to misinterpret
temporary psychological states, such as dominance, as justifications for immediate gratification.
Vohs and Faber (2007) further suggest that heightened feelings of control can remove internal
brakes, allowing consumers to justify impulsive actions. In this context, dominance functions
less as a rational empowerment and more as an affective accelerant of impulsivity among those
with weak self-regulatory capacity. This interpretation aligns with the ego-depletion perspective:
under stimulation, individuals with limited cognitive control may interpret empowerment as
permission for reward-seeking behavior, especially in hedonic environments like gamified retail.
Thus, dominance interacts with a depleted self-regulatory system to intensify impulsive purchase
intentions. This logic complements the original argument while grounding it more explicitly in
resource theory. High self-control individuals, in contrast, process dominance differently. Rather
than viewing the sense of control as a cue for action, they evaluate whether their decisions align
with broader goals. Tangney, Baumeister and Boone (2004) note that high self-control
consumers demonstrate metacognitive strategies such as reassessing perceived control, delaying
action, and evaluating consequences. Thus, even when feeling dominant, these individuals
remain measured in their behavioral responses. Moayery, Cantín and Martíns (2019) also
highlight that dominance enhances impulsive buying among consumers with poor regulation
skills. Conversely, in individuals with stronger self-control, dominance may increase
engagement or confidence but does not necessarily translate into unregulated consumption. This
nuanced role of dominance, contingent on self-regulatory capacity, underscores the importance
of understanding how psychological empowerment is interpreted and acted upon by different
consumer segments. Based on these arguments, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H5-f: Self-control moderates the relationship between dominance and purchase

intention.