Holy Cross College

Sta. Ana, Pampanga

COLLEGE OF ARTS, SCIENCES AND EDUCATION

Module
in
General and Inorganic Chemistry

Mr. June P. Sotto

Instructor, College of Arts, Sciences and Education
 INTRODUCTION

This module is divided into three (3) sections, which are further subdivided
into modules. The first section deals with introduction to Chemistry & the Nature
of Science, structure of the atom, organization of the elements, and describing
compounds. The second section deals with measurement and about moles,
mixtures and describing chemical reactions. And the last section covers about
describing acids and bases, energy of chemical changes and gases.

For you to have a full grasp of important concepts in general and

inorganic chemistry, each module has been designed to include a list of
learning objectives, a lesson proper, review questions, and progress check for
you to accomplish. Some modules also include links to website and lists of
additional references to extend your knowledge of the topics discussed in each
lesson.

Further, this instructional module gives you an opportunity to

exercise the virtue of respect for others, patience, charity, and open
mindedness as you read ideas and principles that may be different from your
own.

Have fun exploring the fascinating world of chemistry, and may the
modules help you realize your plans of having a career in the dynamic world of
Science and Technology.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The preparation of this module required the efforts of many individuals in

addition to the writer.

My deepest gratitude to our College President, Atty. Dennis C. Pangan,

and of course to Dr. Leticia D. Flores, our Executive Vice-President who
encouraged and trusted me to do this task.

I would like to extend my special appreciation and thanks for the effort of
Mr. Albert Datu and Mr. Rendel Batchar who shared their expertise, gave
valuable insights, and for sharing their materials.

I also dedicate this to my family who always served as my inspiration.

Finally, to the ALMIGHTY CREATOR, who endowed me the gift of

knowledge and wisdom, graces, strength, perseverance, faith and
unconditional love to finish this undertaking.

June P. Sotto

Module writer

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT……………………………………………………………….…iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………………....…iv

Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry & the Nature of Science ....................1

1.1: The Process of Science ...............................................................................1

1.2: Hypothesis, Law, & Theory...........................................................................8

1.3: Graphing......................................................................................................12

Module 2: The Structure of the Atom...............................................................18

2.1: Early Ideas of Atoms....................................................................................18

2.2: Further Understanding of the Atom...........................................................22

2.3: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms…............................................28

2.4: Atomic Mass.................................................................................................35

2.5: Atoms and Electromagnetic Spectra…....................................................36

2.6: Electron Arrangement in Atoms.................................................................40

Module 3: The Organization of the Elements...................................................45

3.1: Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.......................................................................45

3.2: Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids...........................................................48

3.3: Valence Electrons........................................................................................50

3.4: Families and Periods of the Periodic Table...............................................51

3.5: Periodic Trends.............................................................................................53

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Module 4: Describing Compounds..................................................................58

4.1: Introduction to Compounds......................................................................59

4.2: Types of Compounds and Their Properties..............................................62

4.3: Names and Charges of Ions......................................................................66

4.4: Writing Ionic Formulas.................................................................................70

4.5: Naming Ionic Compounds........................................................................73

4.6: Covalent Compounds & Lewis Structures...............................................76

4.7: Molecular Geometry..................................................................................80

4.8: Polarity & Hydrogen Bonding ...................................................................83

Module 5: Problem Solving & the Mole..........................................................90

5.1: Measurement Systems...............................................................................90

5.2: Scientific Notation......................................................................................95

5.3: Math in Chemistry......................................................................................97

5.4: The Mole.....................................................................................................100

Module 6: Mixtures & Their Properties............................................................104

6.1: Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions ......................................................104

6.2: Solution Formation ...................................................................................108

6.3: Concentration….......................................................................................111

6.4: Colligative Properties ...............................................................................114

Module 7: Describing Chemical Reactions................................................120

7.1: Chemical & Physical Change...............................................................120

7.2: Reaction Rate.........................................................................................123

7.3: Chemical Reactions and Equations.....................................................132

7.4: Balancing Chemical Equations ............................................................136

7.5: Types of Reactions..................................................................................140

7.6: Stoichiometry ..........................................................................................147

Module 8: Describing Acids & Bases ..........................................................153

8.1: Classifying Acids and Bases..................................................................153

8.2: pH.............................................................................................................156

8.3: Neutralization..........................................................................................160

Module 9: Energy of Chemical Changes ..................................................162

9.1: Energy .....................................................................................................162

9.2: Endothermic and Exothermic Changes..............................................164

9.3: Oxidation – Reduction ..........................................................................167

Chapter 10: Gases ........................................................................................170

10.1: Gases and Kinetic Theory....................................................................170

10.2: Gas Laws................................................................................................174

10.3: Ideal Gas Law…………………………....................................................179

REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………..…181

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MODULE 1: Introduction to Chemistry & the Nature of Science
At the end of this module:

1. I can distinguish between observable (qualitative) and numeric (quantitative) data;

2. I can construct and analyze data tables and graphs;
3. I can identify independent, dependent, and controlled variables in an experiment
description, data table or graph; and
4. I can write a laboratory summary in a Claim-Evidence Format

Lesson 1.1: The Process of Science

Introduction

Socrates (469 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Plato (427

B.C. - 347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384 B.C. - 322
B.C.) are among the most famous of the Greek
philosophers. Plato was a student of Socrates,
and Aristotle was a student of Plato. These
three were probably the greatest thinkers of
their time. Aristotle's views on physical science
profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and
his influence extended into the Renaissance
(14th century - 16th century). Aristotle's opinions
were the authority on nature until well into the
1300s. Unfortunately, many of Aristotle's opinions
were wrong. It is not intended here to denigrate
Aristotle's intelligence; he was without doubt a
brilliant man. It was simply that he was using a
method for determining the nature of the physical world that is inadequate for that
task. The philosopher's method was logical thinking, not making observations on the
natural world. This led to many errors in Aristotle's thinking on nature. Let's consider two
of Aristotle's opinions as examples.

In Aristotle's opinion, men were bigger and stronger than women; therefore, it
was logical to him that men would have more teeth than women. Thus, Aristotle
concluded it was a true fact that men had more teeth than women. Apparently, it
never entered his mind to actually look into the mouths of both genders and count their
teeth. Had he done so, he would have found that men and women have exactly the
same number of teeth.

In terms of physical science, Aristotle thought about dropping two balls of

exactly the same size and shape but of different masses to see which one would strike

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the ground first. In his mind, it was clear that the heavier ball would fall faster than the
lighter one and he concluded that this was a law of nature. Once again, he did not
consider doing an experiment to see which ball fell faster. It was logical to him, and in
fact, it still seems logical. If someone told you that the heavier ball would fall faster, you
would have no reason to disbelieve it. In fact, it is not true and the best way to prove
this is to try it.

Eighteen centuries later, Galileo decided to actually get two balls of different
masses, but with the same size and shape, and drop them off a building (Legend says
the Leaning Tower of Pisa), and actually see which one hit the ground first. When
Galileo actually did the experiment, he discovered, by observation, that the two balls
hit the ground at exactly the same time . . . Aristotle's opinion was, once again, wrong.

Scientific Methods of Problem Solving

In the 16th and 17th centuries, innovative thinkers were developing a new way to
discover the nature of the world around them. They were developing a method that
relied upon making observations of phenomena and insisting that their explanations of
the nature of the phenomena corresponded to the observations they made.

The scientific method is a method of investigation involving experimentation and

observation to acquire new knowledge, solve problems, and answer questions.
Scientists frequently list the scientific method as a series of steps. Other scientists oppose
this listing of steps because not all steps occur in every case, and sometimes the steps
are out of order. The scientific method is listed in a series of steps here because it makes
it easier to study. You should remember that not all steps occur in every case, nor do
they always occur in order.

The Steps in the Scientific Method

Step 1: Identify the problem or phenomenon that needs explaining. This is sometimes
referred to as "defining the problem."

Step 2: Gather and organize data on the problem. This step is also known as "making
observations."

Step 3: Suggest a possible solution or explanation. A suggested solution is called a

hypothesis.

Step 4: Test the hypothesis by making new observations.

Step 5: If the new observations support the hypothesis, you accept the hypothesis for
further testing. If the new observations do not agree with your hypothesis, add
the new observations to your observation list and return to Step 3.

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Experimentation

Experimentation is the primary way through which science gathers evidence for
ideas. It is more successful for us to cause something to happen at a time and place of
our choosing. When we arrange for the phenomenon to occur at our convenience, we
can have all our measuring instruments present and handy to help us make
observations, and we can control other variables. Experimentation involves causing a
phenomenon to occur when and where we want it and under the conditions we want.
An experiment is a controlled method of testing an idea or to find patterns. When
scientists conduct experiments, they are usually seeking new information or trying to
verify someone else's data.

Experimentation involves changing and looking at many variables. The

independent variable is the part of the experiment that is being changed or
manipulated. There can only be one independent variable in any experiment.
Consider, for example, that you were trying to determine the best fertilizer for your
plants. It would be important for you to grow your plants with everything else about how
they are grown being the same except for the fertilizer you were using. You would be
changing the type of fertilizer you gave the plants and this would be the independent
variable. If you also changed how much water the plants received, the type of plants
you were growing, and some of the plants were grown inside and others outside, you
could not determine whether or not it was actually the fertilizer that caused the plants
to grow better or if it was something else you had changed. This is why it is important
that there is only one independent variable.

The dependent variable is what is observed or measured as a result of what

happened when the independent variable was changed. In the plant experiment
described above, you might measure the height of the plant and record their
appearance and color. These would be the dependent variables. The dependent
variable is also sometimes called the resultant variable.

Controlled variables are conditions of the experiment that are kept the same for
various trials of the experiment. Once again, if we were testing how fertilizer affected
how well our plants grew, we would want everything else about how the plants are
grown to be kept the same. We would need to use the same type of plant (maybe
green beans), give them the same amount of water, plant them in the same location
(all outside in the garden), give them all the same pesticide treatment, etc. These
would be controlled variables.

Suppose a scientist, while walking along the beach on a very cold day following
a rainstorm, observed two pools of water in bowl shaped rocks near each other. One of
the pools was partially covered with ice, while the other pool had no ice on it. The

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unfrozen pool seemed to be formed from seawater splashing up on the rock from the
surf, but the other pool was too high for seawater to splash in, so it was more likely to
have been formed from rainwater.

The scientist wondered why one pool was partially frozen and not the other,
since both pools were at the same temperature. By tasting the water (not a good idea),
the scientist determined that the unfrozen pool tasted saltier than the partially frozen
one. The scientist thought perhaps salt water had a lower freezing point than fresh
water, and she decided to go home and try an experiment to see if this were true. So
far, the scientist has identified a question, gathered a small amount of data, and
suggested an explanation. In order to test this hypothesis, the scientist will conduct an
experiment during which she can make accurate observations.

For the experiment, the scientist prepared two

identical containers of fresh water and added some
salt to one of them. A thermometer was placed in each
liquid and these were put in a freezer. The scientist then
observed the conditions and temperatures of the two
liquids at regular intervals.

The scientist found support for the hypothesis from this experiment; fresh water
freezes at a higher temperature than salt water. Much more support would be needed
before the scientist would be confident of this hypothesis. Perhaps she would ask other
scientists to verify the work.

In the scientist's experiment, it was necessary that she freeze the salt water and
fresh water under exactly the same conditions. Why? The scientist was testing whether
or not the presence of salt in water would alter its freezing point. It is known that
changing air pressure will alter the freezing point of water, so this and other variables
must be kept the same, or they must be controlled variables.

Example: In the experiment described above, identify the:

a) independent variable(s)
b) dependent variable(s)
c) controlled variable(s)

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Solution:
a) Remember, the independent variable is what the scientist changed in his/her
experiment. In this case, the scientist added salt to one container and not to another
container. The independent variable is whether or not salt was added.
b) Dependent variables are what we look for as a result of the change we made. The
scientist recorded the temperature and physical state (liquid or solid) over time. These
are the dependent variables.
c) Controlled variables are kept the same throughout all of the trials. The scientist
selected identical containers, put the same amount of water in the containers, and
froze them in the same conditions in the same freezer. These are all controlled variables.

Suppose you wish to determine which brand of microwave popcorn

(independent variable) leaves the fewest unpopped kernels (dependent variable). You
will need a supply of various brands of microwave popcorn to test and you will need a
microwave oven. If you used different brands of microwave ovens with different brands
of popcorn, the percentage of unpopped kernels could be caused by the different
brands of popcorn, but it could also be caused by the different brands of ovens. Under
such circumstances, the experimenter would not be able to conclude confidently
whether the popcorn or the oven caused the difference. To eliminate this problem, you
must use the same microwave oven for every test. By using the same microwave oven,
you control many of the variables in the experiment. What if you allowed the different
samples of popcorn to be cooked at different temperatures? What if you allowed
longer heating periods? In order to reasonably conclude that the change in one
variable was caused by the change in another specific variable, there must be no
other variables in the experiment. All other variables must be kept constant or
controlled.

When stating the purpose of an experiment, it is important to clarify the

independent and dependent variables. The purpose is frequently stated in a sentence
such as: “To see how changing _____________ affects ____________.”in which the
independent variable is listed in the first blank, and the dependent variable is listed in
the second blank.

In the popcorn experiment, we would state the purpose as: ―To see how
changing the brand of popcorn affects the percentage of unpopped kernels‖. The
independent variable is the brand of popcorn and the dependent variable is what
percentage of the popcorn didn’t pop. In the salt water experiment described earlier,
we would state the purpose as ―To see how adding salt to water affects the
temperature the water freezes.‖

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links

 [Link] The [Link] website allows users to

view streaming videos of the Annenberg series of chemistry videos. You are
required to register before you can watch the videos but there is no charge. The
website has two videos that apply to this lesson. One is a video called The World of
Chemistry that relates chemistry to other sciences and daily life. Another video
called Thinking Like Scientists relates to the scientific method. The audience on
the video is young children but the ideas are full grown.

 Website of the James Randi Foundation. James Randi is a staunch opponent of

fake science. [Link]

 Websites dealing with the history of the scientific method.

[Link]

[Link]

1.1: Review Questions

 Use the following paragraphs to answer questions 1-4:

Gary noticed that two plants which his mother planted on the same day that
were the same size when planted were different in size after three weeks. Since the
larger plant was in the full sun all day and the smaller plant was in the shade of a tree
most of the day, Gary believed the sunshine was responsible for the difference in the
plant sizes. In order to test this, Gary bought ten small plants of the same size and type.
He made sure they had the same size and type of pot. He also made sure they have
the same amount and type of soil. Then Gary built a frame to hold a canvas roof over
five of the plants while the other five were nearby but out in the sun. Gary was careful
to make sure that each plant received exactly the same amount of water and plant
food every day.

1) What scientific reason might Gary have for insisting that the container size for the all
plants be the same?

a) Gary wanted to determine if the size of the container would affect the plant growth.
b) Gary wanted to make sure the size of the container did not affect plant growth in his
experiment.
c) Gary wanted to control how much plant food his plants received.
d) Gary wanted his garden to look organized.
e) There is no possible scientific reason for having the same size containers.

2) What scientific reason might Gary have for insisting that all plants receive the same
amount of water every day?

a) Gary wanted to test the effect of shade on plant growth and therefore, he wanted
to have no variables other than the amount of sunshine on the plants.

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b) Gary wanted to test the effect of the amount of water on plant growth.
c) Gary's hypothesis was that water quality was affecting plant growth.
d) Gary was conserving water.
e) There is no possible scientific reason for having the same amount of water for each
plant every day.

3) What was the variable being tested in Gary's experiment (what is the independent
variable)?

a) The amount of water

b) The amount of plant food
c) The amount of soil
d) The amount of sunshine
e) The type of soil

4) Which of the following factors may be varying in Gary's experimental setup that he
did not control?

a) Individual plant variation

b) Soil temperature due to different colors of containers
c) Water loss due to evaporation from the soil
d) The effect of insects which may attack one set of plants but not the other

5) A student decides to set up an experiment to determine the relationship between

the growth rate of plants and the presence of detergent in the soil. He sets up 10 seed
pots. In five of the seed pots, he mixes a precise amount of detergent with the soil. The
other five seed pots have no detergent in the soil. The five seed pots with detergent are
placed in the sun and the five seed pots with no detergent are placed in the shade. All
10 seed pots receive the same amount of water and the same number and type of
seeds. He grows the plants for two months and charts the growth every two days. What
is wrong with his experiment?

a) The student has too few pots.

b) The student has two independent variables.
c) The student has two dependent (resultant) variables.
d) The student has no experimental control on the soil.

A scientist plants two rows of corn for experimentation. She puts fertilizer on row 1 but
does not put fertilizer on row 2. Both rows receive the same amount of sun and water.
She checks the growth of the corn over the course of five months.

6) What is the independent variable in this experiment?

7) What is the dependent variable in this experiment?

8) What variables are controlled in this experiment?

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Lesson 1.2: Hypothesis, Law, & Theory

Introduction

Although all of us have taken science classes throughout the course of our study,
many people have incorrect or misleading ideas about some of the most important
and basic principles in science. We have all heard of hypotheses, theories, and laws,
but what do they really mean? Before you read this section, think about what you have
learned about these terms before. What do these terms mean to you? What do you
read contradicts what you thought? What do you read supports what you thought?

Hypotheses

One of the most common terms used in science classes is a ―hypothesis‖. The word can
have many different definitions, depending on the context in which it is being used:

 ―An educated guess‖ – because it provides a suggested solution based on the

evidence. Note that it isn’t just a random guess. It has to be based on evidence
to be a scientific hypothesis.

 Prediction – if you have ever carried out a science experiment, you probably
made this type of hypothesis, in which you predicted the outcome of your
experiment

 Tentative or Proposed explanation – hypotheses can be suggestions about why

something is observed, but in order for it to be scientific, we must be able to test
the explanation to see if it works, if it is able to correctly predict what will happen
in a situation, such as: if my hypothesis is correct, we should see ___ result when
we perform ___ test. A hypothesis is very tentative; it can be easily changed.

Theories

The United States National Academy of Sciences describes what a theory is as follows:

―Some scientific explanations are so well established that no new evidence is

likely to alter them. The explanation becomes a scientific theory. In everyday language
a theory means a hunch or speculation. Not so in science. In science, the word theory
refers to a comprehensive explanation of an important feature of nature supported by
facts gathered over time. Theories also allow scientists to make predictions about as yet
unobserved phenomena.‖

―A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the

natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through
observation and experimentation. Such fact-supported theories are not "guesses" but
reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological evolution is more than "just a

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theory." It is as factual an explanation of the universe as the atomic theory of matter
(stating that everything is made of atoms) or the germ theory of disease (which states
that many diseases are caused by germs). Our understanding of gravity is still a work in
progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact. ―

Note some key features of theories that are important to understand from this
description:

Theories are explanations of natural phenomenon. They aren’t predictions

(although we may use theories to make predictions). They are explanations why we
observe something.

 Theories aren’t likely to change. They have so much support and are able
to explain satisfactorily so many observations, that they are not likely to
change. Theories can, indeed, be facts. Theories can change, but it is a
long and difficult process. In order for a theory to change, there must be
many observations or evidence that the theory cannot explain.

 Theories are not guesses. The phrase ―just a theory‖ has no room in
science. To be a scientific theory carries a lot of weight; it is not just one
person’s idea about something.

Laws

Scientific laws are similar to scientific theories in that they are principles that can
be used to predict the behavior of the natural world. Both scientific laws and scientific
theories are typically well-supported by observations and/or experimental evidence.
Usually scientific laws refer to rules for how nature will behave under certain conditions,
frequently written as an equation. Scientific theories are more overarching explanations
of how nature works and why it exhibits certain characteristics. As a comparison,
theories explain why we observe what we do and laws describe what happens.

For example, around the year 1800, Jacques Charles and other scientists were
working with gases to, among other reasons, improve the design of the hot air balloon.
These scientists found, after many, many tests, that certain patterns existed in the
observations on gas behavior. If the temperature of the gas increased, the volume of
the gas increased. This is known as a natural law. A law is a relationship that exists
between variables in a group of data. Laws describe the patterns we see in large
amounts of data, but do describe why the patterns exist.

A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that

will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence has been
accumulated. A theory does not change into a scientific law with the accumulation of

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new or better evidence. Remember, theories are explanations and laws are patterns
we see in large amounts of data, frequently written as an equation. A theory will always
remain a theory; a law will always remain a law.

A model is a description, graphic, or 3-D representation of theory used to help

enhance understanding. Scientists often use models when they need a way to
communicate their understanding of what might be very small (such as an atom or
molecule) or very large (such as the universe). A model is any simulation, substitute, or
stand-in for what you are actually studying. A good model contains the essential
variables that you are concerned with in the real system, explains all the observations
on the real system, and is as simple as possible. A model may be as uncomplicated as a
sphere representing the earth or billiard balls representing gaseous molecules, or as
complex as mathematical equations representing light.

Chemists rely on both careful observation and well-known physical laws. By

putting all observations and laws together, chemists develop models. Models are really
just ways of predicting what will happen given a certain set of circumstances.
Sometimes these models are mathematical, but other times, they are purely descriptive.

If you were asked to determine the contents of a box that cannot be opened,
you would do a variety of experiments in order to develop an idea (or a model) of what
the box contains. You would probably shake the box, perhaps put magnets near it
and/or determine its mass. When you completed your experiments, you would develop
an idea of what is inside; that is, you would make a model of what is inside a box that
cannot be opened.

A good example of how a model is useful to scientists is how models were used
to explain the development of the atomic theory. As you will learn in a later chapter,
the idea of the concept of an atom changed over many years. In order to understand
each of the different theories of the atom according to the various scientists, models
were drawn, and the concepts were more easily understood.

Chemists make up models about what happens when different chemicals are
mixed together, or heated up, or cooled down, or compressed. Chemists invent these
models using many observations from experiments in the past, and they use these
models to predict what might happen during experiments in the future. Once chemists
have models that predict the outcome of experiments reasonably well, those working
models can help to tell them what they need to do to achieve a certain desired result.
That result might be the production of an especially strong plastic, or it might be the
detection of a toxin when it’s present in your food.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

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[Link]
[Link]
Video on Demand – Modeling the Unseen
([Link]

1.2: Review Questions

Multiple Choice:

1) A number of people became ill after eating oysters in a restaurant. Which of the
following statements is a hypothesis about this occurrence?

a) Everyone who ate oysters got sick.

b) People got sick whether the oysters they ate were raw or cooked.
c) Symptoms included nausea and dizziness.
d) Bacteria in the oysters may have caused the illness.

2) If the hypothesis is rejected (proved wrong) by the experiment, then:

a) The experiment may have been a success.

b) The experiment was a failure.
c) The experiment was poorly designed.
d) The experiment didn't follow the scientific method.

3) A hypothesis is:

a) A description of a consistent pattern in observations.

b) An observation that remains constant.
c) A theory that has been proven.
d) A tentative explanation for a phenomenon.

4) A scientific law is:

a) A description of a consistent pattern in observations.

b) An observation that remains constant.
c) A theory that has been proven.
d) A tentative explanation for a phenomenon.
5) A well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world is a:

a) Theory.
b) Law.
c) Hypothesis.
d) None of these.
6) Which of the following words is closest to the same meaning as hypothesis?

a) Fact
b) Law
c) Formula
d) Suggestion
e) Conclusion

7) Why do scientists sometimes discard theories?

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a) The steps in the scientific method were not followed in order.
b) Public opinion disagrees with the theory.
c) The theory is opposed by the church.
d) Contradictory observations are found.

8) True/False: When a theory has been known for a long time, it becomes a law.

Lesson 1.3: Graphing

Introduction

Scientists search for regularities and

trends in data. Two common methods of
presenting data that aid in the search for
regularities and trends are tables and
graphs. The table below presents data
about the pressure and volume of a
sample of gas. You should note that all
tables have a title and include the units of
the measurements.

You may note a regularity that

appears in this table; as the volume of the
gas decreases (gets smaller), its pressure
increases (gets bigger). This regularity or
trend becomes even more apparent in a
graph of this data. A graph is a pictorial
representation of patterns using a
coordinate system. When the data from
the table is plotted as a graph, the trend in
the relationship between the pressure and
volume of a gas sample becomes more apparent. The graph gives the scientist
information to aid in the search for the exact regularity that exists in these data.

When scientists record their results in a data table, the independent variable is
put in the first column(s), the dependent variable is recorded in the last column(s) and
the controlled variables are typically not included at all. Note in the data table that the
first column is labeled ―Volume (in liters)‖ and that the second column is labeled
―Pressure (in atm). That indicates that the volume was being changed (the
independent variable) to see how it affected the pressure (dependent variable).

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 In a graph, the independent variable is recorded along the x-axis (horizontal axis)
or as part of a key for the graph, the dependent variable is recorded along the y-axis
(vertical axis), and the controlled variables are not included at all. Note in the data
table that the X-axis is labeled ―Volume (liters)‖ and that the Y-axis is labeled ―Pressure
(atm). That indicates that the volume was being changed (the independent variable)
to see how it affected the pressure (dependent variable).

Drawing Line Graphs

Reading information from a line graph is easier and more accurate as the size of
thegraph increases. In the two graphs shown below, the first graph uses only a small
fraction of the space available on the graph paper. The second graph uses all the
space available for the same graph. If you were attempting to determine the pressure
at a temperature of 260 K, using the graph on the left would give a less accurate result
than using the graph on the right.

When you draw a line graph, you

should arrange the numbers on the axis to use
as much of the graph paper as you can. If
the lowest temperature in your data is 100 K
and the highest temperature in your data is
160 K, you should arrange for 100 K to be on
the extreme left of your graph and 160 K to
be on the extreme right of your graph. The
creator of the graph on the left did not take
this advice and did not produce a very good
graph. You should also make sure that the
axes on your graph are labelled and that
your graph has a title.

When constructing a graph, there are

some general principles to keep in mind:

 Take up as much of the graph paper as possible. The lowest x-value should be on
the far left of the paper and the highest x-value should be on the far right side of
the paper. Your lowest y-value should be near the bottom of the graph and the
highest y-value near the top. Choose your scale to allow you to do this. You do
not need to start counting at zero.
 Count your x- and y-scales by consistent amounts. If you start counting your x-axis
where every box counts as 2-units, you must count that way the course of the
entire axis. Your y-axis may count by a different scale (maybe every box counts
as 5 instead), but you must count the entire y-axis by that scale.

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  Both of your axes should be labelled, including units. What was measured along
that axis and what unit was it measured in?
 For X-Y scatter plots, draw a best-fit-line or curve that fits your data, instead of
connecting the dots. You want a line that shows the overall trend in the data,
but might not hit exactly all of your data points. What is the overall pattern in the
data?

Reading Information from a Graph

When we draw a line graph from a set of data points, we are creating data
points between known data points. This process is called interpolation. Even though we
may have four actual data points that were measured, we assume the relationship that
exists between the quantities at the actual data points also exists at all the points on the
line graph between the actual data points. Consider the following set of data for the
solubility of KClO3 in water.

The table shows that there are exactly six known data points. When the data is
graphed, however, the graph maker assumes that the relationship between the
temperature and the solubility remains the same. The line is drawn by interpolating the
data points between the actual data points.

We can now reasonably certainly read data from the graph for points that were
not actually measured. If we wish to determine
the solubility of KClO3 at 70°C, we follow the
vertical grid line for 70°C up to where it touches
the graphed line and then follow the horizontal
grid line to the axis to read the solubility. In this
case, we would read the solubility to be 30.
g/100 mL of H2O at 70°C.

There are also occasions when scientists

wish to determine data points from a graph
that are not between actual data points but are beyond the ends of the actual data
points. Creating data points beyond the end of the graph line, using the basic shape of
the curve as a guide is called extrapolation.

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 Suppose the graph for the solubility of potassium chlorate has been made from
just three actual data points. If the actual data points for the curve were the solubility at
60°C, 80°C, and 100°C, the graph would be the solid line shown on the graph above. If
the solubility at 30°C was desired, we could extrapolate (the dotted line) from the
graph and suggest the solubility to be 5.0 g/100 mL of H2O. If we check on the more
complete graph above, you can see that the solubility at 30°C is close to 10 g/100 mL
of H2O. The reason the second graph produces such a poor answer is that the
relationship that appears in the less complete graph does not hold beyond the ends of
the graph. For this reason, extrapolation is only acceptable for graphs where there is
evidence that the relationship shown in the graph will be true beyond the ends of the
graph. Extrapolation is more dangerous that interpolation in terms of possibly producing
incorrect data. In situations in which both the independent and dependent variables
are measured or counted quantities, an X-Y scatter plot is the most useful and
appropriate type of graph. A line graph cannot be used for independent variables that
are groups of data, or non-measured data. In these situations in which groups of data,
rather than exact measurements, were recorded as the independent variable, a bar
graph can typically be used. Consider the data in the following table.

For this data, a bar graph is more appropriate because independent variable is
a group, not a measurement (for example, everything that happened in 1980). The
concept of the average yearly rainfall halfway between the years 1980 and 1981 does
not make sense, so a line graph doesn't work. Additionally, each year represents a
group that we are looking at, and not a measured quantity. A bar graph is better suited
for this type of data. From this bar graph, you could very quickly answer questions like,
―Which year was most likely a drought year for Trout Creek?‖, and ―Which year was
Trout Creek most likely to have suffered from a flood?‖

Finding the Slope of a Graph

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 As you may recall from algebra, the slope of the line may be determined from
the graph. The slope represents the rate at which one variable is changing with respect
to the other variable. For a straight-line graph, the slope is constant for the entire line
but for a non-linear graph, the slope is different at different points along the line. For a
straight-line graph, the slope for all points along the line can be determined from any
section of the graph. For a non-linear graph, the must be determined for each point
from data at that point. Consider the given data table and the linear graph that
follows.

The relationship in this set of data is linear, that is, it produces a straight-line
graph. The slope of this line is constant at all points on the line. The slope of a line is
defined as the rise (change in vertical position) divided by the run (change in horizontal
position).

Frequently in science, all of our data points do not fall exactly on a line. In this
situation, we draw a best fit line, or a line that goes as close to all of our points as
possible. When finding the slope, it is important to use two points that are on the best fit
line itself, instead of our measured data points which may not be on our best fit line. For
a pair of points on the line, the coordinates of the points are identified as (x1, y1) and
(x2, y2). In this case, the points selected are (260, 1.3) and (180, 0.9). The slope can then
be calculated in the manner:

Therefore, the slope of the line is 0.005 atm/K. The fact that the slope is positive
indicates that the line is rising as it moves from left to right and that the pressure
increases by 0.005 atm for each 1 Kelvin increase in temperature. A negative slope
would indicate that the line was falling as it moves from left to right.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

Use the following link to create both x-y and bar graphs:
[Link]
These websites offer more tips on graphing and interpreting data:
[Link] and
[Link]

1.3: Review Questions

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1) On a data table, where is the independent variable typically listed? What about the
dependent variable?
2) On a graph, how do you identify the independent variable and dependent
variable?
3) Andrew was completing his density lab for
his chemistry lab exam. He collected the given
data for volume and mass.
a) Identify the independent and dependent
variables in this experiment.
b) Draw a graph to represent the data,
including a best-fit-line.
c) If the graph is a straight line, calculate the
slope, including units.
d) What would you expect the mass of 2.5 mL
of solution to have?
e) What volume would you expect 60 g of the solution to occupy?

