In this chapter, we shall discuss in detail some particular forces such as the weight (gravitational
force), normal, tension and friction.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
4.2.1 Weight (𝑾
When an object is dropped, it accelerates toward the center of Earth. Newton’s second law states
that a net force on an object is responsible for its acceleration. If air resistance is negligible, the
net force on a falling object is the gravitational force, commonly called its weight. The magnitude
of weight is denoted as W. Galileo was instrumental in showing that, in the absence of air
resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration 𝑔. This force is directed toward the center of
the Earth and is primarily due to an attraction between the body and the Earth. Mathematically, it
is given by:
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
where 𝑚 is the mass of the body, and 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
When the net external force on an object is its weight, we say that it is in free-fall. That is, the
only force acting on the object is the force of gravity. In the real world, when objects fall downward
toward Earth, they are never truly in free-fall because there is always some upward force from the
air acting on the object.
The acceleration due to gravity g varies slightly over the surface of Earth, so that the weight of an
object depends on location and is not an intrinsic property of the object.
⃗⃗ )
4.2.2 Normal force (𝑵
Weight (also called force of gravity) is a pervasive force that acts at all times and must be
counteracted to keep an object from falling. You definitely notice that you must support the weight
of a heavy object by pushing up on it when you hold it stationary. Consider a block of weight 𝑊 ⃗⃗⃗
placed on a table as shown in figure 4.3. When this block rests a table, the table exerts an upward
force (reaction), called Normal force (𝑵 ⃗⃗ ). The normal force prevents the block from falling
through the table, and can have any value up to the point of breaking the table.
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⃗ perpendicular to the table
Figure 4.3 A block resting on a table experiences a normal force 𝑁
Therefore, we conclude that
⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑁
𝑊 ⃗
and
⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝑁
|𝑊 ⃗|
We must conclude that whatever supports a load, be it animate or not, must supply an upward force
equal to the weight of the load. If the force supporting a load is perpendicular to the surface of
contact between the load and its support, this force is defined to be a normal force and here is
given the symbol N. (This is not the unit for force N.) The word normal means perpendicular to a
surface. The normal force is thoroughly defined as the force that a surface applies to an object to
support the weight of the object; acts perpendicular to the surface on which the object rests. The
normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another stable
object. On occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects that are in contact
with each other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes horizontally on the
person.
⃗)
4.2.3 Tension (𝑻
When a rope (or a cord, cable, etc) is attached to a body and pulled, the rope is said to be in tension.
The rope’s function is to transfer force between two bodies. A tension is a force along the length
of a medium, especially a force carried by a flexible medium, such as a rope or cable. The word
“tension” comes from a Latin word meaning “to stretch.” Any flexible connector, such as a string,
rope, chain, wire, or cable, can exert pulls only parallel to its length; thus, a force carried by a
flexible connector is a tension with direction parallel to the connector. It is important to understand
that tension is a pull in a connector. In contrast, consider the phrase: “You can’t push a rope.” The
tension force pulls outward along the two ends of a rope. This force is denoted usually by the
symbol 𝑇, see figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 When a rope is under the tension, it pulls the block and the hand with a force of
magnitude T
⃗)
4.2.4 Friction (𝒇
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Friction is a force that is around us all the time that opposes relative motion between systems in
contact but also allows us to move (which you have discovered if you have ever tried to walk on
ice). While a common force, the behavior of friction is actually very complicated and is still not
completely understood.
If we slide or try to slide a body over a surface the motion is resisted by a bonding between the
body and the surface. This resistance is represented by a single force and is called friction. Friction
opposes the relative sliding motion of two surfaces in contact with one another. One of the simpler
characteristics of friction is that it is parallel to the contact surface between systems and always in
a direction that opposes motion or attempted motion of the systems relative to each other. There
are normally two types of friction: Static friction and kinetic friction.
(a) Laws of friction
There are five laws of friction and they are:
• The friction of the moving object is directly proportional and perpendicular to the normal force
𝑓∝ 𝑁
𝑓 = 𝑘𝑁
where 𝑘 is the proportionality constant which is called the coefficient of friction
which is denoted by 𝜇. Then:
𝑓= 𝜇𝑁
• The friction experienced by the object is dependent on the nature of the surface it is in contact
with.
• Friction is independent of the area of contact as long as there is an area of contact.
• Kinetic friction is independent of velocity.
• The coefficient of static friction is greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction.
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒔 )
(b) Static friction (𝒇
Static friction is a force that opposes the motion of two systems that are in contact and are not
moving relative to one another. In other words, it is the force of friction between two surfaces,
before relative motion actually starts. Its magnitude is always equal to the external force which
tends to cause relative motion. As the external force which tries to produce relative motion
increases, the force of friction also increases, till relative motion just starts.
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Figure 4.5 The block resting on the horizontal table. The forces acting on the bock are weight,
normal, applied force and static friction
When there is no motion between the objects, the magnitude of static friction fs is fs ≤ μsN,
where μs is the coefficient of static friction and N is the magnitude of the normal force (the force
perpendicular to the surface). Static friction is a responsive force that increases to be equal and
opposite to whatever force is exerted, up to its maximum limit. Once the applied force
exceeds fs(max), the object will move. Thus fs(max) = μsN.
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒌 )
(c) Kinetic friction (𝒇
If two systems are in contact and moving relative to one another, then the friction between them
is called kinetic friction. For example, friction slows a hockey puck sliding on ice.
Figure 4.6 The block moving on the horizontal table. The forces acting on the bock are weight,
normal, applied force and kinetic friction
Once an object is moving, the magnitude of kinetic friction fk is given by fk = μkN, where μk is the
coefficient of kinetic friction. A system in which fk = μkN is described as a system in which friction
behaves simply.
(d) Graph between applied force and force of friction
Figure 4.7 shows the graph of the variation of the force of friction with the applied force.
Figure 4.7 The graph of the variation of the force of friction with the applied force
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