4) Donna is completing an experiment to find the

effect of the concentration of ammonia on rate (or
speed) of the reaction. She has collected the given
data from her time trials and is ready for the analysis.
a) Identify the independent and dependent
variables in this experiment.
b) Draw a graph to represent the data, including a
best-fit-line
c) If the concentration of ammonia was 0.30 mol/L,
how much time has passed?
d) After 8 seconds, what will be the approximate
concentration of ammonia?

5) Consider the data table for an experiment on

the behavior of gases.
a) Identify the independent and dependent
variables in this experiment.
b) Draw a graph to represent the data.
c) Calculate the slope, including units.
d) What would be the pressure at 55°C?
e) What would be the pressure at 120°C?

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 17

MODULE 2: The Structure of the Atom

At the end of this module:

1. I can use atomic models to explain why theories may change over time.
2. I can identify the relative size, charge and position of protons, neutrons, and electrons
in the atom.
3. I can find the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in a given isotope of an
element if I am given a nuclear symbol or name of element and mass number.
4. I can describe the difference between atomic mass and mass number.
5. I can describe the relationship between wavelength, frequency, energy and color of
light (photons).
6. I can describe the process through which the electrons give off photons (energy) and
describe the evidence that electrons have specific amounts of energy.
7. I can identify an unknown element using a flame test or by comparison to an
emission spectra.
8. I can write electron configurations for elements in the ground state.

Lesson 2.1: Early Ideas of Atoms

Introduction
You learned earlier how all matter in the universe is made out of tiny building
blocks called atoms. All modern scientists accept the concept of the atom, but when
the concept of the atom was first proposed about 2,500 years ago, ancient
philosophers laughed at the idea. It has always been difficult to convince people of the
existence of things that are too small to see. We will spend some time considering the
evidence (observations) that convince scientists of the existence of atoms.
Democritus and the Greek Philosophers
Before we discuss the experiments and evidence that have, over the years,
convinced scientists that matter is made up of atoms, it’s only fair to give credit to the
man who proposed ―atoms‖ in the first place. About 2,500 years ago, early Greek
philosophers believed the entire universe was a single, huge, entity. In other words,
―everything was one.‖ They believed that all objects, all matter, and all substances
were connected as a single, big, unchangeable ―thing.‖
One of the first people to propose ―atoms‖ was a man known as Democritus. As
an alternative to the beliefs of the Greek philosophers, he suggested that atomos, or
atomon – tiny, indivisible, solid objects - make up all matter in the universe.
Democritus then reasoned that changes occur when the many atomos in an
object were reconnected or recombined in different ways. Democritus even extended
his theory, suggesting that there were different varieties of atomos with different shapes,
sizes, and masses. He thought, however, that shape, size and mass were the only

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properties differentiating the different types of atomos. According to Democritus, other
characteristics, like color and taste, did not reflect properties of the atomos themselves,
but rather, resulted from the different ways in which the atomos were combined and
connected to one another.
Greek philosophers truly believed that, above all else, our understanding of the
world should rely on ―logic.‖ In fact, they argued that the world couldn’t be understood
using our senses at all, because our senses could deceive us. Therefore, instead of
relying on observation, Greek philosophers tried to understand the world using their
minds and, more specifically, the power of reason.
So how could the Greek philosophers have known that Democritus had a good
idea with his theory of ―atomos?" It would have taken some careful observation and a
few simple experiments. Now you might wonder why Greek philosophers didn’t perform
any experiments to actually test Democritus’ theory. The problem, of course, was that
Greek philosophers didn’t believe in experiments at all. Remember, Greek philosophers
didn’t trust their senses, they only trusted the reasoning power of the mind.
The early Greek philosophers tried to understand the nature of the world through
reason and logic, but not through experiment and observation. As a result, they had
some very interesting ideas, but they felt no need to justify their ideas based on life
experiences. In a lot of ways, you can think of the Greek philosophers as being ―all
thought and no action.‖ It’s truly amazing how much they achieved using their minds,
but because they never performed any experiments, they missed or rejected a lot of
discoveries that they could have made otherwise. Greek philosophers dismissed
Democritus’ theory entirely. Sadly, it took over two millennia before the theory of
atomos (or ―atoms,‖ as they’re known today) was fully appreciated.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

Although the concept of atoms is now widely accepted, this wasn’t always the
case. Scientists didn’t always believe that everything was composed of small particles
called atoms. The work of several scientists and their experimental data gave evidence
for what is now called the atomic theory.
In the late 1700’s, Antoine Lavoisier, a French scientist, experimented with the
reactions of many metals. He carefully measured the mass of a substance before
reacting and again measured the mass after a reaction had occurred in a closed
system (meaning that nothing could enter or leave the container). He found that no
matter what reaction he looked at, the mass of the starting materials was always equal
to the mass of the ending materials. This is now called the law of conservation of mass.
This went contrary to what many scientists at the time thought. For example, when a
piece of iron rusts, it appears to gain mass. When a log is burned, it appears to lose
mass. In these examples, though, the reaction does not take place in a closed

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container and substances, such as the gases in the air, are able to enter or leave. When
iron rusts, it is combining with oxygen in the air, which is why it seems to gain mass. What
Lavoisier found was that no mass was actually being gained or lost. It was coming from
the air. This was a very important first step in giving evidence for the idea that
everything is made of atoms. The atoms (and mass) are not being created or
destroyed. The atoms are simply reacting with other atoms that are already present.
In the late 1700s and early 1800s, scientists began noticing that when certain
substances, like hydrogen and oxygen, were combined to produce a new substance,
like water, the reactants (hydrogen and oxygen) always reacted in the same
proportions by mass. In other words, if 1 gram of hydrogen reacted with 8 grams of
oxygen, then 2 grams of hydrogen would react with 16 grams of oxygen, and 3 grams
of hydrogen would react with 24 grams of oxygen. Strangely, the observation that
hydrogen and oxygen always reacted in the ―same proportions by mass‖ wasn’t
special. In fact, it turned out that the reactant in the ―same proportions by mass‖ wasn’t
special. In fact, it turned out that the reactants in every chemical reaction reacted in
the same proportions by mass. This observation is summarized in the law of definite
proportions. Take, for example, nitrogen and hydrogen, which react to produce
ammonia. In chemical reactions, 1 gram of hydrogen will react with 4.7 grams of
nitrogen, and 2 grams of hydrogen will react with 9.4 grams of nitrogen. Can you guess
how much nitrogen would react with 3 grams of hydrogen? Scientists studied reaction
after reaction, but every time the result was the same. The reactants always reacted in
the same proportions.
At the same time that scientists were finding this pattern out, a man named John
Dalton was experimenting with several reactions in which the reactant elements formed
more than one type of product, depending on the experimental conditions he used.
One common reaction that he studied was the reaction between carbon and oxygen.
When carbon and oxygen react, they produce two different substances – we’ll call
these substances ―A‖ and ―B.‖ It turned out that, given the same amount of carbon,
forming B always required exactly twice as much oxygen as forming A. In other words, if
you can make A with 3 grams of carbon and 4 grams of oxygen, B can be made with
the same 3 grams of carbon, but with 8 grams oxygen. Dalton asked himself – why does
B require 2 times as much oxygen as A? Why not 1.21 times as much oxygen, or 0.95
times as much oxygen? Why a whole number like 2?
The situation became even stranger when Dalton tried similar experiments with
different substances. For example, when he reacted nitrogen and oxygen, Dalton
discovered that he could make three different substances – we’ll call them ―C,‖ ―D,‖
and ―E.‖ As it turned out, for the same amount of nitrogen, D always required twice as
much oxygen as C. Similarly, E always required exactly four times as much oxygen as C.

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Once again, Dalton noticed that small whole numbers (2 and 4) seemed to be the rule.
This observation came to be known as the law of multiple proportions.
Dalton thought about his results and tried to find some theory that would explain
it, as well as a theory that would explain the Law of Conservation of Mass (mass is
neither created nor destroyed, or the mass you have at the beginning is equal to the
mass at the end of a change). One way to explain the relationships that Dalton and
others had observed was to suggest that materials like nitrogen, carbon and oxygen
were composed of small, indivisible quantities which Dalton called ―atoms‖ (in
reference to Democritus’ original idea). Dalton used this idea to generate what is now
known as Dalton’s Atomic Theory which stated the following:
1. Matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.
2. Atoms are indivisible (can’t be broken into smaller particles). During a
chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged, but they do not break apart, nor
are they created or destroyed.
3. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and other properties.
4. The atoms of different elements differ in mass and other properties.
5. Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of another element to form
―compounds‖ – new, complex particles. In a given compound, however, the
different types of atoms are always present in the same relative numbers.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

To see a video documenting the early history of the concept of the atom, go to
[Link]
Vision Learning: From Democritus to Dalton:
[Link]

2.1: Review Questions

Multiple choice:
1) Which of the following is not part of Dalton’s Atomic Theory?
a) matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.
b) during a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged.
c) during a nuclear reaction, atoms are split apart.
d) all atoms of a specific element are the same.

2) Democritus and Dalton both suggested that all matter was composed of small
particles, called atoms. What is the greatest advantage Dalton’s Atomic Theory had
over Democritus’?

3) It turns out that a few of the ideas in Dalton’s Atomic Theory aren’t entirely correct.
Are inaccurate theories an indication that science is a waste of time?

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Lesson 2.2: Further Understanding of the Atom

Introduction
Dalton's Atomic Theory held up well to a lot of the different chemical
experiments that scientists performed to test it. In fact, for almost 100 years, it seemed as
if Dalton's Atomic Theory was the whole truth. However, in 1897, a scientist named J. J.
Thomson conducted some research that suggested that Dalton’s Atomic Theory wasn’t
the entire story. As it turns out, Dalton had a lot right. He was right in saying matter is
made up of atoms; he was right in saying there are different kinds of atoms with
different mass and other properties; he was ―almost‖ right in saying atoms of a given
element are identical; he was right in saying during a chemical reaction, atoms are
merely rearranged; he was right in saying a given compound always has atoms present
in the same relative numbers. But he was WRONG in saying atoms were indivisible or
indestructible. As it turns out, atoms are divisible. In fact, atoms are composed of even
smaller, more fundamental particles. These particles, called subatomic particles, are
particles that are smaller than the atom. We’ll talk about the discoveries of these
subatomic particles next.

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

In the mid-1800s, scientists were beginning to realize that the study of chemistry
and the study of electricity were actually related. First, a man named Michael Faraday
showed how passing electricity through mixtures of different chemicals could cause
chemical reactions. Shortly after that, scientists found that by forcing electricity through
a tube filled with gas, the electricity made the gas glow! Scientists didn’t, however,
understand the relationship between chemicals and electricity until a British physicist
named J. J. Thomson began experimenting with what is known as a cathode ray tube.
The figure shows a basic diagram of a cathode ray tube like the one J. J.
Thomson would have used. A cathode ray tube is a small glass tube with a cathode (a
negatively charged metal plate) and an anode (a positively charged metal plate) at
opposite ends. By separating the cathode and anode by a short distance, the cathode
ray tube can generate what are known as cathode rays – rays of electricity that flow
from the cathode to the anode. J. J. Thomson wanted to know what cathode rays
were, where cathode rays came from, and whether cathode rays had any mass or
charge. The techniques that J. J. Thomson used to answer these questions were very
clever and earned him a Nobel Prize in physics. First, by cutting a small hole in the
anode, J. J. Thomson found that he could get some of the cathode rays to flow through
the hole in the anode and into the other end of the glass cathode ray tube. Next, J. J.
Thomson figured out that if he painted a substance known as ―phosphor‖ onto the far

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end of the cathode ray tube, he could see exactly where the cathode rays hit because
the cathode rays made the phosphor glow.
J. J. Thomson must
have suspected that
cathode rays were charged,
because his next step was to
place a positively charged
metal plate on one side of
the cathode ray tube and a
negatively charged metal
plate on the other side of the
cathode ray tube, as shown
in Figure 3. The metal plates didn’t actually touch the cathode ray tube, but they were
close enough that a remarkable thing happened! The flow of the cathode rays passing
through the hole in the anode was bent upwards towards the positive metal plate and
away from the negative metal plate. Using the ―opposite charges attract, like charges
repel‖ rule, J. J. Thomson argued that if the cathode rays were attracted to the
positively charged metal plate and repelled from the negatively charged metal plate,
they themselves must have a negative charge! J. J. Thomson then did some rather
complex experiments with magnets, and used his results to prove that cathode rays
were not only negatively charged, but also had mass. Remember that anything with
mass is part of what we call matter. In other words, these cathode rays must be the
result of negatively charged ―matter‖ flowing from the cathode to the anode. But there
was a problem. According to J. J. Thomson’s measurements, either these cathode rays
had a ridiculously high charge, or else had very, very little mass – much less mass than
the smallest known atom. How was this possible? How could the matter making up
cathode rays be smaller than an atom if atoms were indivisible? J. J. Thomson made a
radical proposal: maybe atoms are divisible. J. J. Thomson suggested that the small,
negatively charged particles making up the cathode ray were actually pieces atoms.
He called these pieces ―corpuscles,‖ although today we know them as electrons.
Thanks to his clever experiments and careful reasoning, J. J. Thomson is credited with
the discovery of the electron.
Now imagine what would happen if atoms were made entirely of electrons. First
of all, electrons are very, very small; in fact, electrons are about 2,000 times smaller than
the smallest known atom, so every atom would have to contain a whole lot of
electrons. But there’s another, even bigger problem: electrons are negatively charged.
Therefore, if atoms were made entirely out of electrons, atoms would be negatively
charged themselves… and that would mean all matter was negatively charged as well.
Of course, matter isn’t negatively charged. In fact, most matter is what we call neutral –

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it has no charge at all. If matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of
negative electrons, how can matter be neutral? The only possible explanation is that
atoms consist of more than just electrons. Atoms must also contain some type of
positively charged material that balances the negative charge on the electrons.
Negative and positive charges of equal size cancel each other out, just like negative
and positive numbers of equal size. What do you get if you add +1 and -1? You get 0, or
nothing. That’s true of numbers, and that’s also true of charges. If an atom contains an
electron with a -1 charge, but also some form of material with a +1 charge, overall the
atom must have a (+1) + (-1) = 0 charge – in other words, the atom must be neutral, or
have no charge at all.
Based on the fact that atoms are neutral, and based on J. J. Thomson’s
discovery that atoms contain negative subatomic particles called ―electrons,‖ scientists
assumed that atoms must also contain a positive substance. It turned out that this
positive substance was another kind of subatomic particle, known as the proton.
Although scientists knew that atoms had to contain positive material, protons weren’t
actually discovered, or understood, until quite a bit later.
When Thomson discovered the negative
electron, he realized that atoms had to contain
positive material as well – otherwise they wouldn’t
be neutral overall. As a result, Thomson formulated
what’s known as the ―plum pudding‖ model for the
atom. According to the ―plum pudding‖ model,
the negative electrons were like pieces of fruit and
the positive material was like the batter or the
pudding. This made a lot of sense given Thomson’s
experiments and observations. Thomson had been
able to isolate electrons using a cathode ray tube;
however he had never managed to isolate positive particles. As a result, Thomson
theorized that the positive material in the atom must form something like the ―batter‖ in
a plum pudding, while the negative electrons must be scattered through this ―batter.‖
(If you’ve never seen or tasted a plum pudding, you can think of a chocolate chip
cookie instead. In that case, the positive material in the atom would be the ―batter‖ in
the chocolate chip cookie, while the negative electrons would be scattered through
the batter like chocolate chips.)
Notice how easy it would be to pick the pieces of fruit out of a plum pudding. On
the other hand, it would be a lot harder to pick the batter out of the plum pudding,
because the batter is everywhere. If an atom were similar to a plum pudding in which
the electrons are scattered throughout the ―batter‖ of positive material, then you’d

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expect it would be easy to pick out the electrons, but a lot harder to pick out the
positive material.
J.J. Thomson had measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron, but had
been unable to accurately measure the charge on the electron. With his oil drop
experiment, Robert
Millikan was able to accurately measure the charge of the electron. When combined
with the charge to mass ratio, he was able to calculate the mass of the electron. What
Millikan did was to put a charge on tiny droplets of oil and measured their rate of
descent. By varying the charge on different drops, he noticed that the electric charges
on the drops were all multiples of 1.6x10-19C, the charge on a single electron.

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

Everything about Thomson’s experiments suggested the ―plum pudding‖ model
was correct – but according to the scientific method, any new theory or model should
be tested by further experimentation and observation. In the case of the ―plum
pudding‖ model, it would take a man named Ernest Rutherford to prove it inaccurate.
Rutherford and his experiments will be the topic of the next section.
Disproving Thomson’s ―plum pudding‖ model began with the discovery that an
element known as uranium emits positively charged particles called alpha particles as it
undergoes radioactive decay. Radioactive decay occurs when one element
decomposes into another element. It only happens with a few very unstable elements.
Alpha particles themselves didn’t prove anything about the structure of the atom; they
were, however, used to conduct some very interesting experiments.
Ernest Rutherford was fascinated by all aspects of alpha particles. For the most
part, though, he seemed to view alpha particles as tiny bullets that he could use to fire
at all kinds of different materials. One experiment in particular, however, surprised
Rutherford, and everyone else.
Rutherford found that
when he fired alpha particles at
a very thin piece of gold foil, an
interesting thing happened.
Almost all of the alpha particles
went straight through the foil as if
they’d hit nothing at all. This was
what he expected to happen. If
Thomson’s model was accurate,
there was nothing hard enough
for these small particles to hit that
would cause any change in their motion.

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 Every so often, though, one of the alpha particles would be deflected slightly as
if it had bounced off of something hard. Even less often, Rutherford observed alpha
particles bouncing straight back at the ―gun‖ from which they had been fired! It was as
if these alpha particles had hit a wall ―head-on‖ and had ricocheted right back in the
direction that they had come from.
Rutherford thought that these experimental results were rather odd. Rutherford
described firing alpha particles at gold foil like shooting a high-powered rifle at tissue
paper. Would you ever expect the bullets to hit the tissue paper and bounce back at
you? Of course not! The bullets would break through the tissue paper and keep on
going, almost as if they’d hit nothing at all. That’s what Rutherford had expected would
happen when he fired alpha particles at the gold foil. Therefore, the fact that most
alpha particles passed through didn’t shock him. On the other hand, how could he
explain the alpha particles that got deflected?
Furthermore, how could he explain the alpha particles that bounced right back
as if they’d hit a wall? Rutherford decided that the only way to explain his results was to
assume that the positive matter forming the gold atoms was not, in fact, distributed like
the batter in plum pudding, but rather, was concentrated in one spot, forming a small
positively charged particle somewhere in the center of the gold atom. We now call this
clump of positively charged mass the nucleus. According to Rutherford, the presence
of a nucleus explained his experiments, because it implied that most alpha particles
passed through the gold foil without hitting anything at all. Once in a while, though, the
alpha particles would actually collide with a gold nucleus, causing the alpha particles
to be deflected, or even to bounce right back in the direction they came from.
While Rutherford’s discovery of the positively charged atomic nucleus offered
insight into the structure of the atom, it also led to some questions. According to the
―plum pudding‖ model, electrons were like plums embedded in the positive ―batter‖ of
the atom. Rutherford’s model, though, suggested that the positive charge wasn’t
distributed like batter, but rather, was concentrated into a tiny particle at the center of
the atom, while most of the rest of the atom was empty space. What did that mean for
the electrons? If they weren’t embedded in the positive material, exactly what were
they doing? And how were they held in the atom? Rutherford suggested that the
electrons might be circling or ―orbiting‖ the positively charged nucleus as some type of
negatively charged cloud, but at the time, there wasn’t much evidence to suggest
exactly how the electrons were held in the atom.
Despite the problems and questions associated with Rutherford’s experiments, his
work with alpha particles definitely seemed to point to the existence of an atomic
―nucleus.‖ Between J. J. Thomson, who discovered the electron, and Rutherford, who
suggested that the positive charges in an atom were concentrated at the atom’s
center, the 1890s and early 1900s saw huge steps in understanding the atom at the

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―subatomic‖ (or smaller than the size of an atom) level. Although there was still some
uncertainty with respect to exactly how subatomic particles were organized in the
atom, it was becoming more and more obvious that atoms were indeed divisible.
Moreover, it was clear that an atom contains negatively charged electrons and a
nucleus containing positive charges. In the next section, we’ll look more carefully at the
structure of the nucleus, and we’ll learn that while the atom is made up of positive and
negative particles, it also contains neutral particles that neither Thomson, nor
Rutherford, were able to detect with their experiments.

Further Reading / Supplemental Material

A short history of the changes in our model of the atom, an image of the plum pudding
model, and an animation of Rutherford's experiment can be viewed at Plum Pudding
and Rutherford Page
([Link]
and%20Rutherford%[Link]).
To see a video documenting the early history of the concept of the atom, go to
[Link] Go to the k-12 library. Search for ―history of the atom‖.

[Link] Discovery of
Electron (YouTube):
[Link]
Thomson’s Experiment: [Link]
Discovery of Atomic Nucleus (YouTube):
[Link]
Rutherford’s Experiment:
[Link]

2.2: Review Questions

Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.

1) Electrons (cathode rays) are positively charged.

2) Electrons (cathode rays) can be repelled by a negatively charged metal plate.
3) J.J. Thomson is credited with the discovery of the electron.
4) The plum pudding model is the currently accepted model of the atom

#5-9: Match each conclusion regarding subatomic particles and atoms with the
observation/data that supports it.

CONCLUSION OBSERVATION
5) All atoms have a. Most alpha particles shot at gold foil go straight through,

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electrons without any change in their direction.

6) Atoms are mostly b. A few alpha particles shot at gold foil bounce in the
empty opposite direction.
space.

7) Electrons have a c. Some alpha particles (with positive charges) when shot
negative through gold foil bend away from the gold.
charge

8) The nucleus is d. No matter which element Thomson put in a cathode ray

positively tube, the same negative particles with the same properties
charged (such as charge & mass) were ejected.

9) Atoms have a small, e. The particles ejected in Thomson’s experiment bent away
dense nucleus from negatively charged plates, but toward positively
charged plates.

Lesson 2.3: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms

Introduction
Dalton’s Atomic Theory explained a lot about matter, chemicals, and chemical
reactions. Nevertheless, it wasn’t entirely accurate, because contrary to what Dalton
believed, atoms can, in fact, be broken apart into smaller subunits or subatomic
particles. We have been talking about the electron in great detail, but there are two
other particles of interest to use: protons and neutrons. In this section, we’ll look at the
atom a little more closely.

Protons, Electrons, and Neutrons

We already learned that J.J. Thomson discovered a negatively charged particle,
called the electron. Rutherford proposed that these electrons orbit a positive nucleus. In
subsequent experiments, he found that there is a smaller positively charged particle in
the nucleus which is called a proton. There is a third subatomic particle, known as a
neutron. Ernest Rutherford proposed the existence of a neutral particle, with the
approximate mass of a proton. Years later, James Chadwick proved that the nucleus of
the atom contains this neutral particle that had been proposed by Ernest Rutherford.
Chadwick observed that when beryllium is bombarded with alpha particles, it emits an
unknown radiation that has approximately the same mass as a proton, but no electrical
charge. Chadwick was able to prove that the beryllium emissions contained a neutral
particle - Rutherford’s neutron.
As you might have already guessed from its name, the neutron is neutral. In other
words, it has no charge whatsoever, and is therefore neither attracted to nor repelled
from other objects. Neutrons are in every atom (with one exception), and they’re
bound together with other neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus.

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 Before we move on, we must discuss how the different types of subatomic
particles interact with each other. When it comes to neutrons, the answer is obvious.
Since neutrons are neither attracted to, nor repelled from objects, they don’t really
interact with protons or electrons (beyond being bound into the nucleus with the
protons).
Even though electrons, protons, and neutrons are all types of subatomic particles, they
are not all the same size. When you compare the masses of electrons, protons and
neutrons, what you find is that electrons have an extremely small mass, compared to
either protons or neutrons. On the other hand, the masses of protons and neutrons are
fairly similar, although technically, the mass of a neutron is slightly larger than the mass
of a proton. Because protons and neutrons are so much more massive than electrons,
almost all of the mass of any atom comes from the nucleus, which contains all of the
neutrons and protons.
The table shown gives
the properties and locations of
electrons, protons, and
neutrons. The third column
shows the masses of the three
subatomic particles in grams.
The second column, however,
shows the masses of the three
subatomic particles in ―atomic mass units‖. An atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as
one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Atomic mass units (amu) are useful,
because, as you can see, the mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are almost
exactly 1.0 in this unit system.
In addition to mass, another important property of subatomic particles is their
charge. You already know that neutrons are neutral, and thus have no charge at all.
Therefore, we say that neutrons have a charge of zero. What about electrons and
protons? You know that electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively
charged, but what’s amazing is that the positive charge on a proton is exactly equal in
magnitude (magnitude means ―absolute value‖ or ―size when you ignore positive and
negative signs‖) to the negative charge on an electron. The third column in the table
shows the charges of the three subatomic particles. Notice that the charge on the
proton and the charge on the electron have the same magnitude.
Negative and positive charges of equal magnitude cancel each other out. This
means that the negative charge on an electron perfectly balances the positive charge
on the proton. In other words, a neutral atom must have exactly one electron for every
proton. If a neutral atom has 1 proton, it must have 1 electron. If a neutral atom has 2
protons, it must have 2 electrons. If a neutral atom has 10 protons, it must have 10

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electrons. You get the idea. In order to be neutral, an atom must have the same
number of electrons and protons.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

Scientists can distinguish
between different elements by
counting the number of protons. If
an atom has only one proton, we
know it’s a hydrogen atom. An atom
with two protons is always a helium
atom. If scientists count four protons
in an atom, they know it’s a beryllium
atom. An atom with three protons is
a lithium atom, an atom with five
protons is a boron atom, an atom
with six protons is a carbon atom…
Image Source: Ck-12
the list goes on.
Since an atom of one element
can be distinguished from an atom of another element by the number of protons in its
nucleus, scientists are always interested in this number, and how this number differs
between different elements. Therefore, scientists give this number a special name. An
element’s atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the nuclei of any of its
atoms. The periodic table gives the atomic number of each element. The atomic
number is a whole number usually written above the chemical symbol of each element.
The atomic number for hydrogen is 1, because every hydrogen atom has 1 proton. The
atomic number for helium is 2 because every helium atom has 2 protons. What is the
atomic number of carbon?
Of course, since neutral atoms have to have one electron for every proton, an
element’s atomic number also tells you how many electrons are in a neutral atom of
that element. For example, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. This means that an
atom of hydrogen has one proton, and, if it’s neutral, one electron as well. Gold, on the
other hand, has an atomic number of 79, which means that an atom of gold has 79
protons, and, if it’s neutral, and 79 electrons as well.
The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in its
nucleus. Why do you think that the ―mass number‖ includes protons and neutrons, but
not electrons? You know that most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its
nucleus. The mass of an atom depends on the number of protons and neutrons. You
have already learned that the mass of an electron is very, very small compared to the
mass of either a proton or a neutron (like the mass of a penny compared to the mass of

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a bowling ball). Counting the number of protons and neutrons tells scientists about the
total mass of an atom.
mass number A = (number of protons) + (number of neutrons)
An atom’s mass number is a very easy to calculate provided you know the number of
protons and neutrons in an atom.

There are two main ways in which scientists frequently show the mass number of
an atom they are interested in. It is important to note that the mass number is not given
on the periodic table. These two ways include writing a nuclear symbol or by giving the
name of the element with the mass number written.
To write a nuclear symbol, the mass number is placed at the upper left
(superscript) of the chemical symbol and the atomic number is placed at the lower left
(subscript) of the symbol. The complete nuclear symbol for helium-4 is drawn below.

The following nuclear symbols are for a nickel nucleus with 31 neutrons and a
uranium nucleus with 146 neutrons. In the nickel nucleus represented above, the atomic
number 28 indicates the nucleus contains 28 protons, and therefore, it must contain
31neutrons in order to have a mass number of 59. The uranium nucleus has 92 protons
as do all uranium nuclei and this particular uranium nucleus has 146 neutrons.
The other way of representing these nuclei would be Nickel-59 and Uranium-238,
where 59 and 238 are the mass numbers of the two atoms, respectively. Note that the
mass numbers (not the number of neutrons) is given to the side of the name.

Isotopes

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 Unlike the number of protons, which is always the same in atoms of the same
element, the number of neutrons can be different, even in atoms of the same element.
Atoms of the same element, containing the same number of protons, but different
numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes. Since the isotopes of any given element all
contain the same number of protons, they have the same atomic number (for
example, the atomic number of helium is always 2). However, since the isotopes of a
given element contain different numbers of neutrons, different isotopes have different
mass numbers. The following two examples should help to clarify this point.

Notice that because the lithium atom always has 3 protons, the atomic number
for lithium is always 3. The mass number, however, is 6 in the isotope with 3 neutrons, and
7 in the isotope with 4 neutrons. In nature, only certain isotopes exist. For instance,
lithium exists as an isotope with 3 neutrons, and as an isotope with 4 neutrons, but it
doesn’t exists as an isotope with 2 neutrons, or as an isotope with 5 neutrons.
This whole discussion of isotopes brings us back to Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
According to Dalton, atoms of a given element are identical. But if atoms of a given
element can have different numbers of neutrons, then they can have different masses
as well! How did Dalton miss this? It turns out that elements found in nature exist as
constant uniform mixtures of their naturally occurring isotopes. In other words, a piece of
lithium always contains both types of naturally occurring lithium (the type with 3
neutrons and the type with 4 neutrons). Moreover, it always contains the two in the
same relative amounts (or ―relative abundances‖). In a chunk of lithium, 93% will always
be lithium with 4 neutrons, while the remaining 7% will always be lithium with 3 neutrons.
Dalton always experimented with large chunks of an element – chunks that
contained all of the naturally occurring isotopes of that element. As a result, when he
performed his measurements, he was actually observing the averaged properties of all
the different isotopes in the sample. For most of our purposes in chemistry, we will do the

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same thing and deal with the average mass of the atoms. Luckily, aside from having
different masses, most other properties of different isotopes are similar.
We can use what we know about atomic number and mass number to find the
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in any given atom or isotope. Consider the
following examples:

Further Reading / Supplemental Material

Jeopardy Game: [Link]
For a Bill Nye video on atoms, go to [Link] Go to the k-12 library.
Search for ―Bill Nye atoms‖.

2.3: Review Questions

Label each of the following statements as true or false.
1) The nucleus of an atom contains all of the protons in the atom.
2) The nucleus of an atom contains all of the electrons in the atom.
3) Neutral atoms must contain the same number of neutrons as protons.
4) Neutral atoms must contain the same number of electrons as protons.

Match the subatomic property with its description.

Sub-Atomic Particle Characteristics
5) electron a. has a charge of +1
6) neutron b. has a mass of approximately 1/1840 amu
7) proton c. is neither attracted to, nor repelled from charged objects

Indicate whether each statement is true or false.

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8) An element’s atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the nuclei of any of
its atoms.
9) A neutral atom with 4 protons must have 4 electrons.
10) An atom with 7 protons and 7 neutrons will have a mass number of 14.
11) An atom with 7 protons and 7 neutrons will have an atomic number of 14.
12) A neutral atom with 7 electrons and 7 neutrons will have an atomic number of 14.

Use the periodic table to find the symbol for the element with:
13) 44 electrons in a neutral atom
14) 30 protons
15) An atomic number of 36

In the table below, Column 1 contains data for 5 different elements. Column 2 contains
data for the same 5 elements, however different isotopes of those elements. Match the
atom in the first column to its isotope in the second column.

Write the nuclear symbol for each element described:

21) 32 neutrons in an atom with mass number of 58
22) An atom with 10 neutrons and 9 protons.

Indicate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of the following atoms:
23) 4He2

24) Sodium-23

25) 1H1

26) Iron-55

27) 37Cl17

28) Boron-11

29) 238U92

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30) Uranium-235

Lesson 2.4: Atomic Mass

Introduction

In chemistry we very rarely deal with only one isotope of an element. We use a
mixture of the isotopes of an element in chemical reactions and other aspects of
chemistry, because all of the isotopes of an element react in the same manner. That
means that we rarely need to worry about the mass of a specific isotope, but instead
we need to know the average mass of the atoms of an element. Using the masses of
the different isotopes and how abundant each isotope is, we can find the average
mass of the atoms of an element. The atomic mass of an element is the weighted
average mass of the atoms in a naturally occurring sample of the element. Atomic
mass is typically reported in atomic mass units.

Calculating Atomic Mass

You can calculate the atomic mass (or average mass) of an element provided
you know the relative abundances (the fraction of an element that is a given isotope)
the element’s naturally occurring isotopes, and the masses of those different isotopes.
We can calculate this by the following equation:
Atomic mass = (%1) (mass1) + (%2) (mass2) + …

Look carefully to see how this equation is used in the following examples.

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 The periodic table gives the atomic mass of each element. The atomic mass is a
number that usually appears below the element’s symbol in each square. Notice that
atomic mass of boron (symbol B) is 10.8, which is what we calculated in example 5, and
the atomic mass of neon (symbol Ne) is 20.18, which is what we calculated in example
6. Take time to notice that not all periodic tables have the atomic number above the
element’s symbol and the mass number below it. If you are ever confused, remember
that the atomic number should always be the smaller of the two and will be a whole
number, while the atomic mass should always be the larger of the two and will be a
decimal number.

2.4: Review Questions

1) Copper has two naturally occurring isotopes. 69.15% of copper atoms are Cu-63 and
have a mass of 62.93 amu. The other 30.85% of copper atoms are Cu-65and have a
mass of 64.93amu. What is the atomic mass of copper?
2) Chlorine has two isotopes, Cl-35 and Cl-37. Their abundances are 75.53% and 24.47%
respectively. Calculate the atomic mass of chlorine.

Lesson 2.5: Atoms and Electromagnetic Spectra

Introduction
Electric light bulbs contain a
very thin wire in them that emits light
when heated. The wire is called a
filament. The particular wire used in
light bulbs is made of tungsten. A
wire made of any metal would emit Image Source:
[Link]
ou9iv/neon_good_argon_bad/

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light under these circumstances but tungsten was chosen because the light it emits
contains virtually every frequency and therefore, the light emitted by tungsten appears
white. A wire made of some other element would emit light of some color that was not
convenient for our uses. Every element emits light when energized by heating or passing
electric current through it. Elements in solid form begin to glow when they are heated
sufficiently and elements in gaseous form emit light when electricity passes through
them. This is the source of light emitted by neon signs and is also the source of light in a
fire.

Each Element Has a Unique Spectrum

The light frequencies emitted by atoms are mixed together by our eyes so that
we see a blended color. Several physicists, including Angstrom in 1868 and Balmer in
1875, passed the light from energized atoms through glass prisms in such a way that the
light was spread out so they could see the individual frequencies that made up the
light. The emission spectrum (or atomic spectrum) of a chemical element is the unique
pattern of light obtained when the element is subjected to heat or electricity.

Image Source:
[Link]

When hydrogen gas is placed into a tube and electric current passed through it,
the color of emitted light is pink. But when the color is spread out, we see that the
hydrogen spectrum is composed of four individual frequencies. The pink color of the
tube is the result of our eyes blending the four colors. Every atom has its own
characteristic spectrum; no two atomic spectra are alike. The image below shows the
emission spectrum of iron. Because each element has a unique emission spectrum,
elements can be identified using them.

Image Source:
[Link]
diagram-color-1440625991

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 You may have heard or read about scientists discussing what elements are
present in the sun or some more distant star, and after hearing that, wondered how
scientists could know what elements were present in a place no one has ever been.
Scientists determine what elements are present in distant stars by analyzing the light
that comes from stars and finding the atomic spectrum of elements in that light. If the
exact four lines that compose hydrogen’s atomic spectrum are present in the light
emitted from the star, that element contains hydrogen.

Bohr’s Model of the Atom

By 1913, the evolution of our concept of the atom had proceeded from Dalton’s
indivisible spheres idea to J. J. Thomson’s plum pudding model and then to Rutherford’s
nuclear atom theory.
Rutherford, in addition to carrying out the brilliant experiment that demonstrated
the presence of the atomic nucleus, also proposed that the electrons circled the
nucleus in a planetary type motion. The solar system or planetary model of the atom
was attractive to scientists because it was similar to something with which they were
already familiar, namely the solar system.
Unfortunately, there was a serious flaw in the planetary model. It was already
known that when a charged particle (such as an electron) moves in a curved path, it
gives off some form of light and loses energy in doing so. This is, after all, how we
produce TV signals. If the electron circling the nucleus in an atom loses energy, it would
necessarily have to move closer to the nucleus as it loses energy and would eventually
crash into the nucleus. Furthermore, Rutherford’s model was unable to describe how
electrons give off light forming each element’s unique atomic spectrum. These
difficulties cast a shadow on the planetary model and indicated that, eventually, it
would have to be replaced.
In 1913, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model of the electron cloud of
an atom in which electrons orbit the nucleus and were able to produce atomic
spectrum. Understanding Bohr’s mod el requires some knowledge of electromagnetic
radiation (or light).

Energy Levels

Bohr’s key idea in his model of the atom is that electrons occupy definite orbits
that require the electron to have a specific amount of energy. In order for an electron
to be in the electron cloud of an atom, it must be in one of]the allowable orbits and it
must have the precise energy required for that orbit. Orbits closer to the nucleus would
require smaller amounts of energy for an electron and orbits farther from the nucleus

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would require the electrons to have a greater amount of energy. The possible orbits are
known as energy levels. One of the weaknesses of Bohr’s model was that he could not
offer a reason why only certain energy levels or orbits were allowed. Bohr hypothesized
that the only way electrons could gain or lose energy would be to move from one
energy level to another, thus gaining or losing precise amounts of energy.
The energy levels are quantized, meaning that only specific amounts are
possible. It would be like a ladder that had rungs only at certain heights. The only way
you can be on that ladder is to be on one of the rungs and the only way you could
move up or down would be to move to one of the other rungs. Suppose we had such a
ladder with 10 rungs. Other rules for the ladder are that only one person can be on a
rung and in normal state, the ladder occupants must be on the lowest rung available. If
the ladder had five people on it, they would be on the lowest five rungs. In this situation,
no person could move down because all the lower rungs are full. Bohr worked out rules
for the maximum number of electrons that could be in each energy level in his model
and required that an atom is in its normal state (ground state) had all electrons in the
lowest energy levels available. Under these circumstances, no electron could lose
energy because no electron could move down to a lower energy level. In this way,
Bohr’s model explained why electrons circling the nucleus did not emit energy and
spiral into the nucleus.

Bohr’s Model and Atomic Spectra

The evidence used to support Bohr’s model came from the atomic spectra. He
suggested that an atomic spectrum is made by the electrons in an atom moving
energy levels. The electrons typically have the lowest energy possible, called ground
state. If the electrons are given energy (through heat, electricity, light, etc.) the
electrons in an atom could absorb energy by jumping to a higher energy level or an
excited state. The electrons then give off the energy in the form of a piece of light,
called a photon, they had absorbed to fall back to a lower energy level. The energy
emitted by electrons dropping back to lower energy levels would always be precise
amounts of energy because the differences in energy levels were precise. This explains
why you see specific lines of light when looking at an atomic spectrum – each line of
light matches a specific "step down" that an electron can take in that atom. This also
explains why each element produces a different atomic spectrum. Because each
element has different acceptable energy levels for their electrons, the possible steps
each element’s electrons can take differ from all other elements.

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links

A short discussion of atomic spectra and some animation showing the spectra of
elements you chose and an animation of electrons changing orbits with the absorption
and emission of light can be viewed at Spectral Lines
([Link]
Tutorial:
[Link]
Tutorial: [Link]
Video: [Link]
Fireworks & How Electrons Emit Photons video:
[Link]

2.5 Review Questions

1) Bohr’s model of the atom is frequently referred to as the ―quantum model‖. Why?
What does it mean to be quantized? How are electrons in atoms quantized?
2) Each element produces a unique pattern of light due to different energies within the
atom. Why would this information be useful in analyzing a material?
3) It was known that an undiscovered element (later named helium) was on the sun
before it was ever discovered on earth by looking at the sun’s spectrum. How do
scientists know that the sun contains helium atoms when no one has even taken a
sample of material from the sun?
4) According to Bohr's theory, how can an electron gain or lose energy?
5) What happens when an electron in an excited atom returns to its ground level?
6) Why do electrons of an element release only a specific pattern of light? Why don’t
they produce all colors of light?
7) Use the following terms to explain how an electron releases a photon of light:
electron, energy level, excited state, ground state, photon. Draw a picture if it is helpful.

Lesson 2.6: Electron Arrangement in Atoms

Introduction

Chemists are particularly interested in the electrons in an atoms electron cloud.

This is because the electrons determine the chemical properties of elements, such as
what compounds the element will form and which reactions it will participate in. In this
section, we will learn where the electrons are in atoms.

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Electron Energy Levels

Although Bohr’s model was particularly useful for hydrogen, it did not work well
for elements larger than hydrogen. However, other physicists built on his model to
create one that worked for all elements. It was found that the energy levels used for
hydrogen were further composed of sublevels of different shapes. These sublevels were
composed of orbitals in which the electrons were located.
The following table summarizes the possible energy levels and sublevels,
including the number of orbitals that compose each sublevel and the number of
electrons the sublevel can hold when completely filled.

Energy Level Sublevel # of orbitals Maximum #

(related to the (related to the in each of electrons
distance shape) sublevel possible
from the nucleus)
1 1s 1 2
2 2s 1 2
2p 3 6
3 3s 1 2
3p 3 6
3d 5 10
4 4s 1 2
4p 3 6
4d 5 10
4f 7 14
… … … …

There are several patterns to notice when looking at the table of energy levels.
Each energy level has one more sublevel than the level before it. Also, each new
sublevel has two more orbitals. Can you predict what the 5th energy level would look
like? When determining where the electrons in an atom are located, a couple of rules
must be followed:
1. Each added electron enters the orbitals of the lowest energy available.
2. No more than two electrons can be placed in any orbital.

The Electron Configuration

It would be convenient if the sublevels filled in the order listed in the table, such
as1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, etc. However, this is not the order the electrons fill the
sublevels. Remember, the electrons will always go to the lowest energy available. When
that is taken into account, the actual filling order is:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…
Note that 4s has lower energy than 3d and, therefore, will fill first. The filling order
gets more overlapped the higher you go.

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 An electron configuration lists the number of electrons in each used sublevel for
an atom. For example, consider the element gallium, with 31 electrons. Its first two
electrons would fit in the lowest energy possible, 1s. The next two would occupy 2s. 2p,
with three orbitals, can hold its next 6 electrons. Gallium continues to fill up its orbitals,
finally putting 1 electron in 4s. The electron configuration for gallium would be:
31Ga: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1
Although you can choose to memorize the list and how many electrons fit in
each sublevel for the purpose of writing electron configurations, there is a way for us to
find this order by simply using our periodic table.

Look at the different sections of the periodic table. You may have noticed that
there are several natural sections of the periodic table. The first 2 columns on the left
make up the first section; the six columns on the right make up the next section; the
middle ten columns make up another section; finally the bottom fourteen columns
compose the last section. Note the significance of these numbers: 2 electrons fit in any s
sublevel, 6 electrons fit in any p sublevel, 10 electrons fit in any d sublevel, and 14
electrons fit in any f sublevel. The four sections described previously are known as the s,
p, d, and f blocks respectively.
If you move across the rows starting at the top left of the periodic table and
move across each successive row, you can generate the same order of filling orbitals
that was listed before and also how many electrons total fit in each orbital. Starting at
the top left, you are filling 1s. Moving onto the second row, 2s is filled followed by 2p.
Continuing with the filling order you generate the list:

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 42

 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…
An electron configuration lists the sublevels the electrons occupy and the
number of electrons in each of those sublevels, written as superscripts.

Abbreviated Electron Configuration

As the electron configurations become longer and longer, it becomes tedious to
write them out. A shortcut has been devised so that writing the configurations is less
tedious. The electron configuration for potassium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1. The electron
configuration for potassium is the same as the electron configuration for argon except
that it has one more electron. The electron configuration for argon is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
and in order to write the electron configuration for potassium, we need to add only 4s1.
It is acceptable to use [Ar] to represent the electron configuration for argon and [Ar]4s1
to represent the electron configuration for potassium. Using this shortcut, the
abbreviated electron configuration for calcium would be [Ar] 4s2 and the electron
configuration for scandium would be [Ar]4s2 3d1.
Even though the periodic table was organized according to the chemical
behavior of the elements, you can now see that the shape and design of the table is a
perfect reflection of the electron configuration of the atoms. This is because the
chemical behavior of the elements is also caused by the electron configuration of the
atoms.

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

2.6: Review Questions

1) Which principal energy level holds a maximum of eight electrons?
2) Which sub-energy level holds a maximum of six electrons?
3) Which sub-energy level holds a maximum of ten electrons?
4) If all the orbitals in the first two principal energy levels are filled, how many electrons
are required?
5) In which energy level and sub-level of the carbon atom is the outermost electron
located?
6) How many electrons are in the 2p sub-energy level of a neutral nitrogen atom?
7) Which element’s neutral atoms will have the electron configuration: 1s 2-2s2-2p6-3s2-
3p1?
8) What energy level and sub-level immediately follow 5s in the filling order?
9) What is the outermost energy level and sub-level used in the electron configuration
of potassium?

 Write electron configurations for each of the following neutral atoms:

10) Magnesium
11) Nitrogen
12) Yttrium
13) Tin
14) Krypton
15) Cesium
16) Uranium
 Write the abbreviated electron configuration for each of the following neutral
atoms:
17) Fluorine
18) Aluminum
19) Titanium
20) Arsenic
21) Rubidium

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 44

MODULE 3: The Organization of the Elements

At the end of this module:

1. I can describe the advantages of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table over other
organizations.
2. I can compare the properties of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
3. I can determine the number of valence electrons for elements in the main block.
4. I can explain the similarities between elements within a group or family.
5. I can identify patterns found on the periodic table such as reactivity, atomic radius,
ionization energy and electronegativity.

Lesson 3.1: Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Introduction

During the 1800s, when most of the elements were being discovered, many
chemists tried to classify the elements according to their similarities. In 1829, Johann
Dobereiner noted chemical similarities in several groups of three elements and placed
these elements into what he called triads. His groupings included the triads of 1)
chlorine, bromine, and iodine, 2) sulfur, selenium, and tellurium, 3) calcium, strontium,
and barium, and 4) lithium, sodium, and potassium. In all of the triads, the atomic
weight of the second element was almost exactly the average of the atomic weights of
the first and third element.
In 1864, John Newlands saw a connection between the chemical properties of
elements and their atomic masses. He stated that if the known elements, beginning with
lithium are arranged in order of increasing mass, the eighth element will have properties
similar to the first, the ninth similar to the second, the tenth similar to the third, and so on.
Newlands called his relationship the law of octaves, comparing the elements to the
notes in a musical scale. Newlands tried to force all the known elements to fit into his
octaves but many of the heavier elements, when discovered, did not fit into his
patterns.

Mendeleev Organized His Table According to Chemical Behavior

By 1869, a total of 63 elements had been discovered. As the number of known
elements grew, scientists began to recognize patterns in the way chemicals reacted
and began to devise ways to classify the elements. Dmitri Mendeleev, a Siberian-born
Russian chemist, was the first scientist to make a periodic table much like the one we
use today. Mendeleev’s table listed the elements in order of increasing atomic mass.
Then he placed elements underneath other elements with similar chemical behavior.

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For example, lithium is a shiny metal, soft enough to be cut with a spoon. It reacts
readily with oxygen and reacts violently with water.

When it reacts with water, it produces hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide. As
we proceed through the elements with increasing mass, we will come to the element
sodium. Sodium is a shiny metal, soft enough to be cut with a spoon. It reacts readily
with oxygen and reacts violently with water. When it reacts with water, it produces
hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide. You should note that the description of the
chemical behavior of sodium is very similar to the chemical description of lithium. When
Mendeleev found an element whose chemistry was very similar to a previous
element, he placed it below the similar element. Mendeleev avoided Newlands’
mistake of trying to force elements into groups where their chemistry did not match, but
still ran into a few problems as he constructed his table. Periodically, the atomic mass of
elements would not be in the right order to put them in the correct group. For example,
look at iodine and tellurium on your periodic table. Tellurium is heavier than iodine, but
he put it before iodine in his table, because iodine has properties most similar to fluorine,
chlorine, and bromine.
Additionally, tellurium has properties more similar to the group with oxygen in it.
On his table, he listed the element its place according to its properties and put a
question mark (?) next to the symbol. The question mark indicated that he was unsure if
the mass had been measured correctly.
Another problem Mendeleev encountered was that sometimes the next heaviest
element in his list did not fit the properties of the next available place on the table. He
would skip places on the table, leaving holes, in order to put the element in a group
with elements with similar properties. For example, at the time the elements Gallium and
Germanium had not yet been discovered. After zinc, arsenic was the next heaviest
element he knew about, but arsenic had properties most similar to nitrogen and
phosphorus, not boron. He left two holes in his table for what he claimed were
undiscovered elements. Note the dashes (-) with a mass listed after it in his original
table. These indicate places in which he predicted elements would later be discovered
to fit and his predicted mass for these elements.
Mendeleev went further with his missing elements by predicting the properties of
elements in those spaces. In 1871 Mendeleev predicted the existence of a yet-
undiscovered element he called eka-aluminium (because its location was directly
under aluminum’s on the table). The table below compares the qualities of the element
predicted by Mendeleev with actual characteristics of Gallium (discovered in 1875).
Mendeleev made similar predictions for an element to fit in the place next to
silicon. Germanium, isolated in 1882, provided the best confirmation of the theory up to

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that time, due to its contrasting more clearly with its neighboring elements than the two
previously confirmed predictions of Mendeleev do with theirs.
How was Mendeleev able to make such accurate predictions? He understood
the patterns that appeared between elements within a family, as well as patterns
according to increasing mass, that he was able to fill in the missing pieces of the
patterns. The ability to make accurate predictions is was put Mendeleev’s table apart
from other organization systems that were made at the same time and is what led to
scientists accepting his table and periodic law.

Changes to our Modern Periodic Table

The periodic table we use today is similar to the one developed by Mendeleev,
but is not exactly the same. There are some important distinctions:
Mendeleev’s table did not include any of the noble gases, which were
discovered later. These were added by Sir William Ramsay as Group 0, without any
disturbance to the basic concept of the periodic table. (These elements were later
moved to form group 18 or 8A.) Other elements were also discovered and put into their
places on the periodic table.
As previously noted, Mendeleev organized elements in order of increasing
atomic mass, with some problems in the order of masses. In 1914 Henry Moseley found a
relationship between an element's X-ray wavelength and its atomic number, and
therefore organized the table by nuclear charge (or atomic number) rather than
atomic weight. Thus Moseley placed argon (atomic number 18) before potassium
(atomic number 19) based on their X-ray wavelengths, despite the fact that argon has
a greater atomic weight (39.9) than potassium (39.1). The new order agrees with the
chemical properties of these elements, since argon is a noble gas and potassium an
alkali metal. Similarly, Moseley placed cobalt before nickel, and was able to explain
that tellurium should be placed before iodine, not because of an error in measuring the
mass of the elements (as Mendeleev suggested), but because tellurium had a lower
atomic number than iodine.
Moseley's research also showed that there were gaps in his table at atomic
numbers
43 and 61 which are now known to be Technetium and Promethium, respectively, both
radioactive and not naturally occurring. Following in the footsteps of Dmitri Mendeleev,
Henry Moseley also predicted new elements.
You already saw that the elements in vertical columns are related to each other
by their electron configuration, but remember that Mendeleev did not know anything
about electron configuration. He placed the elements in their positions according to
their chemical behavior. Thus, the vertical columns in Mendeleev’s table were

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composed of elements with similar chemistry. These vertical columns are called groups
or families of elements.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

Tutorial: Vision Learning: The Periodic Table
[Link]
How the Periodic Table Was Organized (YouTube):
[Link]
For several videos and video clips describing the periodic table, go to
[Link] Go to the k-12 library. Search for ―periodic table‖.

3.1: Review Questions

1) What general organization did Mendeleev use when he constructed his table?
2) How did Mendeleev’s system differ from Newlands’s system?
3) Did all elements discovered at the time of Mendeleev fit into this organization
system?
How would the discovery of new elements have affecting Mendeleev’s arrangement of
the elements?
4) Look at Mendeleev’s predictions for Germanium (ekasilicon). How was Mendeleev
able to make such accurate predictions?
5) What problems did Mendeleev have when arranging the elements according to his
criteria? What did he do to fix his problems?
6) What discovery did Henry Moseley make that changed how we currently recognize
the order of the elements on the periodic table?
7) List three ways in which our current periodic table differs from the one originally made
by Mendeleev.

Lesson 3.2: Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

Introduction

In the periodic table, the elements are arranged according to similarities in their
properties. The elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number as you read
from left to right across a period and from top to bottom down a group. In this section
you will learn the general behavior and trends within the periodic table that result from
this arrangement in order to predict the properties of the elements.

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Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids

There is a progression from metals to non-metals across each row of elements in

the periodic table. The diagonal line at the right side of the table separates the
elements into two groups: the metals and the non-metals. The elements that are on the
left of this line tend to be metals, while those to the right tend to be non-metals (with the
exception of hydrogen which is a nonmetal). The elements that are directly on the
diagonal line are metalloids, with some exceptions. Aluminum touches the line, but is
considered a metal. Metallic character generally increases from top to bottom down a
group and right to left across a period, meaning that francium (Fr) has the most metallic
character of all of the discovered elements.
Most of the chemical elements are metals. Most metals have the common
properties of being shiny, very dense, and having high melting points. Metals tend to be
ductile (can be drawn out into thin wires) and malleable (can be hammered into thin
sheets). Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. All metals are solids at
room temperature except for mercury. In chemical reactions, metals easily lose
electrons to form positive ions. Examples of metals are silver, gold, and zinc.
Nonmetals are generally brittle, dull, have low melting points, and they are
generally poor conductors of head heat and electricity. In chemical reactions, they ted
to gain electrons to form negative ions. Examples of non-metals are hydrogen, carbon,
and nitrogen.
Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals. Metalloids can be
shiny or dull. Electricity and heat can travel through metalloids, although not as easily as
they can through metals. They are also called semimetals. They are typically semi-
conductors, which means that they are elements that conduct electricity better than
insulators, but not as well as conductors. They are valuable in the computer chip
industry. Examples of metalloids are silicon and boron.

3.2: Review Questions

Label each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid.
1) Carbon 3) Bromine 5) Oxygen
2) Plutonium 4) Potassium 6) Helium
Given each of the following properties, label the property of as that of a metal,
nonmetal, or metalloid.
7) Lustrous 9) Semiconductors 11) Brittle
8) Malleable 10) Insulators 12) Conductors
13) Along the staircase
14) The elements mercury and bromine are both liquids at room temperature, but
mercury is considered a metal and bromine is considered a nonmetal. How can that
be? What properties do metals and nonmetals have?

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Lesson 3.3: Valence Electrons

Introduction
The electrons in the outermost shell are the valence electrons these are the
electrons on an atom that can be gained or lost in a chemical reaction. Since filled d or
f subshells are seldom disturbed in a chemical reaction, the valence electrons include
those electrons in the outermost s and p sublevels.
Gallium has the following electron configuration.
Ga: [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p1
The electrons in the fourth energy level are further from the nucleus than the electrons in
the third energy level. The 4s and 4p electrons can be lost in a chemical reaction, but
not the electrons in the filled 3d subshell. Gallium therefore has three valence electrons:
the two in 4s and one in 4p.

Determining Valence Electrons

The number of valence electrons for an atom can be seen in the electron
configuration. The electron configuration for magnesium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2. The outer
energy level for this atom is n=3 and it has two electrons in this energy level. Therefore,
magnesium has two valence electrons.
The electron configuration for sulfur is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4. The outer energy level in
this atom is n=3 and it holds six electrons, so sulfur has six valence electrons.
The electron configuration for gallium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1. The outer
energy level for this atom is n=4 and it contains three electrons. You must recognize that
even though the 3d sub-level is mixed in among the 4s and 4p sub-levels, 3d is NOT in
the outer energy level and therefore, the electrons in the 3d sub-level are NOT valence
electrons. Gallium has three electrons in the outer energy level and therefore, it has
three valence electrons. The identification of valence electrons is vital because the
chemical behavior of an element is determined primarily by the arrangement of the
electrons in the valence shell.
This pattern can be summarized very easily, by merely counting the s and p
blocks of the periodic table to find the total number of valence electrons. One system
of numbering the groups on the periodic table numbers the s and p block groups from
1A to 8A. The number indicates the number of valence electrons.

3.3: Review Questions

1) How many valence electrons are present in the following electron configuration?
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3?
2) How many valence electrons are present in the following electron configuration?
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1?

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 For each of the following atoms, indicate the total number of valence electrons in
each atom:
3) Fluorine 6) Bromine 9) Sodium
4) Cesium 7) Aluminum 10) Gallium
5) Argon 8) Krypton

Lesson 3.4: Families and Periods of the Periodic Table

Introduction
The chemical behavior of atoms is controlled by their electron configuration.
Since the families of elements were organized by their chemical behavior, it is
predictable that the individual members of each chemical family will have similar
electron configurations.

Families of the Periodic Table

Remember that Mendeleev arranged the periodic table so that elements with
the most similar properties were placed in the same group. A group is a vertical column
of the periodic table. All of the 1A elements have one valence electron. This is what
causes these elements to react in the same ways as the other members of the family.
The elements in 1A are all very reactive and form compounds in the same ratios with
similar properties with other elements. Because of their similarities in their chemical
properties, Mendeleev put these elements into the same group. Group 1A is also known
as the alkali metals. Although most metals tend to be very hard, these metals are
actually soft and can be easily cut.
Group 2A is also called the alkaline earth metals. Once again, because of their
similarities in electron configurations, these elements have similar properties to each
other. The same pattern is true of other groups on the periodic table. Remember,
Mendeleev arranged the table so that elements with the most similar properties were in
the same group on the periodic table.
It is important to recognize a couple of other important groups on the periodic
table by their group name. Group 7A (or 17) elements are also called halogens. This
group contains very reactive nonmetals elements.
The noble gases are in group 8A. These elements also have similar properties to
each other, the most significant property being that they are extremely unreactive
rarely forming compounds. We will learn the reason for this later, when we discuss how
compounds form. The elements in this group are also gases at room temperature.

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 An alternate numbering system numbers all of the s, p, and d block elements
from 1- 18. In this numbering system, group 1A is group 1; group 2A is group 2; the
halogens (7A) are group 17; and the noble gases (8A) are group 18. You will come
across periodic table with both numbering systems. It is important to recognize which
numbering system is being used and to be able to find the number of valence electrons
in the main block elements regardless of which numbering systems is being used.

Periods of the Periodic Table

If you can locate an element on the Periodic Table, you can use the element’s
position to figure out the energy level of the element’s valence electrons. A period is a
horizontal row of elements on the periodic table. For example, the elements sodium
(Na) and magnesium (Mg) are both in period 3. The elements astatine (At) and radon
(Rn) are both in period 6.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

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3.4: Review Questions
Multiple Choice:
1) Which of the following elements is in the same family as fluorine?
a) silicon b) antimony c) iodine d) arsenic e) None of these.
2) Elements in a ______________ have similar chemical properties.
a) period b) family c) both A and B d) neither A nor B
3) Which of the following elements would you expect to be most similar to carbon?
a) Nitrogen b) Boron c) Silicon
Give the name of the family in which each of the following elements is located:
4) astatine 5) krypton 6) barium 7) francium
Which family is characterized by each of the following descriptions?
8) A very reactive family of nonmetals
9) Have 7 valence electrons
10) A nonreactive family of nonmetals
11) Forms colorful compounds
12) Have 2 valence electrons
13) A very reactive family of metals

Lesson 3.5: Periodic Trends

Introduction
We have talked in great detail about how the periodic table was developed,
but we have yet to talk about where the periodic table gets its name. To be periodic
means to ―have repeating cycles‖ or repeating patterns. In the periodic table, there
are a number of physical properties that are ―trend-like‖. This means is that as you move
down a group or across a period, you will see the properties changing in a general
direction.
The periodic table is a powerful tool that provides a way for chemists to organize
the chemical elements. The word ―periodic‖ means happening or recurring at regular
intervals. The periodic law states that the properties of the elements recur periodically
as their atomic numbers increase. The electron configurations of the atoms vary
periodically with their atomic number. Because the physical and chemical properties of
elements depend on their electron configurations, many of the physical and chemical
properties of the elements tend to repeat in a pattern.
The actual repeating trends that are observed have to do with three factors.
These factors are:
(1) The number of protons in the nucleus (called the nuclear charge).
(2) The number of energy levels holding electrons (and the number of electrons
in the outer energy level).

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 (3) The number of electrons held between the nucleus and its outermost
electrons (called the shielding effect). This affects the attraction between the
valence electrons and the protons in the nucleus.

Trends in Atomic Radius

The atomic radius is a way of measuring the size of an atom. Although this is
difficult to directly measure, we are, in essence, looking at the distance from the
nucleus to the outermost electrons.
Let’s look at the atomic radii or the size of the atom from the top of a family or
group to the bottom. Take, for example, the Group 1 metals. Each atom in this family
(and all other main group families) has the same number of electrons in the outer
energy level as all the other atoms of that family. Each row (period) in the periodic
table represents another added energy level. When we first learned about principal
energy levels, we learned that each new energy level was larger than the one before.
Energy level 2 is larger than energy level 1, energy level 3 is larger than energy level 2,
and so on. Therefore, as we move down the periodic table from period to period, each
successive period represents the addition of a larger energy level.
You can imagine that with the increase in the number of energy levels, the size
of the atom must increase. The increase in the number of energy levels in the electron
cloud takes up more space. Therefore the trend within a group or family on the periodic
table is that the atomic size increases with increased number of energy levels.
In order to determine the trend for the periods, we need to look at the number of
protons (nuclear charge), the number of energy levels, and the shielding effect. For a
row in the periodic table, the atomic number still increases (as it did for the groups) and
thus the number of protons would increase. When we examine the energy levels for
period 2, we find that the outermost energy level does not change as we increase the
number of electrons. In period 2, each additional electron goes into the second energy
level. So the number of energy levels does not go up. As we move from left to right
across a period, the number of electrons in the outer energy level increases but it is the
same outer energy level.
Looking at the elements
in period 2, the number of
protons increases from lithium
with three protons, to fluorine
with nine protons. Therefore,
the nuclear charge increases
across a period. Meanwhile,
the number of energy levels
occupied by electrons remains

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the same. The numbers of electrons in the outermost energy level increases from left to
right across a period, but how will this affect the radius? With an increase in nuclear
charge, there is an increase in the pull between the protons and the outer level, pulling
the outer electrons toward the nucleus. The net result is that the atomic size decreases
going across the row.
Considering all the information about atomic size, you will recognize that the largest
atom on the periodic table is all the way to the left and all the way to the bottom,
francium, #87, and the smallest atom is all the way to the right and all the way to the
top, helium, #2.
The fact that the atoms get larger as you move downward in a family is probably
exactly what you expected before you even read this section, but the fact that the
atoms get smaller as you move to the right across a period is most likely a big surprise.
Make sure you understand this trend and the reasons for it.

Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy

Lithium has an electron configuration of 1s2 2s1. Lithium has one electron in its
outermost energy level. In order to remove this electron, energy must be added. Look
at the equation below:
Li(g) + energy Li+(g) + e-

With the addition of energy, a lithium ion can be formed from the lithium atom
by losing one electron. This energy is known as the ionization energy. The ionization
energy is the energy required to remove the most loosely held electron from a gaseous

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atom. The higher the value of the ionization energy, the harder it is to remove that
electron.
Consider the ionization energies for the elements in group 1A of the periodic
table, the alkali metals. Comparing the electron configurations of lithium to potassium,
we know that the electron to be removed is further away from the nucleus, as the
energy level of the valence electron increase. Because potassium’s valence electron is
further from the nucleus, there is less attraction between this electron and the protons
and it requires less energy to remove this electron. As you move down a family (or
group) on the periodic table, the ionization energy decreases.
We can see a trend when we look at the ionization energies for the elements in
period 2. When we look closely at the data presented in the table above, we can see
that as we move across the period from left to right, in general, the ionization energy
increases. As we move across the period, the atoms become smaller which causes the
nucleus to have greater attraction for the valence electrons. Therefore, as you move
from left to right in a period on the periodic table, the ionization energy increases.

Periodic Trends in Electronegativity

Around 1935, the American chemist Linus Pauling developed a scale to describe
the attraction an element has for electrons in a chemical bond. This is the
electronegativity. The values
of electronegativity are
higher for elements that
more strongly attract
electrons.
The electronegativity
of atoms increases as you
move from left to right across
a period in the periodic
table. This is because as you
go from left to right across a Image Source:
[Link]
period, the atoms of each [Link]/2012/09/pauling-electronegativity-
[Link]
element have the same

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number of energy levels. However, the nucleus charge increases, so the attraction that
the atoms have for the valence electrons increases.
The electronegativity of atoms decreases as you move from top to bottom down
a group in the periodic table. This is because as you go from top to bottom down a
group, the atoms of each element have an increasing number of energy levels.
Atoms with low ionization energies have low electronegativities because their
nuclei do not have a strong attraction for electrons. Atoms with high ionization energies
have high
electronegativities because the nucleus has a strong attraction for electrons.

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3.5: Review Questions
Multiple choice
1) Why is the table of elements called ―the periodic table‖?
a) it describes the periodic motion of celestial bodies.
b) it describes the periodic recurrence of chemical properties.
c) because the rows are called periods.
d) because the elements are grouped as metals, metalloids, and non-metals.
e) None of these.
2) Which of the following would have the largest ionization energy?
a) Na b) Al c) H d) He
3) Which of the following would have the smallest ionization energy?
a) K b) P c) S d) Ca

Short Answer
4) Which of the following would have a smaller radius: indium or gallium?
5) Which of the following would have a smaller radius: potassium or cesium?
6) Which of the following would have a smaller radius: titanium or polonium?
7) Explain why iodine is larger than bromine.
8) Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic radius: Tl, B, Ga, Al, In.
9) Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic radius; Ga, Sn, C.
10) Define ionization energy.
11) Place the following elements in order of increasing ionization energy: Na, S, Mg, Ar
12) Define electronegativity.
 For each pair of elements, choose the element that has the lower electronegativity.
13) Li or N
14) Cl or Na
15) Na or K
16) Mg or F

MODULE 4: Describing Compounds

At the end of this module:

1. I can indicate the type of bond formed between two atoms and give properties of
ionic, covalent, metallic bonds and describe the properties of materials that are
bonded in each of those ways.
2. I can compare the physical and chemical properties of a compound to the elements
that form it.

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3. I can predict the charge an atom will acquire when it forms an ion by gaining or
losing electrons using the octet rule.
4. I can write the names and formulas of ionic compounds.
5. I can indicate the shape and polarity of simple covalent compounds from a model or
drawing.
6. I can describe how hydrogen bonding in water affects physical, chemical, and
biological phenomena.

Lesson 4.1: Introduction to Compounds

Substances and Mixtures

Matter can be classified into two broad categories: pure substances and
mixtures. A pure substance is a form of matter that has a constant composition
(meaning it’s the same everywhere) and properties that are constant throughout the
sample (meaning there is only one set of properties such as melting point, color, boiling
point, etc throughout the matter). Elements and compounds are both example of pure
substances.

Mixtures are physical combinations of two or more elements and/or compounds.

The term ―physical combination‖ refers to mixing two different substances together
where the substances do not chemically react. The physical appearance of the
substances may change but the atoms and/or molecules in the substances do not
change. The chemical symbols are used not only to represent the elements; they are

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also used to write chemical formulas for the millions of compounds formed when
elements chemically combine to form compounds. The law of constant composition
states that the ratio by mass of the elements in a chemical compound is always the
same, regardless of the source of the compound. The law of constant composition can
be used to distinguish between compounds and mixtures. Compounds have a constant
composition, and mixtures do not. For example, pure water is always 88.8% oxygen and
11.2% hydrogen by weight, regardless of the source of the water. Because water is a
compound, it will always have this exact composition. Brass is an example of a mixture.
Brass consists of two elements, copper and zinc, but it can contain as little 10% or as
much as 45% zinc.
Consider the following examples including elements, compounds, and mixtures.

The last couple of chapters have focused on elements and their properties. This
unit will focus on compounds, including what compounds form and how elements
combine to make compounds. Later chapters will cover mixtures.

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Compounds and Chemical Formulas
The formula for a compound uses the symbols to indicate the type of atoms
involved and uses subscripts to indicate the number of each atom in the formula. For
example, aluminum combines with oxygen to form the compound aluminum oxide. To
form aluminium oxide requires two atoms of aluminum and three atoms of oxygen.
Therefore, we write the formula for aluminum oxide as Al2O3. The symbol Al tells us that
the compound contains aluminum, and the subscript 2 tells us that there are two atoms
of aluminum in each molecule. The O tells us that the compound contains oxygen, and
the subscript 3 tells us that there are three atoms of oxygen in each molecule. It was
decided by chemists that when the subscript for an element is 1, no subscript would be
used at all. Thus the chemical formula MgCl2 tells us that one molecule of this substance
contains one atom of magnesium and two atoms of chlorine. In formulas that contain
parentheses, such as Ca(OH)2, the subscript 2 applies to everything inside the
parentheses. Therefore, this formula (calcium hydroxide) contains one atom of calcium
and two atoms of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

You may listen to Tom Lehrer’s humorous song ―The Elements‖ with animation at The
Element Song ([Link]
The [Link] website allows users to view streaming videos of the Annenberg series of
chemistry videos. You are required to register before you can watch the videos but
there is no charge. Video on Demand – The World of Chemistry
([Link]

4.1: Review Questions

Classify each of the following as an element, compound, or mixture.
1) Salt, NaCl
2) Oil
3) Gold
4) Sugar, C6H12O6
5) Salad dressing
6) Salt water
7) Water
8) Copper
9) Air
10) Milk

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Lesson 4.2: Types of Compounds and Their Properties

Introduction
Before students begin the study of chemistry, they usually think that the most
stable form for an element is that of a neutral atom. As it happens, that particular idea
is not true. If we were to consider the amount of sodium in the earth, we would find a
rather large amount, approximately 190,000,000,000,000,000 kilotons. How much of this
sodium would we find in the elemental form of sodium atoms? The answer is almost
none. The only sodium metal that exists in the earth in the elemental form is that which
has been man-made and is kept in chemistry labs and storerooms. Because sodium
reacts readily with oxygen in the air and reacts explosively with water, it must be stored
in chemistry storerooms under kerosene or mineral oil to keep it away from air and
water. If those 1.9x1017 kilotons of sodium are not in the form of atoms, in what form are
they? Virtually all the sodium in the earth is in the form of sodium ions, Na+.
If all those tons of sodium ion can be found in nature and no sodium atoms can
be found, it seems reasonable to suggest that, at least in the case of sodium, the ions
are chemically more stable that the atoms. By chemically stable, we mean less likely to
undergo chemical change. This is true not only for sodium but for many other elements
as well.

The Octet Rule

Recall that the noble gas elements are the least reactive of all the elements on
the periodic table – they almost never form any type of compound. Their electron
configuration is the most stable of all of the elements, having their s and p sublevels
filled. The noble gases have what is frequently referred to as an ―octet‖, meaning they
have eight valence electrons. The other elements are typically more stable if they have
an octet, too. Other atoms will gain electrons, lose electrons, or share electrons in order
to obtain an octet. The way in which an atom gets an octet determines the type of
bond formed.
When an atom gains electrons, the atom will obtain a negative charge and is
now called an anion. When an atom loses electrons, the atom will obtain a positive
charge and is now called a cation. This may feel backwards, but remember that
electrons themselves have a negative charge. When anions and cations are bonded
together, the bond is said to be ionic. Metal atoms will lose electrons to obtain an octet
and nonmetals will gain electrons.
Therefore, in an ionic bond metals are typically bonded to nonmetals.
Some atoms are capable of obtaining an octet by sharing their valence
electrons with another atom. This type of bonding is called a covalent bond. Only
nonmetals are capable of forming covalent bonds with other nonmetals.

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Properties of Ionic Compounds
When ionic compounds are formed, we are almost never dealing with just a
single positive ion and a single negative ion. When ionic compounds are formed in
laboratory conditions, many cations and anions are formed at the same time. The
positive and negative ions are not just attracted to a single oppositely charged ion. The
ions are attracted to several of the oppositely charged ions. The ions arrange
themselves into organized patterns where each ion is surrounded by several ions of the
opposite charge. The organized patterns of positive and negative ions are called lattice
structures. Because ionic compounds form these large lattice structures in the solid
phase, they are not referred to as "molecules" but rather as lattice structures or crystals.
When electrons are transferred from metallic atoms to non-metallic atoms during
the formation of an ionic bond, the electron transfer is permanent. That is, the electrons
now belong to the non-metallic ion. This compound does not act like sodium and
chlorine atoms did before they combined. This compound will act as sodium cations
and chloride anions. If the compound is melted or dissolved, the particles come apart
in the form of ions.
The electrostatic attraction between
the oppositely charge ions is quite strong
and therefore, ionic compounds have very
high melting and boiling points. Sodium
chloride (table salt), for example, must be
heated to around 800°C to melt and
around 1500°C to boil. There is only one
type of solid that has higher melting points

and boiling points, in general, than ionic Image Source:

compounds. Ck - 12

You can see that negative ions are

surrounded by positive ions and vice versa. If part of the lattice is pushed downward,
negative ions will then be next to negative ions and the structure will break up,
therefore ionic compounds tend to be brittle solids. If you attempt to hammer on ionic
substances, they will shatter. This is very different from metals which can be hammered
into different shapes without the metal atoms separating from each other.
Ionic substances generally dissolve readily in water. In an ionic compound that
has been melted or an ionic compound dissolved in water, ions are present that have
the ability to move around in the liquid. The presence of the mobile ions in liquid or
solution allows the solution to conduct electric current.

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Properties of Covalent Compounds
In ionic compounds, we learned that
atoms are able to achieve and octet through a
metal giving away electrons (forming cations)
and nonmetals taking electrons (forming anions).
Some elements, however, can achieve an octet
a different way, by sharing their valence
electrons with other atoms instead. Typically,
only nonmetals and sometimes metalloids are
able to form covalent bonds. Metals, with their
low numbers of valence electrons, are unable to
achieve an octet through sharing valence
electrons. Image Source:
Quora
The term covalent bond dates from 1939.
The prefix co- means jointly (as in, coworker, cooperate, etc), etc.; ― valent” is referring
to an atom’s valence electrons. Thus, a "co-valent bond", essentially, means that the
atoms share valence electrons.
Covalent compounds have properties very different from ionic compounds.
Ionic compounds have high melting points causing them to be solid at room
temperature, and conduct electricity when dissolved in water. Covalent compounds
have low melting points and many are liquids or gases at room temperature. Whereas
most ionic compounds are capable of dissolving in water, many covalent compounds
do not. Also unlike ionic compounds, when covalent compounds are dissolved in
water, they are not conductors of electricity.

Properties of Metallic Bonds

There is a third type of bond that may
be formed between two atoms. In metallic
bonding, the electrons between
neighbouring metal atoms are delocalized,
meaning that the electrons are not tied to
one atoms specifically. The electrons,
instead, are gathered in what we call an
―electron sea‖. In an electron sea, the metal
nuclei form the basis, and the electrons
move around the nuclei.
Because of this unique type of Image Source: Wikipedia

bonding structure, metallic bonding accounts

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for many physical properties of metals, such as strength, malleability (or bendability),
ductility, conductivity (allows heat and electricity to go through), and luster (shine).

Properties of Compounds vs. the Elements of which they are composed

It is important to point out what when elements combine to form covalent
compounds or ionic compounds the properties of the compound are different from the
properties of the elements from which the compound is formed. Consider, for example,
sugar, formed from the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen: C12H22O11. Forms of
carbon you are probably familiar with include coal and graphite (pencil lead). Oxygen
is a gas necessary for your survival, and hydrogen is also a very flammable gas. You
wouldn’t want the sugar you put on your cereal to taste like coal or be as flammable as
hydrogen and oxygen gases. When combined, a new compound is made with its own
unique properties, different from the elements that formed the compound.
The process of gaining and/or losing electrons completely changes the chemical
properties of the substances. The chemical and physical properties of an ionic
compound will bear no resemblance to the properties of the elements which formed
the ions. For example, sodium is a metal that is shiny, an excellent conductor of electric
current, and reacts violently with water. Chlorine is a poisonous gas. When sodium and
chlorine are chemically combined to form sodium chloride (table salt), the product has
an entirely new set of properties.
Sometimes, we sprinkle sodium chloride on our food. This is not something we would do
if we expected it to explode when contacted by water or if we expected it to poison
us.
What happens when these elements combine in different ratios, forming
compounds such as isopropyl alcohol (commonly called rubbing alcohol), C3H7OH, or
acetone (the main ingredient in most finger nail polish removers), C3H6O? Does rubbing
alcohol have the same properties as finger nail polish remover or sugar? No! When
elements combine in different ratios, different compounds are formed which have their
own unique properties. Each compound will typically have its own melting point, boiling
point, and density. Frequently, they will have a unique smell or taste. They will also have
unique chemical properties and react differently from other compounds.

4.2: Review Questions

1) What does the octet rule state?
2) Which elements are able to form covalent bonds in order to get an octet? Which are
not?
Given the following chemical formulas, label each compound as ionic, metallic, or
covalent.

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 3) H2O 4) MgO 5) NO
6) Li3PO4 7) Rb3N 8) CCl4
9) Ni3(PO4)2 10) CuZn 11) CH4
12) NH3
Label each of the following properties as a property of an ionic, covalent, or metallic
compound:
13) Low melting point
14) Conducts electricity in solid state
15) Conducts electricity when dissolved in water
16) Brittle crystal structure
17) Composed only nonmetallic atoms

18) Steve is given three substances in the lab to identify. He performs a

conductivity test, a solubility test (determines whether the compound dissolve in water),
an determines the melting point using a melting point apparatus. Some of the melting
points, the teacher tells him are too high or low to measure using the laboratory melting
point apparatus so she gives him the melting point. Help Steve match the properties of
the unknowns (from the table below) to the substance names.

List of Unknown names:

Sodium chloride, NaCl
Zinc, Zn
Sucrose (table sugar, C12H22O11)
Unknown Conducts Malleable Conducts as Dissolves in Melting
Substance when a water Point (°C)
dissolved solid
1 No No No Yes 164 0C
2 Yes No No Yes -800 0C
3 N/A Yes Yes No 420 0C

Lesson 4.3: Names and Charges of Ions

Introduction
Molecular collisions between atoms that tend to lose electrons (metals) and
atoms that tend to gain electrons (non-metals) are sometime sufficient to remove
electrons from the metal atom and add them to the non-metal atom. This transference
of electrons from metals to non-metals forms positive and negative ions, which in turn,
attract each other due to opposite charges. The compounds formed by this
electrostatic attraction are said to be ionically bonded.

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Ionic Bonding
The process of transferring an
electron from a sodium atom to a
chlorine atom as shown the diagram
produces oppositely charged ions
which then stick together because
Image Source:
of electrostatic attraction. Electrostatic attraction is the
Tracy Poulsen
attraction between opposite charges. The electrostatic
attraction between oppositely charged ions is called an ionic bond. These ions are
chemically more stable than the atoms were.
If we had been using sodium and sulfur atoms for the transfer discussion, the
process would be only slightly different. Sodium atoms have a single electron in their
outermost energy level and therefore can lose only one electron. Sulfur atoms,
however, require two electrons to complete their outer energy level. In such a case,
two sodium atoms would be required to collide with one sulfur atom. Each sodium atom
would contribute one electron for a total of two electrons and the sulfur atom would
take on both electrons. The two Na atoms would become Na+ ions and the sulfur atom
would become a S2- ion. Electrostatic attractions would cause all three ions to stick
together.
The cation forming elements, metals, lose all valence electrons so the electron
configuration for the ions formed will have the eight electrons of the previous noble gas.
(Those whose electron dot formula matches helium, of course, will have only two.) The
anion forming elements, nonmetals, will gain enough electrons so the electron dot
formulas of their ions will match those of the following noble gas. In all cases, for the ―A‖
groups elements, the ions will have eight electrons in their electron dot formula. The
octet rule is an expression of this end result of eight electrons in the outer most energy
level.
An atom becomes an ion when it gains or loses electrons. The ions that are
formed when an atom loses electrons are positively charged because they have more
protons in the nucleus than electrons in the electron cloud. Positively charged ions are
called cations (pronounced CAT-ions). The ions that are formed when an atom gains
electrons are negatively charged because they have more electrons in the electron
cloud than protons in the nucleus. Negatively charged ions are called anions
(pronounced AN-ions).

Predicting Charges of Main Group Ions

All the metals in family 1A have electron configurations ending with an s1
electron in the outer energy level. For that reason, all family 1A members will tend to
lose exactly one electron when they are ionized, obtaining an electron configuration

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like the closest noble gas. The entire family forms +1 ions: Li+, Na+, K+, etc. We need to
note that while hydrogen is in this same column, it is not considered to be an metal.
There are times that hydrogen acts as if it is a metal and forms +1ions; however, most of
the time it bonds with other atoms as a nonmetal. In other words, hydrogen doesn’t
easily fit into any chemical family. All members of family 1A form ions with +1charge.
The metals in family 2A all have electron configurations ending with two
electrons in an s2 position in the outermost energy level. To have an electron
configuration like the closest noble gas, each of the elements in this family will lost two
valence electrons and form +2 ions; Be2+, Mg2+, etc. Other metal elements’ charges can
be predicted using the same patterns. Members of family 3A form ions with 3+ charge.
Family 5A nonmetals at the top will gain electrons to form negative ions. By
gaining electrons, they are able to obtain the electron configuration of the noble gas
closest to them on the periodic table. Family 6A non-metals will gain two electrons to
obtain an octet thus forming a -2 ion. Family 7A will form -1 ions: F-, Cl-, etc.
Family 8A, of course, is the noble gases and has no tendency to either gain or
lose electrons so they do not form ions.
The charges ions form can be summarized as in the following table. Many of the
transition elements have variable oxidation states so they can form ions with different
charges, and, therefore, are left off of this chart.

When main group nonmetals gain electrons to form anions, their names are
changed to end in ―-ide‖. For example, fluorine atoms gain electrons to become
fluoride ions.

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Polyatomic Ions
Thus far, we have been dealing with ions made from single atoms. Such ions are
called monatomic ions. There also exists a group of polyatomic ions, ions composed of
a group of atoms that are covalently bonded and behave as if they were a single ion.
Almost all the common polyatomic ions are negative ions.
A table of many common polyatomic ions is given. The more familiar you
become with polyatomic ions, the better you will be able to write names and formulas
of ionic compounds. It is also important to note that there are many polyatomic ions
that are not on this chart.

Naming Transition Metals

Some metals are capable of forming ions with various charges. These include
most of the transition metals and many post transition metals. Iron, for example, may
form Fe2+ ions by losing 2 electrons or Fe3+ ions by losing 3 electrons. The rule for
naming these ions is to insert the charge (oxidation number) of the ion with Roman
numerals in parentheses after the name. These two ions would be named iron (II) and
iron (III). When you see that the compound involves any of the variable oxidation
number metals (iron, copper, tin, lead, nickel, and gold), you must determine the
charge (oxidation number) of the metal from the formula and insert Roman numerals
indicating that charge.
Consider FeO and Fe2O3. These are very different compounds with different
properties. When we name these compounds, it is absolutely vital that we clearly
distinguish between them. They are both iron oxides but in FeO iron is exhibiting a
charge of 2+ and in Fe2O3, it is exhibiting a charge of 3+. The first, FeO, is named iron (II)
oxide. The second, Fe2O3, is named iron (III) oxide.

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4.3: Review Questions
1) Define an ion.
2) Will an iron atom form a positive or negative ion? Why?
3) Will a bromine atom form a positive or negative ion? Why?
Predict the charge of each ion. Then give the name each ion would have.
4) Cl 5) Br 6) N
7) O 8) Ca 9) F
10) Mg 11) Li 12) I
13) Na 14) K 15) Al
16) How are transition metals that form ions named differently than other metals?
Why is
this important? What does the Roman numeral tell you?
Name the following ions.
17) Cu2+ 18) Co2+ 19) Co3+
20) Cu+ 21) Ni2+ 22) Cr3+
23) Fe2+ 24) Fe3+
25) What are polyatomic ions?
Name each of the following ions.
26) NO3- 27) C2H3O2- 28) OH-
29) PO43- 30) SO32- 31) CO32-

Lesson 4.4: Writing Ionic Formulas

Introduction
Ionic compounds do not exist as molecules. In the solid state, ionic compounds
are in crystal lattices containing many ions each of the cation and anion. An ionic
formula, like NaCl, is an empirical formula. This formula merely indicates that sodium
chloride is made of an equal number of sodium and chloride ions. Sodium sulfide,
another ionic compound, has the formula Na2S. This formula indicates that this
compound is made up of twice as many sodium ions as sulfide ions. This section will
teach you how to find the correct ratio of ions, so that you can write a correct formula.

Ionic Formulas
When an ionic compound forms, the number of electrons given off by the
cations must be exactly the same as the number of electrons taken on by the anions.
Therefore, if calcium, which gives off two electrons, is to combine with fluorine, which
takes on one electron, then one calcium atom must combine with two fluorine atoms.
The formula would be CaF2.

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To write the formula for an ionic compound:
1) Write the symbol and charge of the cation (first word)
a) If the element is in group 1, 2, Al with a consistent charge, you can get the charge
using your periodic table.
b) If the metal is a transition metal with a variable charge, the charge will be given to
you in Roman numerals.
2) Write the symbol and charge of the anion (second word).
a) Look at your polyatomic ion chart first. If your anion is a polyatomic ion, write the ion
in parentheses.
b) If the anion is not on the polyatomic chart, it is a nonmetal anion from your periodic
table. You can get its charge using your table.
3) Write the correct subscripts so that the total charges of the compound will be zero.
4) Write the final formula. Leave out all charges and all subscripts that are 1. If there is
only 1 of the polyatomic ion, leave off parentheses.

Pay close attention to how these steps are followed in the given examples:

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links
[Link]
[Link]

4.4: Review Questions

Copy and fill in the chart by writing formulas for the compounds that might form
between the ions in the columns and rows. Some of these compounds don’t exist but
you can still write formulas for them.

Na+ Ca2+ Fe3+

NO3- 1. 2. 3.
SO42- 4. 5. 6.
Cl- 7. 8. 9.
PO43- 10. 11. 12.
OH- 13. 14. 15.
CO32- 16. 17. 18.

Write the formulas from the names of the following compounds.

19) Magnesium sulfide
20) Lead(II) Nitrate
21) Sodium Oxide
22) Calcium hydroxide
23) Potassium Carbonate
24) Aluminum Bromide
25) Iron (III) nitrate
26) Iron(II) Chloride

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 27) Copper(II) Nitrate
28) Magnesium oxide
29) Calcium Oxide
30) Copper(I) Bromide
31) Aluminum sulfide
32) Hydrogen Carbonate
33) Potassium permanganate
34) Copper (I) dichromate
35) Iron(III) Chloride
36) Iron(II) Sulfate

Lesson 4.5: Naming Ionic Compounds

Introduction:
We have already learned about naming individual ions, including main group
ions, transition metal ions, and polyatomic ions. We have also learned how to put these
into correct charge-balanced formulas. In this section, we will learn how to correctly
naming a compound, given its formula.

Naming Ionic Compounds

To name ionic compounds, we will need to follow these steps:
1. Split the formula into the cation and anion. The first metal listed will be the cation and
the remaining element(s) will form the anion.
2. Name the cation. We learned two types of cations:
a. Main group cations in which the name of the ion is the same as that of the
element (for example, K+ is potassium).
b. Transition metals with variable charges with Roman numerals indicating the
charge of the ion (you will have to do a little bit of math to find this charge).
3. Name the anion. There are also two general types of anions:
a. Main group anions in which the name of the anion ends in ―-ide‖ (for
example, F- is fluoride)
b. Polyatomic ions (as listed on the polyatomic ion chart)

When writing the name of an ionic compound, it is important to note that the
name gives no information about the number of ions. The name only tells the types of
ions present. The formula uses subscripts to indicate how many of each ion there are.

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 The most common error made by students in naming these compounds is to
choose the Roman numeral based on the number of atoms of the metal instead of the
charge of the metal. For example, in PbS2, the oxidation state of lead Pb is +4 so the
Roman numeral following the name lead is ―IV.‖ Notice that there is no four in the
formula. As in previous examples, the formula is always the lowest whole number ratio of
the ions involved. Think carefully when you encounter variable charge metals. Make
note that the Roman numeral does not appear in the formula but does appear in the
name.

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links
Matching Game: Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions:
[Link]

4.5: Review Questions

Name the following compounds.
1) KCl 2) MgO
3) CuSO4 4) NaCl
5) CoBr2 6) MgF2
7) Ni(OH)2 8) NaC2H3O2
9) CuO 10) FeCl2
11) LiCl 12) MgBr2
13) NH4(OH) 14) Cu2O
15) CaF2 16) K2CO3
17) Na2O 18) PbO
19) Ca(NO3)2 20) Mg(OH)2
21) SnO2

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Lesson 4.6: Covalent Compounds & Lewis Structures
Introduction
In ionic bonding,
electrons leave metallic
atoms and enter non-metallic
atoms. This complete transfer
of electrons changes both of
the atoms into ions. Often,
however, two atoms combine
in a way that no complete
transfer of electrons occurs.
Instead, electrons are held in
overlapping orbitals of the
two atoms, so that the atoms are sharing the electrons. The shared electrons occupy
the valence orbitals of both atoms at the same time. The nuclei of both atoms are
attracted to this shared pair of electrons and the atoms are held together by this
attractive force. The attractive force produced by sharing electrons is called a covalent
bond.

Covalent Bond Formation

In covalent bonding, the atoms acquire a stable octet of electrons by sharing
electrons. The covalent bonding process produces molecular substances as opposed
to the lattice structures of ionic bonding. There are far more covalently bonded
substances than ionic substances.
The diatomic hydrogen molecule, H2, is one of the many molecules that are
covalently bonded. Each hydrogen atom has a 1s electron cloud containing one
electron. These 1s electron clouds overlap and produce a common volume which the
two electrons occupy.

Some Compounds Have Both Covalent and Ionic Bonds

If you recall the introduction of polyatomic
ions, you will remember that the bonds that hold
the polyatomic ions together are covalent bonds.
Once the polyatomic ion is constructed with
covalent bonds, it reacts with other substances as
an ion. The bond between a polyatomic ion and
another ion will be ionic. An example of this type
of situation is in the compound sodium nitrate.

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Sodium nitrate is composed of a sodium ion and a nitrate ion. The nitrate ion is held
together by covalent bonds and the nitrate ion is attached to the sodium ion by an
ionic bond.

Lewis Structures
The Lewis structure of a molecule show how the valence electrons are arranged
among the atoms of the molecule. These representations are named after G. N. Lewis.
The rules for writing Lewis structures are based on observations of thousands of
molecules. From experiment, chemists have learned that when a stable compound
forms, the atoms usually have a noble gas electron configuration or eight valence
electrons. Hydrogen forms stable molecules when it shares two electrons (sometimes
called the duet rule). Other atoms involved in covalent bonding typically obey the
octet rule. (Note: Of course, there will be exceptions.)
To draw a Lewis structure:
1. Determine the number of valence electrons that will be drawn in the Lewis
structure.
a. Use your periodic table to determine the number of valence electrons in each
atom. Add these to get the total electrons in the structure.
b. If you are drawing the structure for a polyatomic ion, you must add or subtract
any electrons gained or lost. If an ion has a negative charge, electrons were
gained. If the ion has a positive charge, electrons were lost.
2. Draw a skeleton
a. Typically, the first element listed in the formula goes in the center, which the
remaining atoms surrounding.
b. Draw bonds to each of the surrounding atoms. Each bond is two valence
electrons.
3. Use the remaining electrons to give each atom an octet (except hydrogen
which only gets a duet)
a. Place electrons left over after forming the bonds in the skeleton in unshared
pairs around the atoms to give each an octet. *Remember, any bonds they
have formed already count as two valence electrons each.
b. If you run out of electrons, and there are still atoms without an octet, move
some of the electrons that are not being shared to form double, sometimes triple
bonds.

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links
Tutorial on bonding:
[Link]

4.6: Review Questions

Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionically bonded and
which covalently bonded?
1) CS2 2) K2S
3) FeF3 4) PF3
5) AlF3 6) BaS
Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following compounds.
7) H2O 8) CH4
9) CO 10) PCl3
11) C2H6 12) CO32-
13) CO2 14) NH3
15) CH2O 16) SO3

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Lesson 4.7: Molecular Geometry

Introduction
Although a convenient way for chemists to look at covalent compounds is to
draw Lewis structures, which shows the location of all of the valence electrons in a
compound. Although these are very useful for understanding how atoms are arranged
and bonded, they are limited in their ability to accurately represent what shape
molecules are. Lewis structures are drawn on flat paper as two dimensional drawings.
However, molecules are really three dimensional. In this section you will learn to predict
the 3d shape of many molecules given their Lewis structure.
Many accurate methods now exist for determining molecular structure, the three
dimensional arrangement of the atoms in a molecule. These methods must be used if
precise information about structure is needed. However, it is often useful to be able to
predict the approximate molecular structure of a molecule. A simple model that allows
us to do this is called the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory. This model
is useful in predicting the geometries of molecules formed in the covalent bonding of
non-metals. The main postulate of this theory is that in order to minimize electron-pair
repulsion. In other words, the electron pairs around the central atom in a molecule will
get as far away from each other as possible.

Predicting the Shape of Molecules

Consider,
methane, commonly
known as natural gas. In
this molecule, carbon
has four valence
electrons and each
hydrogen adds one
more so the central atom
in methane has four pairs
of electrons in its valence
shell. The 3d shape of this molecule is dictated by the repulsion of the electrons. Those
four pairs of electrons get as far away from each other as possible which forms a shape
called tetrahedral. In the tetrahedral shape, the bond angle between any two
hydrogen atoms is 109.5°.
What if we look at ammonia instead, NH3? A molecule of ammonia has a
nitrogen atom in the middle with three bonds to the hydrogen atoms plus one lone pair
of electrons.

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That means there are four total pairs of electrons around the central atom, and the
electrons will still be close to 109.5° apart from each other. However, when discussing
the overall shape of the molecule, we only take into account the location of the atoms.
When a central atom is bonded to three atoms and has one lone pair of electrons, the
overall shape is trigonal pyramidal.
We have a similar problem in the case of a molecule such as water, H2O. In
water, the oxygen atom in the middle is bonded to the two hydrogen atoms with two
lone pairs. Once again, we only consider the location of atoms when we discuss shape.
When a molecule has a central atom bonded to two other atoms with two lone pair of
electrons, the overall shape is bent.

As you can probably imagine, there are different combinations of bonds making
different shapes of molecules. Some of the possible shapes are listed in the table.
However, it is important to note that some molecules obtain geometries that are not
included here.

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Further Readings / Supplemental Links
[Link]
[Link]
An animation showing the molecular shapes that are generated by sharing various
numbers of electron pairs around the central atom (includes shapes when some pairs of
electrons are non-shared pairs). The link must be copied and pasted into your browser
to go directly to the animation.
[Link]
[Link]?layer=act&src=qtiwf_act065.[Link]

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4.7: Review Questions
Predict the 3d shape each of the following molecules will have:

Lesson 4.8: Polarity & Hydrogen Bonding

Introduction
The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons is called
electronegativity. When two atoms combine, the difference between their
electronegativities is an indication of the type of bond that will form. If the difference
between the electronegativities of the two atoms is small, neither atom can take the
shared electrons completely away from the other atom and the bond will be covalent.
If the difference between the electronegativities is large, the more electronegative
atom will take the bonding electrons completely away from the other atom (electron
transfer will occur) and the bond will be ionic. This is why metals (low electronegativities)
bonded with non-metals (high electronegativities) typically produce ionic compounds.

Polar Covalent Bonds

So far, we have
discussed two extreme types
of bonds. One case is when
two identical atoms bond.
They have exactly the same
electronegativities, thus the
two bonded atoms pull
exactly equally on the
shared electrons. The shared
electrons will be shared

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exactly equally by the two atoms.
The other case is when the bonded atoms have a very large difference in their
electronegativities. In this case, the more electronegative atom will take the electrons
completely away from the other atom and an ionic bond forms.
What about the molecules whose electronegativities are not the same but the
difference is not big enough to form an ionic bond? For these molecules, the electrons
remain shared by the two atoms but they are not shared equally. The shared electrons
are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom. This results in an uneven distribution
of electrons over the molecule and causes slight charges on opposite ends of the
molecule. The negative electrons are around the more electronegative atom more of
the time creating a partial negative side. The other side has a resulting partial positive
charge. These charges are not full +1and -1 charges, they are fractions of charges. For
small fractions of charges, we use the symbols δ+ and δ−. These molecules have slight
opposite charges on opposite ends of the molecule and said to have a dipole or are
called polar molecules.
When atoms combine, there are three possible types of bonds that they can
form. In the figure, molecule A represents a covalent bond that would be formed
between identical atoms. The electrons would be evenly shared with no partial charges
forming. This molecule is nonpolar. Molecule B is a polar covalent bond formed
between atoms whose electronegativities are not the same but whose
electronegativity difference is less than 1.7, making this molecule polar. Molecule C is
an ionic bond formed between atoms whose electronegativity difference is greater
than 1.7.

Polar molecules can be attracted to each other due attraction between

opposite charges. Polarity underlies a number of physical properties including surface
tension, solubility, and melting- and boiling-points. The more attracted molecules are to
other molecules, the higher the melting point, boiling point, and surface tension. We will
discuss in more detail later how polarity can affect how compounds dissolve and their
solubility.

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 In order to determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar, it is frequently useful to
look a Lewis structures. Nonpolar compounds will be symmetric, meaning all of the sides
around the central atom are identical – bonded to the same element with no unshared
pairs of electrons. Polar molecules are asymmetric, either containing lone pairs of
electrons on a central atom or having atoms with different electronegativities bonded.

While molecules can be described as "polar covalent", "non-polar covalent", or

"ionic", it must be noted that this is often a relative term, with one molecule simply being
more polar or less polar than another. However, the following properties are typical of
such molecules.
Polar molecules tend to:
 have higher melting points than nonpolar molecules
 have higher boiling points than nonpolar molecules
 be more soluble in water (dissolve better) than nonpolar molecules
 have lower vapor pressures than nonpolar molecules

Hydrogen Bonding:

When a hydrogen atom is bonded to a very electronegative atom, including

fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, a very polar bond is formed. The electronegative atom

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obtains a negative partial charge and the hydrogen obtains a positive partial charge.
These partial charges are similar to what happens in every polar molecule. However,
because of the big difference in electronegativities between these two atoms and the
amount of positive charge exposed by the hydrogen, the dipole is much more
dramatic. These molecules will be attracted to other molecules which also have partial
charges. This attraction for other molecules which also have a hydrogen bonded to a
fluorine, nitrogen, or oxygen atom is called a hydrogen bond.

Hydrogen bonds in water

The most important, most common, and perhaps simplest example of a
hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. This interaction between
neighboring water molecules is responsible for many of the important properties of
water.
Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create
an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than water at the same
temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other
substances in which the solid form would sink in the liquid form.
Water also has a high boiling point (100°C) compared to the other compounds
of similar size without hydrogen bonds. Because of the difficulty of breaking these
bonds, water has a very high boiling point, melting point, and viscosity compared to
otherwise similar liquids not conjoined by hydrogen bonds.
Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen
atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four. For
example, hydrogen fluoride——which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H
atom——can form only two bonds; (ammonia has the opposite problem: three
hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair). H-F...H-F...H-F.
Have you ever experienced a belly flop? This is also due to the hydrogen
bonding between water molecules, causing surface tension. On the surface of water,
water molecules are even more attracted to their neighbors than in the rest of the
water. This attraction makes it difficult to break through, causing belly flops. It also
explains why water striders are able to stay on top of water and why water droplets
form on leaves or as they drip out of your faucet.

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Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins

Hydrogen bonding also plays an important role in determining the three-

dimensional structures adopted by proteins and nucleic bases, as found in your DNA. In
these large molecules, bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to
fold into a specific shape, which helps determine the molecule's physiological or
biochemical role. The double helical structure of DNA, for example, is due largely to
hydrogen bonding between the base pairs, which link one complementary strand to
the other and enable replication. It also plays an important role in the structure of
polymers, both synthetic and natural, such as nylon and many plastics.
As a result of the strong attraction between molecules that occurs in a hydrogen
bond, the following properties can be summarized. Molecules with hydrogen bonding
tend to:
 have higher melting points than polar molecules
 have higher boiling points than polar molecules
 be more soluble in water (dissolve better) than polar molecules

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links

[Link] The [Link] website allows users to

view streaming videos of the Annenberg series of chemistry videos. You are required
to register before you can watch the videos but there is no charge. The website has
one video that relates to this lesson called Molecular Architecture.
Vision Learning: Water Properties & Behaviors
[Link]

4.8: Review Questions

1) Explain the differences among a nonpolar covalent bond, a polar covalent

bond, and an ionic bond.
2) Predict which of the following bonds will be more polar and explain why; P-Cl or S-
Cl.
3) What does it mean for a molecule to be ―polar‖?
4) Which three elements, when bonded with hydrogen, are capable of forming
hydrogen bonds?
5) Molecules that are polar exhibit dipole-dipole interaction. What’s the difference
between dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding? Which interaction is
stronger?
6) Define hydrogen bonding. Sketch a picture of several water molecules and how
they interact.

Given each of the following Lewis structures, indicate whether each is polar or
nonpolar.

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 Then indicate whether or not that compound exhibits hydrogen bonding.

For each of the following, indicate which of the compounds in the pair has the given
property.

13) higher melting point: ammonia or methane

14) higher boiling point: water or CH3Cl

15) more soluble in water: ammonia or CHCl3

16) higher melting point: SiF4 or ammonia

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MODULE 5: Problem Solving and the Mole

At the end of this module:

1. I can describe the common measurements of the SI system of measurements

2. I can convert between standard notation and scientific notation.
3. I can convert between mass, moles, and atom or molecules using factor-label
methods.

Lesson 5.1: Measurement Systems

Introduction

Even in ancient times, humans needed measurement systems for commerce. Land
ownership required measurements of length and the sale of food and other
commodities required measurements of mass. Mankind’s first elementary efforts in
measurement required convenient objects to be used as standards and the human
body was certainly convenient. The names of several measurement units reflect these
early efforts. Inch and foot are examples of measurement units that are based on parts
of the human body. The inch is based on the width of a man’s thumb, and the foot
speaks for itself.

It should be apparent that measurements of a foot by two people could differ

by a few inches. To achieve more consistency, everyone could use the king’s foot as
the standard. The length of the king’s foot could be marked on pieces of wood and
everyone who needed to measure length could have a copy. Of course, this standard
would change when a new king was crowned. What were needed were objects that
could be safely stored so they didn’t change over time. Copies could be made of
these objects and distributed so that everyone was using exactly the same units of
measure. The requirements of science in the 1600s, 1700s, and 1800s necessitated even
more accurate, reproducible measurements.

The Metric System

The metric system is an international decimal-based system of measurement.

Because the metric system is a decimal system, making conversions between different
units of the metric system are always done with factors of ten. Let’s consider the English
system – that is, the one that is in everyday use in the US– to explain why the metric
system is so much easier to manipulate. For instance, if you need to know how many
inches are in a foot, you only need to remember what you at one time memorized: 12
inches = 1 foot. But now you need to know how many feet are in a mile. What happens
if you never memorized this fact? Of course you can look it up online or elsewhere, but
the point is that this fact must be given to you, as there is no way for you to derive it out

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yourself. This is true about all parts of the English system: you have to memorize all the
facts that are needed for different measurements.

Metric Prefixes and Equivalents

The metric system uses a number of prefixes along with the base units. A base
unit is one that cannot be expressed in terms of other units. The base unit of mass is the
gram (g), that of length is the meter (m), and that of volume is the liter (L). Each base
unit can be combined with different prefixes to define smaller and larger quantities.
When the prefix centi- is placed in front of gram, as in centigram, the measure is now
1/100 of a gram. When milli- is placed in front of meter, as in millimeter, the measure is
now 1/1000 of a meter.

Common prefixes are shown in the table.

These prefixes are used for all metric units of measurement, including units for
volume, time, distance, etc. Common metric units, symbols, and relationships to a base
unit are shown below.

1 micrometer = 1 μm = 1x10-6 m

1 microliter = 1 μL = 1x10-6 L

1 kilometer = 1 km = 1x103 m

1 kilogram = 1 kg = 1x103 g

SI Units

The International System of Units, abbreviated SI from the French Le Systeme

International d’ Unites, is the main system of measurement units used in science. Since
the 1960s, the International System of Units has been internationally agreed upon as the
standard metric system. The SI base units are based on physical standards. The
definitions of the SI base units have been and continue to be modified and new base
units added as advancements in science are made. Each SI base unit except the
kilogram is described by stable properties of the universe.

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Mass

Mass and weight are not the same thing. Although we often use the terms mass
and weight interchangeably, each one has a specific definition and usage. The mass
of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in it. The mass (amount of matter) of
an object remains the same regardless of where the object is placed. For example,
moving a brick to the moon does not cause any matter in it to disappear or be
removed.

The weight of an object is the force of attraction between the object and the
earth (or whatever large body it is resting on). We call this force of attraction the force
of gravity. Since the force of gravity is not the same at every point on the earth’s
surface, the weight of an object is not constant. The gravitational pull on the object
varies depending on where the object is with respect to the Earth or other gravity
producing object. For example, a man who weighs 180 pounds on Earth would weigh
only 45 pounds if he were in a stationary position, 4,000 miles above the Earth's surface.
This same man would weigh only 30 pounds on the moon because the moon's gravity is
only one-sixth that of Earth. The mass of this man, however, would be the same in each
situation because the amount of matter in him is constant. Consistency requires that
scientists use mass and not weight in its measurements of the amount of matter.

The basic unit of mass in the International System of Units is the kilogram. A
kilogram is equal to 1000 grams. A gram is a relatively small amount of mass and so
larger masses are often expressed in kilograms. When very tiny amounts of matter are
measured, we often use milligrams which are equal to 0.001 gram. There are numerous
larger, smaller, and intermediate mass units that may also be appropriate.

At the end of the 18th century, a kilogram was the mass of a liter of water. In
1889, a new international prototype of the kilogram was made of a platinum-iridium
alloy. The kilogram is equal to the mass of this international prototype, which is held in
Paris, France.

Length

Length is the measurement of anything from end to end. In science, length

usually refers to how long an object is. There are many units and sets of standards used
in the world for measuring length. The ones familiar to you is probably inches, feet,
yards, and miles. Most of the world, however, measures distances in meters and
kilometers for longer distances, and centimeters and millimeters for shorter distances.
For consistency and ease of communication, scientists around the world have agreed
to use the SI system of standards regardless of the length standards used by the general
public.

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 The SI unit of length is the meter. In 1889, the definition of the meter was a bar of
platinum-iridium alloy stored under conditions specified by the International Bureau of
Standards. In 1960, this definition of the standard meter was replaced by a definition
based on a wavelength of krypton-86 radiation. In 1983, that definition was replaced by
the following: the meter is the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a
time interval of a second.

Volume

The volume of an object is the amount of space it takes up. In the SI system,
volume is a derived unit, that is, it is based on another SI unit. In the case of volume, a
cube is created with each side of the cube measuring 1.00 meter. The volume of this
cube is 1.0 m・1.0 m・1.0 m=1.0 m3 or one cubic meter. The cubic meter is the SI unit of
volume. The cubic meter is a very large unit and is not very convenient for most
measurements in chemistry. A more common unit is the liter (L) which 1/1000 of a cubic
meter. Another commonly used volume measurement is the milliliter, which is equal to
1/1000 of a liter.

Temperature

When used in a scientific context, the words heat and temperature do NOT
mean the same thing. Temperature represents the average kinetic energy of the
particles that make up a material. Increasing the temperature of a material increases its
thermal energy. Thermal energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy in the
particles that make up a material. Objects do not ―contain‖ heat; rather they contain
thermal energy. Heat is the movement of thermal energy from a warmer object to a
cooler object. When thermal energy moves from one object to another, the
temperature of both objects change.

A thermometer is a device that measures temperature. The name is made up of

―thermo‖ which means heat and ―meter‖ which means to measure. The temperature of
a substance is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy it contains. In order
for the average kinetic energy and temperature of a substance to be directly
proportional, it is necessary that when the temperature is zero, the average kinetic
energy must also be zero. This is not true with either the Fahrenheit or Celsius
temperature scales. Most of are familiar with temperatures that are below the freezing
point of water. It should be apparent that even though the air temperature may be -
5°C, the molecules of air are still moving. Substances like oxygen gas and nitrogen gas
have already melted and boiled to vapor at temperatures below -150°C.

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 It was necessary for use in calculations in science for a third temperature scale in
which zero degrees corresponds with zero kinetic energy, that is, the point where
molecules cease to move. This temperature scale was designed by Lord Kelvin. Lord
Kelvin stated that there is no upper limit of how hot things can get, but there is a limit as
to how cold things can get. Kelvin developed the idea of Absolute Zero, which is the
temperature at which molecules stop moving and therefore, have zero kinetic energy.
The Kelvin temperature scale has its zero at absolute zero (determined to be -273.15
°C), and uses the same size degree as the Celsius scale. Therefore, the mathematical
relationship between the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale is K=°C + 273. In the case of
the Kelvin scale, the degree sign is not used. Temperatures are expressed, for example,
simply as 450 K.

Time

The SI unit for time is the second. The second was originally defined as a tiny
fraction of the time required for the Earth to orbit the Sun. It has since been redefined
several times. The definition of a second (established in 1967 and reaffirmed in 1997) is:
the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.

5.1: Review Questions

1) List three advantages to using the metric system over the English system or other
measurement systems.

Identify which is bigger in each set of measurements:

2) 1 kg or 1 g 3) 10 mg or 10 g 4) 100 cg or 100 mg

Fill in the missing information in the following equivalencies:

5) ? g = 1 kg 6) 100 ? = 1 L 7) 1 m = ? cm
8) Why is it important for scientists to use the same system to make measurements?
9) What is the basic unit of measurement in the metric system for length?
10) What is the basic unit of measurement in the metric system for mass?
11) What unit is used in the metric system to measure volume? How is this unit related to
the measurement of length?
12) Would it be comfortable to swim in a swimming pool whose water temperature was
275 K? Why or why not?

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Lesson 5.2: Scientific Notation

Introduction

Work in science frequently involves very large and very small numbers. The speed
of light, for example, is 300,000,000 meters/second; the mass of the earth is
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg; and the mass of an electron is
0.0000000000000000000000000000009 kg. It is very inconvenient to write such numbers
and even more inconvenient to attempt to carry out mathematical operations with
them.

What is Scientific Notation?

Scientists and mathematicians have designed an easier method for dealing with
such numbers. This more convenient system is called exponential notation by
mathematicians and scientific notation by scientists.
In scientific notation, very large and very small numbers are expressed as the
product of a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by some power of 10. The number
9,000,000 for example, can be written as the product of 9 times 1,000,000 and 1,000,000
can be written as 106. Therefore, 9,000,000 can be written as 9x106. In a similar manner,
0.00000004 can be written as

As you can see from the examples above, to convert a number from decimal
form to scientific notation, you count the spaces that you need to move the decimal
and that number becomes the exponent of 10. If you are moving the decimal to the
left, the exponent is positive and if you are moving the decimal to the right, the
exponent is negative.

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Calculators and Scientific Notation

Because you will be performing calculations using scientific notation, it is

important that you understand how your calculator uses scientific notation. For this
course, you will need a scientific or graphing calculator. These calculators have an
―exponential‖ button. It is typically labeled ―EXP‖ or ―EE‖ and can be read ―times ten to
the…‖ Consider the following number: 6.02 x 1023. If you were to read this out loud, you
would say ―6.02 times ten to the 23rd‖. To type this in your calculator, you would put
―6.02EE23‖ or ―6.02EXP23‖.
Most calculators would print 6.02E23. By properly using the exponential button,
you will avoid common mistakes made by students when multiplying or dividing these
numbers.

5.2: Review Questions

1) When is it useful to use scientific notation?

Write the following numbers in scientific notation.

2) 0.0000479 3) 4260
4) 251,000,000 5) 0.00206

Write each of the following numbers in standard notation.

6) 2.3 x 104 7) 9.156 x 10-4
8) 7.2 x 10-3 9) 8.255 x 106

Write the buttons you would push on your calculator to type in the following numbers
using the exponential button.
10) 7.3 x 1014
11) 6.01 x 10-6
12) 7.98 x 105

Using the exponential button, perform each calculation on your calculator.

13) 2.0 x 103 ・ 3.0x104 14) 2.0 x 103 / 3.0x104
15) 4.2 x 10-4 / 3.0x10-2 16) 7.3 x 10-7 ・ 8.0x10-3

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Lesson 5.3: Math in Chemistry

Introduction
During your studies of chemistry (and physics also), you will note that
mathematical equations are used in a number of different applications. Many of these
equations have a number of different variables with which you will need to work. You
should also note that these equations will often require you to use measurements with
their units. Algebra skills become very important here!

Conversion Factors
A conversion factor is a factor used to convert one unit of measurement into
another. A simple conversion factor can be used to convert meters into centimeters, or
a more complex one can be used to convert miles per hour into meters per second.
Since most calculations require measurements to be in certain units, you will find many
uses for conversion factors. What always must be remembered is that a conversion
factor has to represent a fact; this fact can either be simple or much more complex. For
instance, you already know that 12 eggs equal 1 dozen. A more complex fact is that
the speed of light is 1.86 x 105 miles/sec. Either one of these can be used as a conversion
factor depending on what type of calculation you might be working with.

Factor-Label Method of Problem Solving

Frequently, it is necessary to convert units measuring the same quantity from one
form to another. For example, it may be necessary to convert a length measurement in
meters to millimeters. This process is quite simple if you follow a standard procedure
called unit analysis or dimensional analysis. The Factor-Label Method is a technique that
involves the study of the units of physical quantities. It affords a convenient means of
checking mathematical equations. This method involves considering both the units you
presently have (given measurement), the units you wish to end up with, and designing
conversion factors than will cancel units you don’t want and produce units you do
want. The conversion factors are created from the equivalency relationships between
the units or ratios of how units are related to each other.
In terms of making unit conversions, suppose you want to convert 0.0856 meters
into millimeters. In this case, you need only one conversion factor and that conversion
factor must cancel the meters unit and create the millimeters unit. The conversion
factor will be created from the relationship1000 millimeters (mm) = 1 meter (m).

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 Remember that when you multiply fractions and you have the same number on
top of one fraction and the bottom of another fraction, the numbers will cancel out
leaving one. The same is true for units. When the above expression is multiplied as
indicated, the meters units will cancel and only millimeters will remain. The unit analysis
process involves creating conversion factors from equivalencies between various units.

The given table contains many useful conversion factors.

Of course, there are other ratios which are not listed in this table. They may include:
 Ratios embedded in the text of the problem (using words such as per or in each,
or using symbols such as / or %)
 Conversions in the metric system, as covered earlier in this chapter.
 Common knowledge ratios (such as 60 seconds = 1 minute)

The general steps you must take in order to solve these problems include:
1. Identify the “given” information in the problem. Look for a number with units
to start this problem with.
2. What is the problem asking you to “find”? In other words, what unit will your
answer have?
3. Use ratios and conversion factors to cancel out the units that aren’t part of
your answer, and leave you with units that are part of your answer.
4. When your units cancel out correctly, you are ready to do the math. You are
multiplying fractions, so you multiply the top numbers and divide by the bottom
numbers in the fractions.

Look for each of these steps in the following examples.

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 Sometimes, it is necessary to insert a series of conversion factors. Suppose we
need to convert miles to kilometers and the only equivalencies we know are 1 mile =
5280 feet, 12 inches = 1 foot, 2.54 cm = 1 inch, 100 cm = 1m, and 1000 m = 1 km. We will
set up a series of conversion factors so that each conversion factor produces the next
unit in the sequence.

Conversion factors for area and volume can also be produced by this method.

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5.3: Review Questions
For each of the following, first A) identify the given, find, and ratios within the problem.
Then, B) solve the problem using the factor-label method. Show all work and unit
cancellations.
1) What is the diameter of a 9‖ cake pan in centimeters?
2) It is approximately 52 miles from Spanish Fork to Salt Lake. If I drive 65 miles/hr, how
many minutes will it take to drive there?
3) If there are 35 g of sugar in 8 oz of soda, what mass (in grams) of sugar is in an entire 2
liter bottle?
4) My car gets about 35 miles per gallon. Right now, gas costs $3.69 per gallon. How
much does it cost me to drive to Salt Lake (52 miles away)?
5) What is your mass in grams? (Start with your weight in pounds)
6) Nervous Ned paced for 3 hours while his wife was in the delivery room. If he paces at
5 paces every 3 seconds, how far did he go, in miles? (In this case, one pace is 2.2 feet.)
(There are 5280 feet per mile.)
7) If I drive 75 miles/hr, how long in minutes will it take me to drive 500 km?
8) A male elephant seal weighs about 4 tons. What is the mass of the seal in grams?
(There are 2000 lbs in one ton)
9) My car gets about 37 miles per gallon. How many km/liter is this? (There are 4 quarts
in a gallon)
10) In a nuclear chemistry experiment, an alpha particle is found to have a velocity of
14,285 m/s. Convert this measurement into miles/hour.

Lesson 5.4: The Mole

Introduction

When objects are very small, it is often inconvenient or inefficient, or even

impossible to deal with the objects one at a time. For these reasons, we often deal with
very small objects in groups, and have even invented names for various numbers of
objects. The most common of these is ―dozen‖ which refers to 12 objects. We frequently
buy objects in groups of 12, like doughnuts or pencils. Even smaller objects such as
straight pins or staples are usually sold in boxes of 144, or a dozen dozen. A group of 144
is called a ―gross.‖
This problem of dealing with things that are too small to operate with as single
items also occurs in chemistry. Atoms and molecules are too small to see, let alone to
count or measure. Chemists needed to select a group of atoms or molecules that
would be convenient to operate with.

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Avogadro's Number

In chemistry, it is impossible to deal with a single atom or molecule because we

can’t see them or count them or weigh them. Chemists have selected a number of
particles with which to work that is convenient. Since molecules are extremely small,
you may suspect that this number is going to be very large and you are right. The
number of particles in this group is 6.02 x 1023 particles and the name of this group is the
mole (the abbreviation for mole is mol). One mole of any object is 6.02x1023 of those
objects. There is a very particular reason that this number was chosen and we hope to
make that reason clear to you.
When chemists are carrying out chemical reactions, it is important that the
relationship between the numbers of particles of each reactant is known. Chemists
looked at the atomic masses on the periodic table and understood that the mass ratio
of one carbon atom to one sulfur atom was 12 amu to 32 amu. They realized that if they
massed out 12 grams of carbon and 32 grams of sulfur, they would have the same
number of atoms of each element. They didn’t know how many atoms were in each
pile but they knew the number in each pile had to be the same. This is the same logic
as knowing that if a basketball has twice the mass of a soccer ball and you massed out
100 lbs of basketballs and 50 lbs of soccer balls, you would have the same number of
each ball. Many years later, when it became possible to count particles using
electrochemical reactions, the number of atoms turned out to be 6.02 x1023 particles.
Eventually chemists decided to call that number of particles a mole. The number
6.02x1023 is called Avogadro’s number. Avogadro, of course, had no hand in
determining this number, rather it was named in honor of Avogadro.

Converting Between Molecules to Moles

We can use Avogadro’s number as a conversion factor, or ratio, in dimensional

analysis problems. If we are given a number of molecules of a substance, we can
convert it into moles by dividing by Avogadro’s number and vice versa.

You should note that this amount of water is too small for even our most delicate
balances to determine the mass. A very large number of molecules must be present
before the mass is large enough to detect with our balances.

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Converting Grams to Moles and Vice Versa

1.00 mol of carbon-12 atoms has a mass of 12.0 g and contains 6.02 x1023 atoms.
Likewise, 1.00 mol of water has a mass of 18.0 grams and contains 6.02 x1023 molecules.
1.00 mole of any element or compound has a mass equal to its molecular mass in
grams and contains 6.02x1023 particles. The mass, in grams, of 1 mole of particles of a
substance is now called the molar mass (mass of 1.00 mole).
To quickly find the molar mass of a substance, you need to look up the masses
on the periodic table and add them together. For example, water has the formula H2O.
Hydrogen has a mass of 1.0084 g/mol (see periodic table) and oxygen has a mass of
15.9994 g/mol. The molar mass of H2O=2(1.0084 g/mol) + 15.9994 g/mol = 18.0162 g/mol.
This means that 1 mole of water has a mass of 18.0162 grams.
We can also convert back and forth between grams of substance and moles.
The conversion factor for this is the molar mass of the substance. The molar mass is the
ratio giving the number of grams for each one mole of a substance. This ratio is easily
found by adding up the atomic masses of the elements within a compound using the
periodic table.
This ratio has units of grams per mole or g/mol.

Example: Find the molar mass of each of the following:

a. S b. H2O c. F2
d. H2SO4 e. Al2 (SO4)3

To convert the grams of a substance into moles, we use the ratio molar mass. We
divide by the molar mass and to convert the moles of a substance into grams, we
multiply by the molar mass.

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 We will be using these ratios again to solve more complex problems in the next
chapters. Being able to use these ratios is a very important skill for later math problems.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

[Link] The [Link] website allows users to view

streaming videos of the Annenberg series of chemistry videos. You are required to
register before you can watch the videos but there is no charge. The website has one
video that relates to this lesson called The Mole. Using Avogadro's law, the mass of a
substance can be related to the number of particles contained in that mass. The Mole:
([Link] Vision Learning tutorial: The
Mole [Link]

5.4: Review Questions

How many molecules are present in the following quantities?
1) 0.250 mol H2O 2) 0.0045 mol Al2(CO3)3

How many moles are present in the following quantities?

3) 1.0 x1020 molecules H2O 4) 5 billion atoms of carbon

What is the molar mass of each of the following substances? Include units with your
answer.
5) H2O 6) NaOH 7) NH4Cl
8) H2SO4 9) Al2(CO3)3 10) PbO2

Convert the following to moles.

11) 60.0 g NaOH 12) 5.70 g H2SO4
13) 2.73 g NH4Cl 14) 10.0g PbO2

Convert the following to grams.

15) 0.100 mol CO2 16) 0.500 mol (NH4)2CO3

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17) 0.437 mol NaOH 18) 3.00 mol H2O

How many molecules are present in the following masses?

19) 1.00 g Na2CO3 20) 1000 g H2O

Convert the following to grams.

21) 2.0 x1023 molecules H2 22) 1.75x1024 molecules NaCl
23) 8.6x 1022 molecules NaOH

MODULE 6: Mixtures & Their Properties

At the end of this module:

1. I can use the terms solute and solvent in describing a solution.

2. I can sketch a solution, colloid, and suspension at the particle level.
3. I can describe the relative amount a solute particles in concentrated and dilute
solutions.
4. I can calculate concentration in terms of molarity and molality.
5. I can describe the colligative properties of solutions. (boiling point elevation, freezing
point depression, vapor pressure lowering) in terms of every day applications.
6. I can identify which solution of a set would have the lowest freezing point or highest
boiling point.

Lesson 6.1: Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions

Introduction
In Module 4, we distinguished between pure substances and mixtures.
Remember, a mixture contains two or more pure substances that are not bonded
together. These substances remain unbounded to each other, but are mixed within the
same container. They also retain their own properties, such as color, boiling point, etc.
There are two types of mixtures: mixtures in which the substances are evenly mixed
together (called a solution) and a mixture in which the substances are not evenly mixed
(called a heterogeneous mixture).
In this module we begin our study of solution chemistry. We all probably think we
know what a solution is. We might be holding a can of soda or a cup of tea while
reading this book and think … hey this is a solution. Well, you are right. But you might not
realize that alloys, such as brass, are also classified as solutions, or that air is a solution.
Why are these classified as solutions? Why wouldn’t milk be classified as a solution? To
answer these questions, we have to learn some specific properties of solutions. Let’s
begin with the definition of a solution and view some of the different types of mixtures.

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Homogeneous Mixtures
A solution is an even (or homogeneous) mixture of substances. When you
consider that the prefix ―homo‖ means ―same‖, this definition makes perfectly good
sense. Solutions carry the same properties throughout. Take, for example, vinegar that is
used in cooking is approximately 5% acetic acid in water. This means that every
teaspoon of vinegar that is removed from the container contains 5% acetic acid and
95% water. This ratio of mixing is carried out throughout the entire container of vinegar.
A point should be made here that when a solution is said to have uniform
properties throughout, the definition is referring to properties at the particle level. Well,
what does this mean? Let's consider brass as an example. The brass is an alloy made
from copper and zinc. To the naked eye a brass coin seems like it is just one substance
but at a particle level two substances is present (copper and zinc) and the copper and
zinc atoms are evenly mixed at the atomic level. So the brass represents a
homogeneous mixture. Now, consider a handful of zinc filings and copper pieces. Is this
now a homogeneous solution? The properties of any scoop of the ―mixture‖ you are
holding would not be consistent with any other scoop you removed from the mixture.
The ratio of copper and zinc may be different. Additionally, you would see differences
in the color at different places in the mixture (there are visible places in which there are
more copper atoms and visible places in which there are more zinc atoms). Thus the
combination of zinc filings and copper pieces in a pile does not represent a
homogeneous mixture, but is, instead a heterogeneous mixture. In a solution, the
particles are so small that they cannot be distinguished by the naked eye. In a solution,
the mixture would have the same appearance and properties in all places throughout
the mixture.
The point should be made that because solutions have the same composition
throughout does not mean you cannot vary the composition. If you were to take one
cup of water and dissolve ¼ teaspoon of table salt in it, a solution would form. The
solution would have the same properties throughout, the particles of salt would be so
small that they would not be seen and the composition of every milliliter of the solution
would be the same. But you can vary the composition of this solution to a point. If you
were to add another ½ teaspoon of salt to the cup of water, you would make another
solution, but this time there would be a different composition than the last. You still have
a solution where the salt particles are so small that they would not be seen and the
solution has the same properties throughout, thus it is homogeneous.
The solvent and solute are the two basic parts of a solution. The solvent is the
substance present in the greatest amount, whichever substance there is more of in the
mixture. The solvent is frequently, but not always, water. The solute, then, is the
substance present in the least amount. Let’s think for a minute that you are making a
cup of hot chocolate. You take a teaspoon of cocoa powder and dissolve it in one

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cup of hot water. Since the cocoa powder is in the lesser amount it is said to be the
solute; and the water is the solvent since it is in the greater amount.

Colloids and Suspensions

Two other types of mixtures that we will compare to solutions include colloids and
suspensions. These mixtures are frequently confused with solutions, but these are
heterogeneous, not homogeneous, mixtures.
Recall that a solution is a mixture of substances in such a way that the final
product has the same composition throughout. Remember the example of vinegar that
is 5%, by mass, acetic acid in water. This clear liquid is a solution since light easily passes
through it and it never separates. All liquid solutions have this shared property, in which
the particles are so small that light goes straight through. In other words, the mixture is
clear or sees through. It is important to note, however, that clear does not necessarily
mean colorless.
On the other hand, colloids are mixtures in which the size of the particles is
between 1x103 pm and 1x106 pm. In meters, these sizes translate to 1x10-9 m to 1x10-6 m
– between 10 and 1000 times smaller than a small grain. These particles, although
sounding small, are still much bigger than the particles in a solution.
A common example of a colloid is milk. One way to tell that milk is a colloid is by
the Tyndall effect. The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by particles. This involves
shining a light through the mixture: when the light is shined through a colloid, the light is
does not go straight through, but is instead scattered. Note that milk is not see-through,
but has a cloudy appearance. Because light not allowed passing through the mixture,
the mixture is considered a colloid. When light is passed through a solution, the particles
are so small that they do not obstruct the light. However, when light is passed through a
colloid, since the particles are larger, they will act as an obstruction to the light and the
light is scattered. The particles in a colloid, while able to scatter light, are still small
enough so that they do not settle out of solution.
It is amazing just how common colloids are to us in our everyday lives. Some
common colloids you may have seen include milk of magnesia, mayonnaise, jell-o, and
marshmallows.
Suspensions are mixtures which contain even bigger particles than solutions or
colloids do. In suspensions, particles settle into layers within a container if they are left
standing. This means that the particles in a suspension are large enough so that gravity

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pulls them out of solution. With suspensions, filtration can usually be used to separate
the excess particles from the solution. If a suspension is passed through a piece of filter
paper (or a coffee filter) some particles will go through and others will be stopped in the
filter paper. A common example of a suspension is muddy water. If you had a beaker of
water and added a handful of fine dirt, even if you stirred it, when you let it stand, dirt
would settle to the bottom.
Neither colloids nor suspensions are classified as solutions, but are special types of
heterogeneous mixtures instead. In order to be as solution, you must have very small
particles evenly distributed, so that the mixture has the same properties throughout.
Colloids and suspensions have particles that are too big to be considered a solution.

6.1: Review Questions

1) Distinguish between a solution, a colloid, and a suspension.

2) What is one way to tell you have a colloid and not a solution?

Multiple choice:

3) The biggest difference between a colloid and a suspension is that:

a) In colloids, the solute is permanently dissolved in the solvent.

b) In colloids the particles eventually settle to the bottom.
c) In suspensions the particles eventually settle to the bottom.
d) None of these are correct

4) Karen was working in the lab with an unknown solution. She noticed that there
was no precipitate in the bottom of the beaker even after it had been on the lab
bench for several days. She tested it with a light and saw that light scattered as it
passed through the solution. Karen concluded that the liquid was what type of a
mixture?

a) colloid
b) suspension
c) solution

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Lesson 6.2: Solution Formation

Introduction

We have learned that solutions can be formed in a variety of combinations using

solids, liquids, and gases. We also know that solutions have constant composition and
we can also vary this composition up to a point to maintain the homogeneous nature
of the solution. But how exactly do solutions form? Why is it that oil and water will not
form a solution and yet vinegar and water will? Why could we dissolve table salt in
water but not in vegetable oil? The reasons why solutions form will be explored in this
section, along with a discussion of why water is used most frequently to dissolve
substances of various types.

Ionic Compounds in Solution

Recall that metals form positive ions by losing electrons and non-metals form
negative ions by gaining electrons. In ionic compounds, the ions in the solid are held
together by the attraction of these oppositely charges particles. Since ionic compounds
can dissolve in polar solutions, specifically water, we can extend this concept to say
that ions themselves are attracted to the water molecules because the ions of the ionic
solid are attracted to the polar water molecule. When you dissolve table salt in a cup of
water, the table salt dissociates into sodium ions and chloride ions:
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

How does salt dissolve, though? Dissolving is based on electrostatic attraction,

that is, the attraction between positive and negative charges. The sodium ions get
attracted to the partially negative ends of the water molecule and the chloride ions
get attracted to the partially positive end of the water molecule.

Image Source:
CC- Tracy Poulsen

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 To understand why salt will dissolve in water, we first
must remember what it means for water to be polar. The
more electronegative oxygen atom pulls the shared
electrons away from the hydrogen atoms in a water
molecule causing an unequal distribution of electrons. The
hydrogen end of the water molecule will be slightly positive
and the oxygen end of the water molecule will be slightly
negative. These partial charges allow water to be attracted
to the various ions in salt, which pulls the salt crystal apart.
The same is process true for any ionic compound
dissolving in water. The ionic compound will separate into
the positive and negative ions and the positive ion will be
attracted to the partially negative end of the water
Image Source:
molecules (oxygen) while the negative ion will be attracted
CC- Tracy Poulsen
to the partially positive end of the water molecules
(hydrogen).

Covalent Compounds in Solution

Some other covalent compounds, aside from water, are also polar. Having these
partial positive and negative charges within the molecule gives polar compounds the
ability to be attracted to water as well. Because of these partial charges, polar
molecules are able to dissolve in other polar compounds.
If you mix a nonpolar compound with a polar compound, they will not form an
even mixture. The polar compound is more attracted to the other molecules of the
same compound than they are attracted to the nonpolar compound. If you have tried
to mix oil and water together you may have witnessed this. Water is much more polar
than oil, so the oil does not dissolve in the water. Instead, you will see two different
layers form.
However, when a nonpolar compound is mixed with another nonpolar
compound, neither of them have partial charges to be attracted to. They are instead
attracted by London dispersion forces and are able to dissolve together, forming a
solution. The similarity in type and strength of intermolecular forces allows two nonpolar
compounds such as CO2 and benzene, C6H6.
When we studied how ionic solids dissolve, we said that as they dissolve in
solution, these solids separate into ions. More specifically, ionic solids separate into their
positive ions and negative ions in solution. This is not true for molecular compounds.
Molecular compounds are held together with covalent bonds meaning they share
electrons. When they share electrons, their bonds do not easily break apart, thus the
molecules stay together even in solution. For example, when you dissolve a spoonful of

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sugar into a glass of water, the intermolecular forces are broken but not the bonds. You
can write the following equation for the dissolution of sugar in water.
C12H22O11(s) → C12H22O11(aq)

Notice how the molecules of sugar are now separated by water molecules (aq).
In other words, sugar molecules are separated from neighboring sugar molecules due
to attraction for the water, but the molecules themselves have not. The bonds within
the molecules have not broken.

A simple way to predict which compounds will dissolve in other compounds is the
phrase ―like dissolves like‖. What this means is that polar compounds dissolve polar
compounds, nonpolar compounds dissolve nonpolar compounds, but polar and
nonpolar do not dissolve in each other.
Even some nonpolar substances dissolve is water but only to a limited degree.
Have you ever wondered why fish are able to breathe? Oxygen gas, a nonpolar
molecule, does dissolve in water and it is this oxygen that the fish take in through their
gills. Or, one more example of a nonpolar compound that dissolves in water is the
reason we can enjoy carbonated sodas. Pepsi-cola and all the other sodas have
carbon dioxide gas, CO2, a nonpolar compound, dissolved in a sugar-water solution. In
this case, to keep as much gas in solution as possible, the sodas are kept under
pressure.
This general trend of ―like dissolves like‖ is summarized in the following table:

Note that every time charged particles (ionic compounds or polar substances)
are mixed, a solution is formed. When particles with no charges (nonpolar compounds)
are mixed, they will form a solution. However, if substances with charges are mixed with
other substances without charges a solution does not form.

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6.2: Review Questions

1) What does the phrase ―like dissolves like‖ mean? Give an example.

2) Why will LiCl not dissolve in CCl4?

3) In which compound will you expect benzene, C6H6, to dissolve?

a) Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4
b) water
c) none of the above

4) Thomas is making a salad dressing for supper using balsamic vinegar and oil.
He shakes and shakes the mixture but cannot seem to get the two to dissolve.
Explain to Thomas why they will not dissolve.

Lesson 6.3: Concentration

Introduction

Concentration is the measure of

how much of a given substance is mixed
with another substance. Solutions can be
said to be dilute or concentrated. When
we say that vinegar is 5% acetic acid in
water, we are giving the concentration. If
Image Source:
we said the mixture was 10% acetic acid, this would be CC- Tracy Poulsen

more concentrated than the vinegar solution.

A concentrated solution is one in which there is a large amount of solute in a
given amount of solvent. A dilute solution is one in which there is a small amount of
solute in a given amount of solvent. A dilute solution is a concentrated solution that has
been, in essence, watered down. Think of the frozen juice containers you buy in the
grocery store.
What you have to do is take the frozen juice from inside these containers and usually
empty 3 or 4 times the container size full of water to mix with the juice concentrate and
make your container of juice. Therefore, you are diluting the concentrated juice. When
we talk about solute and solvent, the concentrated solution has a lot of solute verses
the dilute solution that would have a smaller amount of solute.
The terms ―concentrated‖ and ―dilute‖ provide qualitative methods of
describing concentration. Although qualitative observations are necessary and have
their place in every part of science, including chemistry, we have seen throughout our
study of science that there is a definite need for quantitative measurements in science.
This is particularly true in solution chemistry. In this section, we will explore some
quantitative methods of expressing solution concentration.

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Molarity

Of all the quantitative measures of concentration, molarity is the one used most
frequently by chemists. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of
solution. The symbol given for molarity is M or moles/liter. Chemists also used square
brackets to indicate a reference to the molarity of a substance. For example, the
expression [Ag+] refers to the molarity of the silver ion. Solution concentrations
expressed in molarity are the easiest to calculate with but the most difficult to make in
the lab.

To solve these problems, we will set them using the factor-label method. To review these
steps:

1. Identify the “given” information in the problem. Look for a number with units to start
this problem with.
2. What is the problem asking you to “find”? In other words, what unit will your answer
have?
3. Use ratios and conversion factors to cancel out the units that aren’t part of your
answer, and leave you with units that are part of your answer.
4. When your units cancel out correctly, you are ready to do the math. You are
multiplying fractions, so you multiply the top numbers and divide by the bottom
numbers in the fractions.

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Molality
Molality is another way to measure concentration of a solution. It is calculated
by dividing the number of moles of solute by the number of kilograms of solvent.
Molality has the symbol, m.

Molarity, if you recall, is the number of moles of solute per volume of solution.
Volume is temperature dependent. As the temperature rises, the molarity of the solution
will actually decrease slightly because the volume will increase slightly. Molality does
not involve volume, and mass is not temperature dependent. Thus, there is a slight
advantage to using molality over molarity when temperatures move away from
standard conditions.

Although these units of concentration are those which chemists most frequently
use, they are not the ones you are most familiar with. Most commercial items you buy at
the grocery store have concentrations reported as percentages. For example,
hydrogen peroxide you buy is approximately 3% hydrogen peroxide in water; a fruit
drink may be 5% real fruit juice. This unit is convenient for these purposes, but not very
useful for many chemistry problems. Molarity and molality are preferred because these
units involve moles, or how many solute particles there are in a given amount of
solution. This comes in handy when performing calculations involving reactions between
solutions.
Another common unit of concentration is parts per million (ppm) or parts per
billion (ppb). If you have ever looked at the annual water quality report for your area,
contaminants in water are typically reported in these units. These units are very useful for
concentrations that are really low. A concentration of 1 ppm says that there is 1 gram
of the solute for every million grams of the mixture. Because we will not deal with
concentrations this low throughout most of this course, we will not use this unit in our
calculations. However, you should be aware of it and understand it when you see it.

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6.3: Review Questions
1) Most times when news reports indicate the amount of lead or mercury found in
foods, they use the concentration measures of ppb (parts per billion) or ppm (parts per
million).
Why use these over the others we have learned?

2) What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 2.5 g of LiNO3 in sufficient

water to make 60.0 mL of solution?

3) Calculate the molality of a solution of copper (II) sulfate, CuSO4, where 11.25 g of the
crystals has been dissolved in 325 g of water.

4) What is the molarity of a solution made by mixing 3.50 g of potassium chromate,

K2CrO4, in enough water to make 100. mL of solution?

5) What is the molarity of a solution made by mixing 50.0 g of magnesium nitrate,

Mg(NO3)2, in enough water to make 250 mL of solution?

6) Find the mass of aluminum nitrate, Al(NO3)3, required to mix with 750 g of water to
make a 1.5 m solution.

7) The Dead Sea contains approximately 332 g of salt per kilogram of seawater. Assume
this salt is all NaCl. What is the molality of the solution?

8) What is the molarity of a solution prepared by mixing 12.5 grams FeCl3 in enough
water to make 300 mL of solution?

9) If 5 grams of NaCl are mixed in enough water to make 0.5 L of solution. What is the
molarity of the solution?

10) What is the molality of a solution made by mixing 15 grams of Ba(OH)2 in 250 grams
of water?

11) A solution is made by mixing 10.2 grams of CaCl2 in 250 grams of water. What is the
molality of the solution?

Lesson 6.4: Colligative Properties

Introduction
People who live in colder climates have seen the trucks put salt on the roads
when snow or ice is forecast. Why do they do that? As a result of the information you will
explore in this section you will understand why these events occur. You will also learn to
calculate exactly how much of an effect a specific solute can have on the boiling
point or freezing point of a solution.

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Colligative Properties
The example given in the introduction is an example of a colligative property.
Colligative properties are properties that differ based on the concentration of solute in
a solvent, but not on the type of solute. What this means for the example above is that
people in colder climate don’t necessary need salt to get the same effect on the roads
– any solute will work. However, the higher the concentration of solute, the more these
properties will change.

Boiling Point Elevation

Water boils at 100 °C at 1 atm of pressure but a solution of salt water does not.
When table salt is added to water the resulting solution has a higher boiling point than
the water did by itself. The ions form an attraction with the solvent particles that then
prevent the water molecules from going into the gas phase. Therefore, the salt-water
solution will not boil at 100 °C. In order to cause the salt-water solution to boil, the
temperature must be raised above 100 °C in order to allow the solution to boil. This is
true for any solute added to a solvent; the boiling point of the solution will be higher
than the boiling point of the pure solvent (without the solute). In other words, when
anything is dissolved in water the solution will boil at a higher temperature than pure
water would.
The boiling point elevation due to the presence of a solute is also a colligative
property. That is, the amount of change in the boiling point is related to number of
particles of solute in a solution and is not related to chemical composition of the solute.
A 0.20 m solution of table salt and a 0.20 m solution of hydrochloric acid would have
the same effect on the boiling point.

Freezing Point Depression

The effect of adding a solute to a solvent has the opposite effect on the freezing
point of a solution as it does on the boiling point. A solution will have a lower freezing
point than a pure solvent. The freezing point is the temperature at which the liquid
changes to a solid. At a given temperature, if a substance is added to a solvent (such
as water), the solute-solvent interactions prevent the solvent from going into the solid
phase. The solute-solvent interactions require the temperature to decrease further in
order to solidify the solution. A common example is found when salt is used on icy
roadways. Here the salt is put on the roads so that the water on the roads will not freeze
at the normal 0°C but at a lower temperature, as low as -9°C. The de-icing of planes is
another common example of freezing point depression in action. A number of solutions
are used but commonly a solution such as ethylene glycol, or a less toxic
monopropylene glycol, is used to de-ice an aircraft. The aircrafts are sprayed with the
solution when the temperature is predicted to drop below the freezing point. The

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freezing point depression is the difference in the freezing points of the solution from the
pure solvent. This is true for any solute added to a solvent; the freezing point of the
solution will be lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent (without the solute). In
other words, when anything is
dissolved in water the solution will
freeze at a lower temperature than
pure water would.
The freezing point depression
elevation due to the presence of a
solute is also a colligative property.
That is, the amount of change in the
freezing point is related to number of
particles of solute in a solution and is
not related to chemical composition
Image Source:
of the solute. A 0.20 m solution of table salt and a 0.20 m
CC- Tracy Poulsen
solution of hydrochloric acid would have the same effect
on the freezing point.

Comparing the Freezing and Boiling Point of Solutions

Recall that covalent and ionic compounds do not dissolve in the same way.
Ionic compounds break up into cations and anions when they dissolve. Covalent
compounds do not break up. For example a sugar/water solution stays as sugar + water
with the sugar molecules staying as molecules. Remember that colligative properties
are due to the number of solute particles in the solution. Adding 10 molecules of sugar
to a solvent will produce 10 solute particles in the solution. When the solute is ionic, such
as NaCl however, adding 10 formulas of solute to the solution will produce 20 ions
(solute particles) in the solution. Therefore, adding enough NaCl solute to a solvent to
produce a 0.20 m solution will have twice the effect of adding enough sugar to a
solvent to produce a 0.20 m solution. Colligative properties depend on the number of
solute particles in the solution.
―i‖ is the number of particles that the solute will dissociate into upon mixing with
the solvent. For example, sodium chloride, NaCl, will dissociate into two ions so for NaCl
i = 2, for lithium nitrate, LiNO3, i = 2, and for calcium chloride, CaCl2, i = 3. For covalent
compounds, i is always equal to 1.
By knowing the molality of a solution and the number of particles a compound
will dissolve to form, it is possible to predict which solution in a group will have the lowest
freezing point.
To compare the boiling or freezing points of solutions, follow these general steps:
1. Label each solute as ionic or covalent.

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2. If the solute is ionic, determine the number of ions in the formula. Be careful to look for
polyatomic ions.
3. Multiply the original molality (m) of the solution by the number of particles formed
when the solution dissolves. This will give you the total concentration of particles
dissolved.
4. Compare these values. The higher total concentration will result in a higher boiling
point and a lower freezing point.

The Mathematics of Boiling Point and Freezing Point Changes

The boiling point of a solution is higher than the boiling point of a pure solvent
and the freezing point of a solution is lower than the freezing point of a pure solvent.
However, the amount to which the boiling point increases or the freezing point
decreases depends on the amount solute that is added to the solvent. A mathematical
equation is used to calculate the boiling point elevation or the freezing point
depression.
The boiling point elevation is the amount the boiling temperature increases
compared to the original solvent. For example, the boiling point of pure water at 1.0
atm is 100 °C while the boiling point of a 2% salt-water solution is about 102 °C.
Therefore, the boiling point elevation would be 2°C. The freezing point depression is
amount the freezing temperature decreases. Both the boiling point elevation and the
freezing point depression are related to the molality of the solutions. Looking at the
formulas for the boiling point elevation and freezing point depression, we can see
similarities between the two. The equation used to calculate the increase in the boiling
point is:
ΔTb=kb●m●i

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Where:
ΔTb = the amount the boiling temperature increased
kb = the boiling point elevation constant which depends on the solvent (for water, this
number is 0.515 oC/m)
m = the molality of the solution
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves. (for covalent
compounds, this number is always 1)
The following equation is used to calculate the decrease in the freezing point:
ΔTf=kf●m●i
Where:
ΔTf = the amount the freezing temperature decreased
kf = the freezing point depression constant which depends on the solvent (for water, this
number is 1.86 oC/m)
m = the molality of the solution
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves. (for covalent
compounds, this number is always 1)

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6.4: Review Questions

1) Which of the following statements are true when a solute is added to a solvent: (you
may choose more than 1)
a) the boiling point increases. c) the boiling point decreases.
b) the freezing point increases. d) the freezing point decreases.

2) Why do we put salt on ice on the roads in the winter? What effect does it have on
the ice? (Do NOT say that it melts the ice. What does it REALLY do?)

3) Besides adding flavor, what effect does adding salt to water that you cook spaghetti
in?

4) How do covalent and ionic compounds differ in how they dissolve? How does this
change the molality of the particles in the solution?

Label each of the following compounds as ionic or covalent. Then indicate the number
of particles formed when dissolved (i) for each compound.
5) Salt, NaCl 6) Acetone, C2H2O
7) Benzene, C6H6 8) Copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2
9) AlCl3 10) Potassium hydroxide, KOH

For each pair of solutions, indicate which would have a lower freezing point:
11) 0.2 m KI or 0.2 m CaCl2
12) 0.1 m KI or 0.1 m C6H12O6
13) 0.2 m NaCl or 0.3 m C6H12O6

14) If 25.0 g of sucrose, C12H22O11, is added to 500 g of water, the boiling point is
increased by what amount? (Kb for water is 0.52 °C/m)

15) For a sample of seawater (an aqueous solution of NaCl), the concentration of salt is
approximately 0.50 m. Calculate the freezing point of seawater. (Kf for water is
1.86°C/m) 16) Calcium chloride is known to melt ice faster than sodium chloride but is
not used on roads, because the salt itself attracts water. If 15g of CaCl2 was added to
250g of water, what would be the new freezing point of the solution? Kf for water is
1.86°C/m

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MODULE 7: Describing Chemical Reactions
At the end of this module:

1. I can classify a change as chemical or physical and give evidence of chemical

changes reactions.
2. I can describe the principles of collision theory and relate frequency, energy of
collisions, and addition of a catalyst to reaction rate.
3. I can write a chemical equation to describe a simple chemical reaction.
4. I can balance chemical reactions and recognize that the number of atoms in a
chemical reaction does not change.
5. I can classify reactions as synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double
replacement or combustion.
6. I can use molar relationships in a balanced chemical reaction to predict the mass of
product produced in a simple chemical reaction that goes to completion.
7. I can explain the concept of dynamic equilibrium as it relates to chemical reactions.
8. I can describe whether reactants or products are favored in equilibrium when given
the equilibrium constant.
9. I can predict the effect of adding or removing either a product or a reactant or the
effect of c hanging temperature to shift equilibrium.

Lesson 7.1: Chemical & Physical Change

Introduction

Change is happening all around us all of the time. Just as chemists have
classified elements and compounds, they have also classified types of changes.
Changes are either classified as physical or chemical changes.

Physical & Chemical Change

Chemists learn a lot about

the nature of matter by studying
the changes that matter can
undergo. Chemists make a
distinction between two different
types of changes that they study
– physical changes and
chemical changes. Physical
changes are changes in which Image Source:
no bonds are broken or formed. This means that the same CC- Tracy Poulsen

types of compounds or elements that were there at the beginning of the change are
there at the end of the change. Because the ending materials are the same as the

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beginning materials, the properties (such as color, boiling point, etc) will also be the
same. Physical changes involve moving molecules around, but not changing them.
Some types of physical changes include:

 Changes of state (changes from a solid to a liquid or a gas and vice versa)
 Separation of a mixture
 Physical deformation (cutting, denting, stretching)
 Making solutions (special kinds of mixtures)

When we heat the liquid water, it changes to water vapor. But even though the
physical properties have changed, the molecules are exactly the same as before. We
still have each water molecule containing two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
covalently bonded. When you have a jar containing a mixture of pennies and nickels
and you sort the mixture so that you have one pile of pennies and another pile of
nickels, you have not altered the identity of either the pennies or the nickels – you’ve
merely separated them into two groups. This would be an example of a physical
change. Similarly, if you have a piece of paper, you don’t change it into something
other than a piece of paper by ripping it up. What was paper before you starting
tearing is still paper when you’re done. Again, this is an example of a physical change.

For the most part, physical changes tend to be reversible – in other words, they
can occur in both directions. You can turn liquid water into solid water through cooling;
you can also turn solid water into liquid water through heating. However, as we will later
learn, some chemical changes can also be reversed.

Chemical changes occur

when bonds are broken and/or
formed between molecules or atoms.
This means that one substance with a
certain set of properties (such as
melting point, color, taste, etc.) is
turned into a different substance with
difference properties. Chemical

changes are frequently harder to reverse than physical Image Source:

CC- Tracy Poulsen
changes.
One good example of a chemical change is burning paper. In contrast to the
act of ripping paper, the act of burning paper actually results in the formation of new
chemicals (carbon dioxide and water, to be exact). Another example of chemical
change occurs when water is formed. Each molecule contains two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen chemically bonded.

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 Image Source: Image Source:
CC- Tracy Poulsen CC- Tracy Poulsen

Another example of a chemical change is what occurs when natural gas is

burned in your furnace. This time, on the left we have a molecule of methane, CH 4, and
two molecules of oxygen, O2, while on the right we have two molecules of water, H2O,
and one molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2. In this case, not only has the appearance
changed, but the structure of the molecules has also changed. The new substances do
not have the same chemical properties as the original ones. Therefore, this is a
chemical change.

Evidence of Chemical Change

We can’t actually see molecules breaking and forming bonds, although that’s
what defines chemical changes. We have to make other observations to indicate that
a chemical change has happened. Some of the evidence for chemical change will
involve the energy changes that occur in chemical changes, but some evidence
involves the fact that new substances with different properties are formed in a chemical
change.

Observations that help to indicate chemical change include:

 Temperature changes (either the temperature increases or decreases)
 Unexpected color changes (a substance with a different color is made, rather
than just mixing the original colors together)
 Bubbles are formed (but the substance is not boiling – you made a substance
that is a gas at the temperature as the beginning materials, instead of a liquid)
 Different smell or taste (do not taste your chemistry experiments, though!)
 A solid forms if two clear liquids are mixed (look for floaties – technically called a
precipitate)

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7.1: Review Questions

Label each of the following as a physical or chemical change.

1) Water boils at 100°C.

2) Water is separated by electrolysis (running
electricity through it) into hydrogen gas and
oxygen gas.

3) Sugar dissolves in water.

4) Vinegar and baking soda react to produce
a gas.

5) Yeast acts on sugar to form carbon dioxide

and ethanol.

6) Wood burns producing several new

substances.

7) A cake is baked.

Lesson 7.2: Reaction Rate

Introduction

We know that a chemical system can be made up of atoms (H 2, N2, K, etc), ions
(NO3 -, Cl-, Na+, etc), or molecules (H2O, C12H22O11, etc). We also know that in a
chemical system, these particles are moving around in a random motion. The collision
theory explains why reactions occur at this particle level between these atoms, ions,

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and/or molecules. It also explains how it is possible to speed up or slow down reactions
that are occurring.

Collision Theory

The collision theory provides us with the ability to predict what conditions are necessary
for a successful reaction to take place. These conditions include:

1. The particles must collide with each other.

2. The particles must collide with sufficient energy to break the old bonds.
3. The particles must have proper orientation.
A chemical reaction involves breaking bonds in the reactants, re-arranging the
atoms into new groupings (the products), and the formation of new bonds in the
products.

Therefore, not only must a collision occur between reactant particles, but the
collision has to have sufficient energy to break all the reactant bonds that need to be
broken in order to form the products. Some reactions need less collision energy than
others. The amount of energy the reactant particles must have in order to break the old
bonds for a reaction
to occur is called the
activation energy,
abbreviated Ea.
Another way to think
of this is to look at an
energy diagram, as
shown in the figure.
Particles must be able
to get over the ―bump‖, the activation energy, if they are Image Source:
CC- Tracy Poulsen
going to react. If the reactant particles collide with less
than the activation energy, the particles will rebound (bounce off each other), and no
reaction will occur.

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Reaction Rate

Chemists use reactions to generate a product for which they have use. For the
most part, the reactions that produce some desired compound are only useful if the
reaction occurs at a reasonable rate. For example, using a reaction to produce brake
fluid would not be useful if the reaction required 8,000 years complete the product.
Such a reaction would also not be useful if the reaction was so fast that it was explosive.
For these reasons, chemists wish to be able to control reaction rates. In some cases,
chemists wish to speed up reactions that are too slow and slow down reactions that are
too fast. In order to gain any control over reaction rates, we must know the factors that
affect reaction rates. Chemists have identified many factors that affect the rate of a
reaction.
The rate, or speed, at which a reaction occurs depends on the frequency of
successful collisions. Remember, a successful collision occurs when two reactants
collide with enough energy and with the right orientation. That means if we can do
things that will increase the number of collisions, increase the number of particles that
have enough energy to react and/or increase the number of particles with the correct
orientation we will increase the rate of a reaction.

Effect of Temperature on Rate of Reaction

The rate of reaction was discussed in terms of three factors: collision frequency,
the collision energy, and the geometric orientation. Remember that the collision
frequency is the number of collisions per second. The collision frequency is dependent,
among other factors, on the temperature of the reaction.

When the temperature is increased, the average velocity of the particles is

increased. The average kinetic energy of these particles is also increased. The result is
that the particles will collide more frequently, because the particles move around faster
and will encounter more reactant particles. However, this is only a minor part of the
reason why the rate is increased. Just because the particles are colliding more
frequently does not mean that the reaction will definitely occur.

The major effect of increasing the temperature is that more of the particles that
collide will have the amount of energy needed to have an effective collision. In other
words, more particles will have the necessary activation energy.

At room temperature, the hydrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere do not have
sufficient energy to attain the activation energy needed to produce water:

O2(g) + H2(g) No reaction

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At any one moment in the atmosphere, there are many collisions occurring between
these two reactants. But what we find is that water is not formed from the oxygen and
hydrogen molecules colliding in the atmosphere because the activation energy barrier
is just too high and all the collisions are resulting in rebound. When we increase the
temperature of the reactants or give them energy in some other way, the molecules
have the necessary activation energy and are able to react to produce water:

O2(g) + H2(g) H2O(l)

There are times when the rate of a reaction needs to be slowed down. Lowering
the temperature could also be used to decrease the number of collisions that would
occur and lowering the temperature would also reduce the kinetic energy available for
activation energy. If the particles have insufficient activation energy, the collisions will
result in rebound rather than reaction. Using this idea, when the rate of a reaction
needs to be lower, keeping the particles from having sufficient activation energy will
definitely keep the reaction at a lower rate.

Society uses the effect of temperature on rate every day. Food storage is a
prime example of how the temperature effect on reaction rate is utilized by society.
Consumers store food in freezers and refrigerators to slow down the processes that
cause it to spoil. The decrease in temperature decreases the rate at which the food will
break down or be broken down by bacteria. In the early years of the 20th century,
explorers were fascinated with trying to be the first one to reach the South Pole. In order
to attempt such a difficult task at a time without most of the technology we take for
granted today, they devised a variety of ways of surviving. One method was to store
their food in the snow to be used later during their advances to the pole. On some
explorations, they buried so much food, that they didn’t need to use all of it and it was
left. Many years later, when this food was located and thawed, it was found to still be
edible.

When milk, for instance, is stored in the refrigerator, the molecules in the milk
have less energy. This means that while molecules will still collide with other molecules,
few of them will react (which means in this case ―spoil‖) because the molecules do not
have sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. The molecules do
have energy and are colliding, however, and so, over time, even in the refrigerator, the
milk will spoil. Eventually the higher energy molecules will gain the energy needed to
react and when enough of these reactions occur, the milk becomes ―soured‖.

However, if that same carton of milk was at room temperature, the milk would
react (in other words ―spoil’) much more quickly. Now most of the molecules will have
sufficient energy to overcome the energy barrier and at room temperature many more
collisions will be occurring. This allows for the milk to spoil in a fairly short amount of time.

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This is also the reason why most fruits and vegetables ripen in the summer when the
temperature is much warmer. You may have experienced this first hand if you have
ever bitten into an unripe banana – it was probably sour tasting and might even have
felt like biting into a piece of wood! When a banana ripens, numerous reactions occur
that produce all the compounds that we expect to taste in a banana. But this can only
happen if the temperature is high enough to allow these reactions to make those
products.

Effect of Concentration on Rate of Reaction

If you had an enclosed space, like a classroom, and there was one red ball and
one green ball flying around the room with random motion and undergoing perfectly
elastic collisions with the walls and with each other, in a given amount of time, the balls
would collide with each other a certain number of times determined by probability. If
you now put two red balls and one green ball in the room under the same conditions,
the probability of a collision between a red ball and the green ball would exactly
double. The green ball would have twice the chance of encountering a red ball in the
same amount of time.

In terms of chemical reactions, a similar situation exists. Particles of two gaseous

reactants or two reactants in solution have a certain probability of undergoing collisions
with each other in a reaction vessel. If you double the concentration of either reactant,
the probability of a collision doubles. The rate of reaction is proportional to the number
of collisions per unit time. If one concentration of one of the reactants is doubled, the
number of collisions will also double. Assuming that the percent of collision that are
successful does not change, then having twice as many collisions will result in twice as
many successful collisions. The rate of reaction is proportional to the number of collisions
over time and increasing the concentration of either reactant increases the number of
collisions and therefore, increases the number of successful collisions and the reaction
rate.

For example, the chemical test used to identify a gas as oxygen or not relies on
the fact that increasing the concentration of a reactant increases reaction rate. The
reaction we call combustion refers to a reaction in which a flammable substance
reacts with oxygen. If we light a wooden splint (a thin splinter of wood) on fire and then
blow the fire out, the splint will continue to glow in air for a period of time. If we insert
that glowing splint into any gas that does not contain oxygen, the splint will immediately
cease to glow - that is the reaction stops. Oxygen is the only gas that will support
combustion. Air is approximately, 20% oxygen gas. If we take that glowing splint and
insert it into pure oxygen gas, the reaction will increase its rate by a factor of five - since
pure oxygen has 5 times the concentration of oxygen that is in air. When the reaction

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occurring on the glowing splint increases its rate by a factor of five, the glowing splint
will suddenly burst back into full flame. This test, of thrusting a glowing splint into a gas, is
used to identify the gas as oxygen. Only a greater concentration of oxygen than that
found in air will cause the glowing splint to burst into flame.

Effect of Surface Area on Rate of Reaction

The very first requirement for a reaction to occur between reactant particles is
that the particles must collide with each other. The previous section pointed out how
increasing the concentration of the reactants increases reaction rate because it
increased the frequency of collisions between reactant particles. It can be shown that
the number of collisions that occur between reactant particles is also dependent on
the surface area of solid reactants. Consider a reaction between reactant RED and
reactant BLUE in which reactant blue is in the form of a single lump. Then compare this
to the same reaction where reactant blue has been broken up into many smaller
pieces.

In the diagram, only

the blue particles on the
outside surface of the lump
are available for collision
with reactant red. The blue
particles on the interior of
the lump are protected by
the blue particles on the
surface. In Figure A, if you
count the number of blue particles available for collision, Image Source:
CC- Tracy Poulsen
you will find that only 20 blue particles could be struck by a
particle of reactant red. In Figure A, there are a number of blue particles on the interior
of the lump that cannot be struck. In Figure B, however, the lump has been broken up
into smaller pieces and all the interior blue particles are now on a surface and available
for collision. In diagram B, more collisions between blue and red will occur, and
therefore, the reaction in Figure B will occur at faster rate than the same reaction in
Figure A. Increasing the surface area of a reactant increases the frequency of collisions
and increases the reaction rate.

Several smaller particles have more surface area than one large particle. The
more surface area that is available for particles to collide, the faster the reaction will
occur. You can see an example of this in everyday life if you have ever tried to start a
fire in the fireplace. If you hold a match up against a large log in an attempt to start the
log burning, you will find it to be an unsuccessful effort. Holding a match against a large

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log will not cause enough reactions to occur in order to keep the fire going by
providing sufficient activation energy for further reactions. In order to start a wood fire, it
is common to break a log up into many small, thin sticks called kindling. These thinner
sticks of wood provide many times the surface area of a single log. The match will
successfully cause enough reactions in the kindling so that sufficient heat is given off to
provide activation energy for further reactions.

There have been, unfortunately, cases where serious accidents were caused by
the failure to understand the relationship between surface area and reaction rate. One
such example occurred in flour mills. A grain of wheat is not very flammable. It takes a
significant effort to get a grain of wheat to burn. If the grain of wheat, however, is
pulverized and scattered through the air, only a spark is necessary to cause an
explosion. When the wheat is ground to make flour, it is pulverized into a fine powder
and some of the powder gets scattered around in the air. A small spark then, is
sufficient to start a very rapid reaction which can destroy the entire flour mill. In a 10-
year period from 1988 to 1998, there were 129 grain dust explosions in mills in the United
States. Efforts are now made in flour mills to have huge fans circulate the air in the mill
through filters to remove the majority of the flour dust particles.

Another example is in the operation of coal mines. Coal, of course, will burn but it
takes an effort to get the coal started and once it is burning, it burns slowly because
only the surface particles are available to collide with oxygen particles. The interior
particles of coal have to wait until the outer surface of the coal lump burns off before
they can collide with oxygen. In coal mines, huge blocks of coal must be broken up
before the coal can be brought out of the mine. In the process of breaking up the huge
blocks of coal, drills are used to drill into the walls of coal. This drilling produces fine coal
dust that mixes into the air and then a spark from a tool can cause a massive explosion
in the mine. There are explosions in coal mines for other reasons but coal dust explosions
contributed to the death of many miners. In modern coal mines, lawn sprinklers are
used to spray water through the air in the mine and this reduces the coal dust in the air
and eliminates coal dust explosions.

Effect of a Catalyst on Rate of Reaction

The final factor that affects the rate of the reaction is the effect of the catalyst. A
catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of the reaction without itself being
consumed by the reaction.

In the reaction of potassium chlorate breaking down to potassium chloride and

oxygen, a catalyst is available to make this reaction occur much faster than it would
occur by itself under room conditions. The reaction is:

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 MnO2(s)
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2 (g)

The catalyst is manganese dioxide and its presence causes the reaction shown
above to run many times faster than it occurs without the catalyst. When the reaction
has reached completion, the MnO2 can be removed from the reaction vessel and its
condition is exactly the same as it was before the reaction. This is part of the definition
of a catalyst . . . that it is not consumed by the reaction. You should note that the
catalyst is not written into the equation as a reactant or product but is noted above the
yields arrow. This is standard notation for the use of a catalyst.

Some reactions occur very slowly without the presence of a catalyst. In other
words the activation energy for these reactions is very high. When the catalyst is added,
the activation energy is lowered because the catalyst provides a new reaction
pathway with lower activation energy.

In the figure
on the left, the
endothermic
reaction shows the
catalyst reaction in
red with the lower
activation energy,
designated E’a. The
new reaction
Image Source:
pathway has lower activation energy but has no effect on
CC- Tracy Poulsen
the energy of the reactants, the products, or the value of
ΔH. The same is true for the exothermic reaction in Right Figure. The activation energy of
the catalyzed reaction is lower than that of the uncatalyzed reaction. The new reaction
pathway provided by the catalyst affects the energy required for reactant bonds to
break and product bonds to form.

While many reactions in the laboratory can be increased by increasing the

temperature, that is not possible for all the reactions that occur in our bodies
throughout our entire lives. In fact, the body needs to be maintained at a very specific
temperature: 98.6 °F or 37 °C. Of course there are times, for instance, when the body is
fighting an infection, when the body temperature may be increased. But generally, in a
healthy person, the temperature is quite consistent. However, many of the reactions
that a healthy body depends on could never occur at body temperature. The answer
to this dilemma is catalysts or what are also referred to as enzymes. Many of these
enzymes are made in your cells since your DNA carries the directions to make them.

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However, there are some enzymes that your body must have but are not made in your
cells. These catalysts must be supplied to your body in the food you eat and are called
vitamins.

Further Readings / Supplemental Links

Activation Energy:
[Link]
[Link] The [Link] website allows users to view
streaming videos of the Annenberg series of chemistry videos. You are required to
register before you can watch the videos but there is no charge. The website has one
video that relates to this lesson called Molecules in Action.
[Link]
[Link]
Observing molecules during chemical reactions helps explain the role of catalysts.
Dynamic equilibrium is also demonstrated. Molecules in Action
([Link]
Surface science examines how surfaces react with each other at the molecular level.
On the Surface ([Link]
[Link]

7.2: Review Questions

Multiple Choice:
1) According to the collision theory, what must happen in order for a reaction to be
successful? (Select all that apply.)
a) particles must collide
b) particles must have proper geometric orientation
c) particles must have collisions with enough energy

2) What would happen in a collision between two particles if particles did not have
enough energy or had the incorrect orientation?
a) the particles would rebound and there would be no reaction
b) the particles would keep bouncing off each other until they eventually react,
therefore the rate would be slow
c) the particles would still collide but the by-products would form
d) the temperature of the reaction vessel would increase

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3) Why does higher temperature increase the reaction rate?
a) more of the reacting molecules will have higher kinetic energy
b) increasing the temperature causes the reactant molecules to heat up
c) the activation energy will decrease

4) When the temperature is increased, what does not change?

a) number of collisions c) activation energy
b) number of successful collisions d) all of the above change

5) Why is the increase in concentration directly proportional to the rate of the reaction?
a) The kinetic energy increases.
b) The activation energy increases.
c) The number of successful collisions increases.
d) All of the above.

Choose the substance with the greatest surface in the following groupings:
6) a block of ice or crushed ice
7) sugar crystals or sugar cubes
8) a piece of wood or wood shavings
9) Why, using the collision theory, do reactions with higher surface area have rates?

Limestone (calcium carbonate) reacts with hydrochloric acid in an irreversible reaction,

To form carbon dioxide and water as described by the following equation:

CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

What is the effect on the rate if:

10) The temperature is lowered?

11) Limestone chips are used instead of a block of limestone?
12) A more dilute solution of HCl is used?

Lesson 7.3: Chemical Reactions and Equations

Introduction
In a chemical change, new substances are formed. In order for this to occur, the
chemical bonds of the substances break, and the atoms that compose them separate
and rearrange themselves into new substances with new chemical bonds. When this
process occurs, we call it a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction is the process in
which one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances.

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Reactants and Products
In order to describe a chemical reaction, we need to indicate what substances
are present at the beginning and what substances are present at the end. The
substances that are present at the beginning are called reactants and the substances
present at the end are called products.
Sometimes when reactants are put into a reaction vessel, a reaction will take
place to produce products. Reactants are the starting materials, that is, whatever we
have as our initial ingredients. The products are just that, what is produced or the result
of what happens to the reactants when we put them together in the reaction vessel. If
we think about baking chocolate chip cookies, our reactants would be flour, butter,
sugar, vanilla, some baking soda, salt, egg, and chocolate chips. What would be the
products? Cookies! The reaction vessel would be our mixing bowl.
Flour + Butter + Sugar + Vanilla + Baking Soda + Eggs + Chocolate Chips Cookies

Writing Chemical Equations

When sulfur dioxide is added to oxygen, sulfur trioxide is produced. Sulfur dioxide
and oxygen, SO2 + O2, are reactants and sulfur trioxide, SO3, is the product.

In chemical reactions, the reactants are found before the symbol ―→‖ and the
products and found after the symbol ―→‖. The general equation for a reaction is:
Reactants → Products
There are a few special symbols that we need to know in order to ―talk‖ in
chemical shorthand. In the table below is the summary of the major symbols used in
chemical equations. You will find there are others but these are the main ones that we
need to know.

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Chemists have a choice of methods for describing a chemical reaction.
1. They could draw a picture of the chemical reaction.

Image Source:
CC- Tracy Poulsen

2. They could write a word equation for the chemical reaction:

“Two molecules of hydrogen gas react with one molecule of oxygen gas to
produce two molecules of water vapour.‖

3. They could write the equation in chemical shorthand.

2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)

In the symbolic equation, chemical formulas are used instead of chemical

names for reactants and products and symbols are used to indicate the phase of each
substance. It should be apparent that the chemical shorthand method is the quickest
and clearest method for writing chemical equations.
We could write that an aqueous solution of calcium nitrate is added to an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide to produce solid calcium hydroxide and an
aqueous solution of sodium nitrate. Or in shorthand we could write:

Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) → Ca(OH)2(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)

How much easier is that to read? Let's try it in reverse? Look at the following reaction in
shorthand notation and write the word equation for the reaction.

Cu(s) + AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Ag(s)

The word equation for this reaction might read

something like "solid copper reacts with an aqueous
solution of silver nitrate to produce a solution of
copper (II) nitrate with solid silver".

In order to turn word equations into symbolic

equations, we need to follow the given steps:

1. Identify the reactants and products. This will

help you know what symbols go on each side
of the arrow and where the + signs go.

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 2. Write the correct formulas for all compounds. You will need to use the rules you
learned in Module 4 (including making all ionic compounds charge balanced).
3. Write the correct formulas for all elements. Usually, this is given straight off of
the periodic table. However, there are seven elements that are considered
diatomic, meaning they are always found in pairs in nature. They include those
elements listed in the table.

7.3: Review Questions

Convert the following equations from word equations into symbolic equations. Be sure
to look up charges of ionic compounds to write the correct formula for the compound.

1) Solid calcium metal is placed in liquid water to produce aqueous calcium hydroxide
and hydrogen gas.
2) Gaseous sodium hydroxide is mixed with gaseous chlorine to produce aqueous
solutions of sodium chloride and sodium hypochlorite plus liquid water.
3) Iron reacts with sulfur when heated to form iron(II) sulfide.
4) When aluminum is added to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), the solution reacts to form
hydrogen gas and aluminum sulfate.
5) When aluminum is mixed with iron(III) oxide, they react to produce aluminum oxide
and iron.
6) Fluorine is mixed with sodium hydroxide to form sodium fluoride, oxygen, and water.
7) A solid chunk of iron is dropped into a solution of copper(I) nitrate forming iron(II)
nitrate and solid copper.

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7.4: Balancing Chemical Equations
Even though chemical compounds are broken up and new compounds are
formed during a chemical reaction, atoms in the reactants do not disappear nor do
new atoms appear to form the products. In chemical reactions, atoms are never
created or destroyed. The same atoms that were present in the reactants are present in
the products – they are merely reorganized into different arrangements. In a complete
chemical equation, the two sides of the equation must be balanced. That is, in a
complete chemical equation, the same number of each atom must be present on the
reactants and the products sides of the equation.
There are two types of numbers that appear in chemical equations. There are
subscripts, which are part of the chemical formulas of the reactants and products and
there are coefficients that are placed in front of the formulas to indicate how many
molecules of that substance is used or produced.

The subscripts are part of the formulas and once the formulas for the reactants and
products are determined, the subscripts may not be changed. The coefficients indicate
the number of each substance involved in the reaction and may be changed in order
to balance the equation. The equation above indicates that one mole of solid copper
is reacting with two moles of aqueous silver nitrate to produce one mole of aqueous
copper (II) nitrate and two atoms of solid silver.
Once you have written a symbolic equation from words, it is important to
balance the equation. It is very important to note that these steps must be carried out
in the correct order. You must have the correct formulas for your reactants and
products before you can use coefficients to balance the equation.
When you learned how to write formulas, it was made clear that when only one
atom of an element is present, the subscript of "1" is not written - so that when no
subscript appears for an atom in a formula, you read that as one atom. The same is true
in writing balanced chemical equations. If only one atom or molecule is present, the
coefficient of "1" is omitted. Coefficients are inserted into the chemical equation in
order to balance it; that is, to make the total number of each atom on the two sides of
the equation equal. Equation balancing is accomplished by changing coefficients,
never by changing subscripts.

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MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 137
 Chemical equations should be balanced with the simplest whole number
coefficients that balance the equation. Here is the properly balanced equation from
the previous section.
Al2(SO4)3 + 3 CaBr2 → 2 AlBr3 + 3 CaSO4

Note that the equation in the previous section would have the same number of atoms
of each type on each side of the equation with the following set of coefficients.
2 Al2(SO4)3 + 6 CaBr2 → 4 AlBr3 + 6 CaSO4

Count the number of each type of atom on each side of the equation to confirm that
this equation is "balanced". While this set of coefficients does "balance" the equation,
they are not the lowest set of coefficients possible that balance the equation. We could
divide each of the coefficients in this equation by 2 and get another set of coefficients
that are whole numbers and also balance the equation. Since it is required that an
equation be balanced with the lowest whole number coefficients, the last equation is
NOT properly balanced. When you have finished balancing an equation, you should
not only check to make sure it is balanced, you should also check to make sure that it is
balanced with the simplest set of whole number coefficients possible.

Conservation of Mass in Chemical Reactions

In Module 2 we discussed the development of the atomic theory, or the idea

that everything is made of atoms. A strong piece of evidence for this theory was
experimentally determined by Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist. The Law of
Conservation of Mass, as he states it, says that mass is conserved in chemical reactions.
In other words, the mass of the starting materials (reactants) is always equal to the mass
of the ending materials (products).
But what does this really mean? Dalton used this finding to support the idea of
atoms. If the mass isn’t changing, then the particles that carry the mass (atoms) aren’t
created or destroyed, but are only rearranged in a chemical reaction. Both the
numbers of each type of atom and the mass are conserved during chemical reactions.

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An examination of a properly balanced equation will demonstrate that mass is
conserved. Consider the following reaction.

Fe(NO3)3 + 3 NaOH → Fe(OH)3 + 3 NaNO3

You should check that this equation is balanced by counting the number of
each type of atom on each side of the equation. We can also demonstrate that mass is
conserved in this reaction by determining the total mass on the two sides of the
equation. We will use the molar masses to add up the masses of the atoms on the
reactant side and compare this to the mass of the atoms on the product side of the
reaction:

Reactant Side Mass

1 moles of Fe(NO3)3 x molar mass = (1mol)(241.9 g/mol) = 241.9 g
3 moles of NaOH x molar mass = (3mol)(40.0 g/mol) = 120. g
Total mass for reactants = 241.9 g + 120. g = 361.9 g

Product Side Mass

1 moles of Fe(OH)3 x molar mass= (1mol)(106.9g/mol) = 106.9g
3 moles of NaNO3 x molar mass = (3mol)(85.0 g/mol) = 255 g
Total mass for products = 106.9 g + 255 g = 361.9 g

As you can see, both number of atom types and mass are conserved during
chemical reactions. A group of 20 objects stacked in different ways will still have the
same total mass no matter how you stack them.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

For a Bill Nye video on reactions, go to [Link] Go to the k-12 library.

Search for ―Bill Nye reactions‖.
For videos and clips on reactions, go to [Link] Go to the k-12
library. Search for ―reactions‖ or ―chemical equations‖.
Vision Learning: Chemical Equations
[Link]
Balancing Equations Tutorial:
[Link]
Balancing Equations Tutorial: [Link]
Law of Conservation of Mass (YouTube):
[Link]

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7.4 Review Questions

Balance the following equations.

1) Cu + O2 → CuO
2) H2O → H2 + O2
3) Fe + H2O → H2 + Fe2O3
4) NaCl → Na + Cl2
5) AsCl3 + H2S → As2S3 + HCl
6) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
7) H2S + KOH → HOH + K2S
8) XeF6 + H2O → XeO3 + HF
9) Cu + AgNO3 → Ag + Cu(NO3)2
10) Fe + O2 → Fe2O3
11) Al(OH)3 + Mg3(PO4)2 → AlPO4 + Mg(OH)2
12) Al + H2SO4 → H2 + Al2(SO4)3
13) H3PO4 + NH4OH → HOH + (NH4)3PO4
14) C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
15) Al + O2 → Al2O3
16) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
17) When the following equation is balanced, what is the coefficient found in front of
the O2?
P4 + O2 + H2O → H3PO4
18) When properly balanced, what is the sum of all the coefficients in the following
chemical equation? SF4 + H2O → H2SO3 + HF
19) Explain in your own words why it is essential that subscripts remain constant but
coefficients can change when balancing a reaction.

Lesson 7.5: Types of Reactions

Introduction
Chemical reactions are classified into types to help us analyze them and also to
help us predict what the products of the reaction will be. The five major types of
chemical reactions are synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double
replacement, and combustion.

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Synthesis Reactions
A synthesis reaction is one in
which two or more reactants combine
to make one type of product.
General equation: A + B → AB
Synthesis reactions occur as a result of
two or simpler elements or molecules
combining to form a more complex
molecule. Look at the example below.
Here two elements (hydrogen and
oxygen) are combining to form one
product (water).
Example: 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)

We can always identify a synthesis reaction because there is only one product of
the reaction.
You should be able to write the chemical equation for a synthesis reaction if you
are given a product by picking out its elements and writing the equation. Also, if you
are given elemental reactants and told that the reaction is a synthesis reaction, you
should be able to predict the products.

Decomposition Reactions
When one type of reactant breaks
down to form two or more products, we
have a decomposition reaction. The best
way to remember a decomposition
reaction is that for all reactions of this
type, there is only one reactant.
General Equation: AB → A + B

Look at the example below for the

decomposition of ammonium nitrate to
dinitrogen oxide and water.
Example: NH4NO3 → N2O + 2 H2O

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Notice the one reactant, NH4NO3, is on the left of the arrow and there is more than one
on the right side of the arrow. This is the exact opposite of the synthesis reaction type.
When studying decomposition reactions, we can predict reactants in a similar
manner as we did for synthesis reactions. Look at the formula for magnesium nitride,
Mg3N2. What elements do you see in this formula? You see magnesium and nitrogen.
Now we can write a decomposition reaction for magnesium nitride.
Notice there is only one reactant.
Mg3N2 → 3 Mg + N2

Single Replacement Reactions

A third type of reaction is the

single replacement reaction. In
single replacement reactions one
element reacts with one
compound to form products. The
single element is said to replace an
element in the compound when
products form, hence the name
single replacement. Metal elements
will always replace other metals in ionic compounds or hydrogen in an acid. Nonmetal
elements will always replace another nonmetal in an ionic compound.
General equation: A + BC → B + AC
Consider the following examples.
Zn(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s)

Notice that the metal element, Zn, replaced the metal in the compound Cu(NO3)2. A
metal element will always replace a metal in an ionic compound. Also, note that the
charges of the ionic compounds must equal zero. To correctly predict the formula of
the ionic product, you must know the charges of the ions you are combining.
Zn(s) + 2 HBr(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

When a metal element is mixed with acid, the metal will replace the hydrogen in the
acid and release hydrogen gas a product. Once again, note that the charges of the

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ionic compounds must equal zero. To correctly predict the formula of the ionic product,
you must know the charges of the ions you are combining, in this case Zn2+ and Cl-.
Cl2(g) + 2 KI(aq) → 2 KCl(aq) + I2(s)

When a nonmetal element is added to an ionic compound, the element will replace
the nonmetal in the compound. Also, to correctly write the formulas of the products,
you must first identify the charges of the ions that will be in the ionic compound.

Double Replacement
For double replacement reactions two ionic compound reactants will react by
having the cations exchange places, forming two new ionic compounds. The key to this
type of reaction, as far as identifying it over the other types, is that it has two
compounds as reactants. This
type of reaction is more
common than any of the
others and there are many
different types of double
replacement reactions.
Precipitation and
neutralization reactions are

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two of the most common double replacement reactions. Precipitation reactions are
ones where two aqueous compound reactants combine to form products where one
of the products is an insoluble solid. A neutralization reaction is one where the two
reactant compounds are an acid and a base and the two products are a salt and
water (i.e. acid + base salt + water). General equation: AB + CD → AD + CB

For example, when solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride are mixed, the
following reaction occurs: AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

This is an example of a precipitate reaction. Notice that two aqueous reactants

form one solid, the precipitate, and another aqueous product.
An example of a neutralization reaction occurs when sodium hydroxide, a base,
is mixed with sulfuric acid: 2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

In order to write the products for a double displacement reaction, you must be
able to determine the correct formulas for the new compounds. Remember, the total
charge of all ionic compounds is zero. To correctly write the formulas of the products,
you must know the charges of the ions in the reactants. Let’s practice with an example
or two.

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Combustion
In a combustion
reaction oxygen reacts with
another substance to
produce carbon dioxide and
water. This is what happens
when fuel burns. In a
particular branch of
chemistry, known as organic chemistry, we study compounds known as hydrocarbons.
A hydrocarbon is compound consisting of only hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons
represent the major components of all organic material including fuels. Combustion
reactions usually have the same products, CO2 and H2O, and one of its reactants is
always oxygen. In other words, the only part that changes from one combustion
reaction to the next is the actual hydrocarbon that burns. The general equation is given
below. Notice the oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water parts of the reaction are listed for
you to show you how these reactants and products remain the same from combustion
reaction to combustion reaction.
General equation: CxHy (hydrocarbon) + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Look at the reaction for the combustion of octane, C8H18, below. Octane has 8
carbon atoms hence the prefix ―oct‖.

Example: 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 → 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

This reaction is referred to as complete combustion. Complete combustion reactions

occur when there is enough oxygen to burn the entire hydrocarbon. This is why there
are only carbon dioxide and water as products.

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7.5: Review Questions

Classify each type of reaction as synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double

replacement or combustion.

1) Cu + O2 → CuO

2) H2O → H2 + O2

3) Fe + H2O → H2 + Fe2O3

4) AsCl3 + H2S → As2S3 + HCl

5) Fe2O3 + H2 → Fe + H2O

6) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

7) H2S + KOH → HOH + K2S

8) NaCl → Na + Cl2

9) Al + H2SO4 → H2 + Al2(SO4)3

10) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

11) Distinguish between synthesis and decomposition reactions.

12) When dodecane, C10H22, burns in excess oxygen, what will be the products?

13) When iron rods are placed in liquid water, a reaction occurs. Hydrogen gas evolves
from the container and iron (III) oxide forms onto the iron rod. Classify the type of
reaction and write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

Classify each of the following reactions and predict products for each reaction.

14) H3PO4 + NH4OH →

15) C3H8 + O2 →

16) Al + O2 →

17) BaCl2 + Na2SO4 →

18) Ca + HCl →

19) FeS + HCl →

20) NaI + Br2 →

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Lesson 7.6: Stoichiometry

Introduction

You have learned that chemical equations provide us with information about
the types of particles that react to form products. Chemical equations also provide us
with the relative number of particles and moles that react to form products. In this
module you will explore the quantitative relationships that exist between the quantities
of reactants and products in a balanced equation. This is known as stoichiometry.
Stoichiometry, by definition, is the calculation of the quantities of reactants or
products in a chemical reaction using the relationships found in the balanced chemical
equation. The word stoichiometry is actually Greek coming from two words stoikheion,
which means element and metron, which means measure.

Interpreting Chemical Equations

The mole, as you remember, is a quantitative measure that is equivalent to Avogadro’s

number of particles. So how does this relate to the chemical equation? Look at the
chemical equation below.

The coefficients used, as we have learned, tell us the relative amounts of each
substance in the equation. So for every 2 units of copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4) we have,
we need to have 4 units of potassium iodide (KI). For every two dozen copper(II)
sulfates, we need 4 dozen potassium iodides. Because the unit ―mole‖ is also a counting
unit, we can interpret this equation in terms of moles, as well: For every two moles of
copper(II) sulfate, we need 4 moles potassium iodide.

Look at the chemical equation below. This reaction can be interpreted many ways.
N2O3 + H2O → 2 HNO2

 One molecule of dinitrogen trioxide plus one molecule of water yields two
molecules of hydrogen nitrite.
 One mole of dinitrogen trioxide plus one mole of water yields two moles of
hydrogen nitrite.

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Stoichiometry

In chemistry, we ―talk‖ to each other using chemical equations, the same way
mathematicians talk to each other using mathematical equations. In chemistry, we also
want to talk about quantities. Using stoichiometry, you can predict the quantities of
reactants as products that can be used and produced in a chemical reaction. This
requires working with balanced chemical equations.
In this section, we will use the mole as a conversion factor to calculate moles of
product from a given number of moles of reactant or moles of reactant from a given
number of moles of product. This is called a ―mole-mole‖ calculation. We will also
perform ―massmass‖ calculations, which allow you to determine the mass of reactant
you require to produce a given amount of product or to calculate the mass of product
you can obtain from a given mass of reactant.

Mole Ratios

A mole ratio is the relationship of the number of moles of the substances in a

reaction. For instance, in the following reaction we read the coefficients as molecules
(or formula units) and moles: 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)

2 moles of H2 react with 1 mole of O2 to produce 2 moles of H2O. Or, an alternate

method to represent this information is with mole ratios. The following mole ratios can be
obtained from this reaction:

Using the coefficients of a balanced reaction, you can compare any two
substances in the reaction you are interested in, whether they are reactants or
products. The correct mole ratios of the reactants and products in a chemical equation
are determined by the balanced equation. Therefore, the chemical equation MUST
always be balanced before the mole ratios are used for calculations.

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Mole-Mole Calculations

We have already learned the process through which chemists solve many math
problems, the factor-label method. The mole-mole ratio we obtain from a balanced
reaction can be used as a ratio in part of that process.

Notice if the equation was not balanced, the amount of H3PO4 would have been
different. The reaction MUST be balanced to use the reaction in any calculations. As
you can see, the mole ratios are useful for converting between the number of moles of
one substance and another.

Calculations Using a Mole Map

Being able to perform mass-mass calculations allows you to determine the mass
of reactant (how many grams) you require to produce a given amount of product; or
to calculate the mass of product you can obtain from a given mass of reactant or the
mass of reactant needed to react with a specific amount of another reactant. Just as
when working with mole ratios, it is important to make sure you have a balanced
chemical equation before you begin.
These types of problems can be done using dimensional analysis, also called the
factor-label method. This is simply a method that uses conversion factors to convert
from one unit to another. In this method, we can follow the cancellation of units to the
correct answer.
For example, 15.0 g of chlorine gas is bubbled over liquid sulfur to produce
disulfur dichloride. How much sulfur, in grams, is needed according to the balanced
equation:

Cl2(g) + 2 S(l) → S2Cl2(l)

1. Identify the given: 15.0 g Cl2
2. Identify the find: g S
3. Next, use the correct ratios that allow you to cancel the units you don’t want and get
to the unit you are calculating for.

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7.6: Review Questions

1) Given the reaction between ammonia and oxygen to produce nitrogen monoxide,
how many moles of water vapor can be produced from 2 mol of ammonia? The
balanced reaction is: 4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)

2) When properly balanced, how many moles of bismuth(III) oxide can be produced
from 0.625 mol of bismuth? The unbalanced reaction is: Bi(s) + O2(g) → Bi2O3(s)

3) Solid lithium reacts with an aqueous solution of aluminum chloride to produce

aqueous lithium chloride and solid aluminum. The reaction is: 3 Li + AlCl3 → 3 LiCl + Al.
How many moles of lithium chloride are formed if 5.0 mol aluminum were produced?

For the given balanced reaction: Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 SiO2 + 5 C → 3 CaSiO3 + 5 CO + 2 P

4) How many moles of silicon dioxide are required to react with 0.35 mol of carbon?

5) How many moles of calcium phosphate are required to produce 0.45 mol of calcium
silicate?

For the given balanced reaction, 4 FeS + 7 O2 → 2 Fe2O3 + 4 SO2

6) How many moles of iron(III) oxide are produced from 1.27 mol of oxygen?

7) How many moles of iron(II) sulfide are required to produce 3.28 mol of sulfur dioxide?

8) Given the reaction between copper (II) sulfide and nitric acid, how many grams of
nitric acid will react with 2.00 g of copper(II) sulfide?
3 CuS(s) + 8 HNO3(aq) → 3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NO(g) + 4 H2O(l) + 3 S(s)

9) When properly balanced, what mass of iodine was needed to produce 2.5 g of
sodium iodide in the equation below? I2(aq) + Na2S2O3(aq) → Na2S4O6(aq) + NaI(aq)

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10) Determine the mass of lithium hydroxide produced when 0.38 grams of lithium
nitride reacts with water according to the following equation: Li3N + 3H2O → NH3 +
3LiOH

11) If 3.01x1023 formulas of cesium hydroxide are produced according to this reaction:
2Cs + 2H2O → 2CsOH + H2, how many grams of cesium reacted?

12) How many liters of oxygen are necessary for the combustion of 425 g of sulfur,
assuming that the reaction occurs at STP? The balanced reaction is:
S + O2 → SO2 (hint: one mole of oxygen is 22.4 Liters at STP)

13) If I have 2.0 grams of carbon monoxide, how many molecules of carbon monoxide
are there?

14) What mass of oxygen is needed to burn 3.5 g of propane (C 3H8) is burned
according to the following equation: C3H8 + 5O2 → 4H2O + 3CO2

15) How many grams of water are produced if 5 moles of oxygen react according to
the following reaction? 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

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MODULE 8: Describing Acids & Bases

At the end of this module:

1. I can describe properties of acids and bases and identify if a solution is acidic or
basic.
2. I can calculate the pH of a solution.
3. I can write a neutralization reaction between an acid and base.

Lesson 8.1: Classifying Acids and Bases

Introduction

We may not realize how much acids and bases affect our lives. Have you ever
thought of drinking a can of soda pop and actually drinking acid? Have you looked at
bottles of household cleaners and noticed what the main ingredients were? Have you
ever heard a shampoo commercial and heard them say that the shampoo was ―pH
balanced‖ and wondered what this means and why it is so important for hair? Thanks to
the beginning work of scientists in the latter part of the 19th century, we started to learn
about acids and bases; our study continued and is constantly growing. Let’s begin our
study of this wonderful branch of chemistry.

Properties of Acids

Acids are a special group of compounds with a set of common properties. This
helps to distinguish them from other compounds. Thus, if you had a number of
compounds and you were wondering whether these were acids or otherwise, you
could identify them by their properties. But what exactly are the properties? Think about
the last time you tasted lemons. Did they taste sour, sweet, or bitter? Lemons taste sour.
This is a property of acids. Another property of acids is that they turn blue litmus paper
red. Litmus paper is an indicator, which is a substance that changes color depending
on how acidic or basic something is. If blue litmus paper turns red when it is dipped into
a solution, then the solution is an acid. Another property of acids that many people are
familiar with is their ability to cause burns to skin. This is why it is a bad idea to play with
battery acid or other acids.
Acids react with many metals to produce hydrogen gas. For some examples,
look at the reactions below:

Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

What do you notice that is the same for all three equations? In each case, the
reactants are a metal (Zn or Mg) and an acid (HCl). They all produce hydrogen gas, H 2.

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This is another property of acids. Acids react with most metals to produce hydrogen
gas.
Think about the last time you took an aspirin or a vitamin C tablet. Aspirin is
acetylsalicylic acid while vitamin C is ascorbic acid; both are acids that can produce
H+ ions when dissolved in water. Acetic acid (HC2H3O2) is a component of vinegar,
hydrochloric acid (HCl) is stomach acid, phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is commonly found in
dark soda pop, sulfuric acid H2SO4 is used in car batteries and formic acid HCO2H is
what causes the sting in ant bites. For all of these acids, the chemical formula of an
acid begins with one or more hydrogen atoms. Acids dissolve in water to make H+ ions.
Because they make ions (charged particles) when they are dissolved, acids will also
conduct electricity when they are dissolved in water.
We interact with acids on a daily basis so some knowledge of their properties
and interactions is essential. Acids are present in our everyday lives.

Properties of Bases

There is one common base that some may have had the opportunity to taste:
milk of magnesia, which is a slightly soluble solution of magnesium hydroxide. This
substance is used for acid indigestion. Flavorings have been added to improve the
taste, otherwise it would have a bitter taste when you drink it. Other common bases
include substances like Windex, Drano, oven cleaner, soaps and many cleaning other
products. Please note: do not taste any of these substances. A bitter taste is one
property you will have to take for granted. Bases also tend to have a slippery feel. This
matches what you have experienced with soaps and detergents.
As with acids, bases have properties that allow us to distinguish them from other
substances. We have learned that acids turn blue litmus paper red. Bases turn red litmus
paper blue. Notice that the effect of the indicator is the opposite of that of acids.
Most acids have formulas that start with H. On the other hand, most of the bases
we will be using in this course have formulas that end with –OH. These bases contain the
polyatomic ion called hydroxide. When bases dissolve in water, they produce
hydroxide (OH-) ions. Because they dissolve into charged particles, bases will also
conduct electricity when they are dissolved.
Although many people have already heard of the danger of acids at causing
burns, many bases are equally dangerous and can also cause burns. It is important to
be very careful and to follow correct safety procedures when dealing with both acids
and bases.

Acids & Bases Defined

Although scientists have been able to classify acids and bases based on their
properties for some time, it took a while to come up with a theory explaining why some

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substances were acidic and others were basic. Svante Arrhenius set the groundwork for
our current understanding of acid-base theory. We will focus on his famous acid-base
definitions. This was quite an accomplishment for a scientist in the late 19th century with
very little technology, but with the combination of knowledge and intellect available at
the time Arrhenius led the way to our understanding of how acids and bases differed,
their properties, and their reactions. Keep in mind that Arrhenius came up with these
theories in the late 1800’s so his definitions came with some limitations. For now we will
focus on his definitions

Arrhenius Acids
Take a look at all of the following chemical equations. What do you notice about
them? What is common for each of the equations below?
Hydrochloric acid: HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Nitric acid: HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Perchloric acid: HClO4(aq) → H+(aq) + ClO4-(aq)

One of the distinguishable features about acids is the fact that acids produce H+ ions in
solution. If you notice in all of the above chemical equations, all of the compounds
dissociated to produce H+ ions. This is the one main, distinguishable characteristic of
acids and the basis for the Arrhenius definition of acids. An Arrhenius acid is a substance
that produces H+ ions in solution.

Arrhenius Bases

In contrast, an Arrhenius base is a substance that releases OH- ions in solution.

Many bases are ionic substances made up of a cation and the anion hydroxide, OH-.
The dissolving equation for the base sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is shown below:
NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Barium hydroxide produces a similar reaction when dissociating in water:
Ba(OH)2(s) → Ba2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq)
The production of OH- ions is the definition of bases according to the Arrhenius.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

Strong & Weak Acids animation:
[Link]
2 s1_1.htm
Tutorial: Acids & Bases
[Link]

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 155

8.1: Review Questions
Indicate whether each of the following is a property of acids, bases, or both acids and
bases.
1) Have a sour taste
2) Taste bitter
3) Turns litmus paper red
4) Feels slippery
5) React with metals
6) Turns litmus paper blue
7) What is the Arrhenius definition of an acid?

Lesson 8.2: pH

Introduction

We have been discussing what makes an acid or a base and what properties
acids and bases have. It is frequently useful to compare how acidic or basic a solution is
in comparison to other solutions. A couple of ways to do this is to compare [H+] to [OH-]
or to find the pH of a solution.

Relationship Between [H+] and [OH-]

We have learned that acids and bases are related to hydrogen ions [H+] and
hydroxide ions [OH-]. Both of these ions are present in both acids and bases. However,
they are also present in pure water. Water self-ionizes according to the following
reaction:
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

The equilibrium expression for this reaction would be:

Kw=[H+][OH-]
The equilibrium constant for this particular equilibrium is Kw, meaning the equilibrium
constant for water. From experimentation, chemists have determined that in pure
water, [H+]=1x10-7 M and [OH-]=1x10-7 M. If you substitute these values into the
equilibrium expression, you find that Kw=1x10-14. Any solution which contains water,
even if other things are added, will shift to establish this equilibrium. Therefore, for any
solution, the following relationship will always be true:
Kw=1x10-14=[H+] [OH-] @ 25°C

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We can describe whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral according to the
concentrations in this equilibrium.
If [H+] = [OH-], the solution is neutral (such as in pure water)
If [H+] > [OH-], the solution is acidic. This means that [H+] > 1x10-7 M.
If [H+] < [OH-], the solution is basic. This means that [OH-] > 1x10-7 M.

We can use this equation to calculate the concentrations of H+ and OH-. Consider the
following example.

Suppose, on the other hand, something is added to the solution that reduces the
hydrogen ion concentration, a base.

Using the Kw expression, anytime we know either the [H+] or the [OH-]in a water
solution, we can always calculate the other one.

pH Scale
A few very concentrated acid and base solutions are used in industrial chemistry
and inorganic laboratory situations. For the most part, however, acid and base solutions
that occur in nature, those used in cleaning, and those used in organic or biochemistry
applications are relatively dilute. Most of the acids and bases dealt with in laboratory
situations have hydrogen ion concentrations between 1.0 M and 1.0x10-14 M. Expressing
hydrogen ion concentrations in exponential numbers becomes tedious and is difficult

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for those not trained in chemistry. A Danish chemist named Soren Sorensen developed
a shorter method for expressing acid strength or hydrogen ion concentration with a
non-exponential number. He named his method pH. The p from pH comes from the
German word potenz meaning ―power or the exponent of‖. Sorensen’s idea that the
pH would be a simpler number to deal with in terms of discussing acidity level led him to
a formula that relates pH and [H+]:
pH = - log [H+]
If the hydrogen ion concentration is between 1.0 M and 1.0x10-14, the value of
the pH will be between 0 and 14.

Sometimes you will need to use a calculator.

If you are given [OH-] it is still possible to find the pH, but it requires one more step. You
must first find [H+] and then use the pH equation.

The pH scale developed by Sorensen is a logarithmic scale, which means that a

difference of 1in pH units indicates a difference of a factor of 10 in the hydrogen ion
concentrations. A difference of 2 in pH units indicates a difference of a factor of 100 in
the hydrogen ion concentrations. Not only is the pH scale a logarithmic scale but by
defining the pH as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration, the numbers on
the scale get smaller as the hydrogen ion concentration gets larger. For example,
pH=1is a stronger acid than pH=2 and, it is stronger by a factor of 10 (the difference
between the pH’s is 1).
The closer the pH
is to 0 the greater the

Image Source:
CC- Tracy
MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC Poulsen
CHEMISTRY, page 158
concentration of [H+] ions and therefore the more acidic the solution. The closer the pH
is to 14, the higher the concentration of OH- ions and the stronger the base.
Have you ever cut an onion and had your eyes water up? This is because of a
compound with the
formula C3H6OS that is
found in onions. When
you cut the onion, a
variety of reactions occur
that release a gas. This
gas can diffuse into the
air and mix with the water
found in your eyes to produce a dilute solution of sulfuric Image Source:
acid. This is what irritates your eyes and causes them to CC- Tracy Poulsen

water. There are many common examples of acids and bases in our everyday lives.
Look at the pH scale to see how these common examples relate in terms of their pH.

8.2: Review Questions

1) In saturated limewater, [H+]=3.98 x10-13 M.

a) Find [OH]-
b) What is the pH?
c) Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
2) In butter, [H+]=6.0 x10-7 M.
a) Find [OH]-
b) What is the pH?
c) Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
3) In peaches, [OH-]= 3.16 x10-11 M
a) Find [H+]
b) What is the pH?

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 c) Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
4) During the course of the day, human saliva varies between being acidic and basic. If
[OH-]=3.16 x10-8 M,
a) Find [H+]
b) What is the pH?
c) Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
5) A solution contains 4.33 x10-8 M hydroxide ions. What is the pH of the solution?
6) A solution contains a hydrogen ion concentration of 6.43 x10-9 M. What is the pH of
the solution?

Lesson 8.3: Neutralization

Introduction

Neutralization is a reaction between an acid and a base that produces water

and a salt. The general reaction for the neutralization reaction is shown below.
acid + base → salt + water
Neutralization Reactions

Acids are a combination of hydrogen ions (H+) and an anion. Examples include
HCl, HNO3, and HC2H3O2. Bases can be a combination of metal cations and hydroxide
ions, OH-. Examples include NaOH, KOH, and Mg(OH)2. According to the Arrhenius
definitions of acids and bases, the acid will contribute the H+ ion that will react to
neutralize the OH- ion, contributed by the base, to produce neutral water molecules.
All acid-base reactions produce salts. The anion from the acid will combine with
the cation from the base to form the ionic salt. Look at the following equations. What
do they have in common?
HClO4 + NaOH → NaClO4 + HOH
H2SO4 + 2 KOH → K2SO4 + 2 HOH
(Note: HOH is the same as H2O)

No matter what the acid or the base may be, the products of this type of
reaction will always be a salt and water. The H+ ion from the acid will neutralize the OH-
ion from the base to form water. The other product is a salt formed when the cation of
the base combines with the anion of the acid. Remember, the total charge on the salt
MUST be zero. You must have the correct number of cations and anions to cancel out
the charges of each.

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 160

8.3: Review Questions

Write a balanced reaction for each of the following neutralization reactions:

1) HNO3 + KOH →
2) HClO4 + NH4OH →
3) H2SO4 + NaOH →
4) HNO3 + NH4OH →
5) HF + NH4OH →
6) HC2H3O2 + KOH →
7) HCl + KOH →

8) Milk of magnesia, Mg(OH)2 is a common over- the - counter antacid that has,
as its main ingredient, magnesium hydroxide. It is used by the public to relieve
acid indigestion. Acid indigestion is caused by excess stomach acid, HCl,
being present.

9) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with barium hydroxide.

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 10) Sodium hydroxide reacts with perchloric acid (HClO4).

MODULE 9: Energy of Chemical Changes

At the end of this module:
1. I can classify evidence of energy transformation (temperature change) as
endothermic or exothermic.
2. I can describe how electrical energy can be produced in a chemical reaction and
identify which element gained and which element lost electrons.

Lesson 9.1: Energy

Introduction

Just like matter, energy is a term that we are all familiar with and use on a daily
basis. Before you go on a long hike, you eat an energy bar; every month, the energy bill
is paid; on
TV, politicians argue about the energy crisis. But what is energy? If you stop to think
about it, energy is very complicated. When you plug a lamp into an electric socket, you
see energy in the form of light, but when you plug a heating pad into that same socket,
you only feel warmth. Without energy, we couldn’t turn on lights, we couldn’t brush our
teeth, we couldn’t make our lunch, and we couldn’t travel to school. In fact, without
energy, we couldn’t even wake up because our bodies require energy to function. We
use energy for every single thing that we do, whether we're awake or asleep.

Types of Energy: Kinetic and Potential

Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion. When an object is moving, it

has kinetic energy, and when the object stops moving, it has no kinetic energy.
Although all moving objects have kinetic energy, not all moving objects have the same
amount of kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy possessed by an object is
determined by its mass and its speed. The heavier an object is and the faster it is
moving, the more kinetic energy it has.
Kinetic energy is very common and is easy to spot in the world around you. Sometimes
we even capture kinetic energy and use it to power things like our home appliances.
Forms of kinetic energy include heat, light, sound, and electricity.
Potential energy is stored energy that remains available until we choose to use it.
Think of a battery in a flashlight. If you leave a flashlight on, the battery will run out of
energy within a couple of hours. If, instead, you only use the flashlight when you need it
and turn it off when you don’t, the battery will last for days or even months. Because the

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battery stores potential energy, you can choose to use the energy all at once, or you
can save it and use a small amount at a time.
Any stored energy is potential energy and has the ―potential‖ to be used at a
later time. Unfortunately, there are a lot of different ways in which energy can be
stored, making potential energy very difficult to recognize. Generally speaking, an
object has potential energy due to its position relative to another object.

For some examples of potential energy, though, it’s harder to see how ―position‖
is involved. In chemistry, we are often interested in what is called chemical potential
energy. Chemical potential energy is energy stored in the atoms, molecules, and
chemical bonds that make up matter. How does this depend on position? The world
and all of the chemicals in it are made up of atoms. These atoms store potential energy
that is dependent on their positions relative to one another. Although we cannot see
atoms, scientists know a lot about the ways in which atoms interact. This allows them to
figure out how much potential energy is stored in a specific quantity of a particular
chemical. Different chemicals have different amounts of potential energy because
they are made up of different atoms, and those atoms have different positions relative
to one another.

Since different chemicals have different amounts of potential energy, scientists

will sometimes say potential energy depends on not only position but also composition.
Composition affects potential energy because it determines which molecules and
atoms end up next to each other. For example, the total potential energy in a cup of
pure water is different than the total potential energy in a cup of apple juice because
the cup of water and the cup of apple juice are composed of different amounts of
different chemicals.

The Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy

While it’s important to understand the difference between kinetic energy and
potential energy, the truth is energy is constantly changing. Kinetic energy is constantly
being turned into potential energy, and potential energy is constantly being turned into
kinetic energy. Even though energy can change form, it must still follow the
fundamental law: energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be changed
from one form to another. This law is known as the law of conservation of energy.

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Lesson 9.2: Endothermic and Exothermic Changes

All Chemical Reactions Involve Energy

Remember that all chemical

reactions involve a change in the bonds of
the reactants. The bonds in the reactants
are broken and the bonds of the products
are formed. Chemical bonds have
potential energy or "stored energy".
Because we are changing the bonding, this
means we are also changing how much of
this ―stored energy‖ there is in a reaction.

When chemical reactions occur, the

new bonds formed never have exactly the
same amount of potential energy as the bonds that were Image Source:
CC- Tracy Poulsen
broken. Therefore, all chemical reactions involve energy
changes. Energy is either given off by the reaction or energy is taken in by the reaction.
There are many types of energy that can be involved in these changes. Different types
of energy include:
 Heat
 Electricity
 Light
 Chemical potential energy
Sometimes the products have more energy stored in their bonds than the
reactants had to start with. This means that the reaction started with less hidden energy
than we had at the end. Where did this extra energy come from? In these reactions,
heat or other forms of energy are absorbed by the reactants from the surroundings to
supply some of this hidden bond energy. These reactions are called endothermic
reactions. Endothermic reactions absorb heat or other forms of energy from their
surroundings.
Sometimes the products have less energy stored in their bonds than the
reactants had to start with. This means that the reaction started with more hidden
energy than we had at the end. Where did this extra energy go? In these reactions,
heat or other forms of energy are released by the reactants from the surroundings to
give off some of this extra hidden bond energy. These reactions are called exothermic

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reactions. Exothermic reactions release heat or other forms of energy into their
surroundings.
The last time you went
camping, you might have lit a
campfire. The burning of the wood in
the fire pit released energy into the
environment. But like lighting the fire
at the camp, chemical reactions
need a minimum amount of energy
in order for a reaction to begin. Your
campfire won’t start until you supply
a bit of energy, the initial match, to
get it started. Before any reaction

can occur, reactant bonds need to be broken. A Image Source:

CC- Tracy Poulsen
minimum amount of energy, the activation energy, must
be supplied before any reaction can take place. This is different than labelling a
reaction as endothermic or exothermic. Although sometimes it is necessary to give a
little energy to a reaction to get it to start, if more energy is given off than you put in to
get it started, the reaction is overall exothermic. If you give the reaction more energy
than it gives you, the reaction is endothermic.
Energy changes are frequently shown
by drawing an energy diagram. Energy
diagrams show the stored/hidden energy of
the reactants and products as well as the
activation energy. If, on an energy diagram,
the products have more stored energy than
the reactants started with, the reaction is
endothermic. You had to give the reaction
energy. If, on the energy diagram, the
products have less stored energy than the
reactants started with, the reaction is
exothermic.
Another way of classifying a reaction as endothermic or exothermic was already
presented to you in chapter 7. Remember what was said about H? If H had a positive
value, the reaction is endothermic. This means that energy must be added to the
reactants in order for the reaction to occur. If H has a negative value, the reaction is
exothermic and energy is produced with the rest of the products and given off into the
surroundings.

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 Consider the following equation:
2 HgO → 2 Hg + O2 ΔH = +181.7 kJ
The positive sign (+) on the ΔH tells us that the reaction is endothermic, that more
energy had to be added to the reaction and that there is less energy stored in the
bonds of the reactant (mercury (II) oxide) than is stored in the bonds of the products.
Therefore, extra energy had to be added to the reaction to form the products.
Contrast the previous reaction to the next reaction:
NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + NaNO3 ΔH= -166 kJ
This is an example of a chemical reaction in which energy is released. This means
that there is less energy stored in the bonds of the products than there was in the bonds
in the reactants. Therefore, extra energy was left over when the reactants become the
products. The negative sign (-) on the ΔH tells us that this reaction had extra energy. This
reaction is exothermic, meaning that energy is released. Another way to think of this is
that energy is a product, it is something produced, or released, in the reaction.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

[Link]
Fire: [Link]

9.1: Review Questions

1) Define endothermic and exothermic reactions.

 Label each of the following processes as endothermic or exothermic

2) natural gas burning
3) melting chocolate
4) fireworks exploding
5) Steam condensing
6) Photosynthesis (plants using light to make sugar)
7) Sugar is dissolved in water in a test tube and the test tube feels cold.
8) Gasoline is burned in a car engine.

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 9) Water is converted to steam according to the equation:
H2O(l) + heat → H2O(g)
Lesson 9.3: Oxidation – Reduction

Introduction

Electricity is an important form of energy that you use every day. It runs your
calculators, cell phones, dishwashers, and watches. This form of energy involves moving
electrons through a wire and using the energy of these electrons.
Batteries are one way of producing this type of energy. Many important
chemical reactions involve the exchange of one or more electrons, and, therefore we
can use this movement of electrons as electricity. These reactions are called oxidation-
reduction (or ―redox‖) reactions.

Oxidation and Reduction

Reactions in which electrons are transferred are called oxidation-reduction (or

―redox‖) reactions. There are two parts to these changes: one atom must lose electrons
and another atom must gain them. These two parts are described by the terms
―oxidation‖ and ―reduction‖.
Originally, a substance was said to be oxidized when it reacted with oxygen.
Today, the word ―oxidized‖ is still used for those situations, but now we have a much
broader second meaning for these words. Today, the broader sense of the word
oxidation is defined as losing electrons. When a substance loses electrons, its charge will
increase. This may feel a bit backwards, but remember that electrons are negative. If
an atom loses electrons, it is losing negative particles so its charge will increase.
The other half of this process, the gaining of electrons, also needs a name. When
an atom or an ion gains electrons, the charge on the particle goes down. For example,
if a sulphur atom whose charge is zero (0) gains two electrons, its charge becomes -2
and if an Fe3+ ion gains an electron, its charge changes from +3 to +2. In both cases
the charge on the particle is reduced by the gain of electrons. Remember that
electrons have a negative charge, so gaining electrons will result in the charge
decreasing. The word reduction is defined to mean gaining electrons and the reduction
of charge.
In chemical systems, these two processes (oxidation and reduction) must occur
simultaneously and the number of electrons lost in the oxidation must be the same as
the number of electrons gained in the reduction. In oxidation-reduction reactions,
electrons are transferred from one substance to another. Here’s an example of an
oxidation – reduction reaction.
2 Ag+(aq) + Cu(s) → 2 Ag(s) + Cu2+(aq)

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 In this
reaction, the
silver ions are
gaining electrons
to become silver
atoms. Therefore,
the silver ions are
being reduced
and the charge of silver is decreasing. The copper atoms are losing electrons to
become copper +2 ions and are therefore, being oxidized and the charge of copper is
increasing. Whenever, a chemical reaction involves electrons being transferred from
one substance to another, the reaction is an oxidation – reduction reaction (or a redox
reaction).
Half-equations are very helpful in discussing and analyzing processes but half-
reactions cannot occur as they appear. The half-reactions for the reaction above
would be:
2 Ag+(aq) + 2e- → 2 Ag(s)

Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-

Both oxidation and reduction must occur at the same time so the electrons are
donated and absorbed nearly simultaneously. The two half-reactions may be added
together to represent a complete reaction. In order to add the half-reactions, the
number of electrons donated and the number of electrons accepted must be equal.

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Further Reading / Supplemental Links

Wikipedia: How Batteries Work

[Link]

Battery simulation: Galvanic Cells

[Link]
[Link] The [Link] website allows users to
view streaming videos of the Annenberg series of chemistry videos. You are
required to register before you can watch the videos but there is no charge. The
website has one video that relates to this lesson called The Busy Electron.

The principles of electrochemical cell design are explained through batteries,

sensors, and a solar-powered car. The Busy Electron
([Link]

Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, Sybil P. Parker, Editor in Chief,

McGraw-Hill, 1994.

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Therese Forsythe. Illustration of an Endothermic Reaction.. CC-BY-SA.
Richard Parsons. Sodium chloride crystal, NaCl.. CC-BY-SA.

9.3: Review Questions

Identify the element oxidized and the element reduced in the following reactions:
1) Cu + 2 HCl → CuCl2 + H2

2) 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

3) 2 Al + 6 HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3 H2

4) Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

5) CuCl2 + Al → AlCl3 + Cu

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 169

MODULE 10: Gases
At the end of this module:
1. I can compare the properties of gases, liquids and solids
2. I can convert between units of volume, pressure, and pressure
3. I can state the relationship between temperature and kinetic energy

Lesson 10.1: Gases and Kinetic Theory

Introduction
The Kinetic Molecular Theory allows us to explain the existence of the three
phase of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. In addition, it helps explain the physical
characteristics of each phase and how phases change from one to another. The
Kinetic Molecular Theory is essential for the explanations of gas pressure, compressibility,
diffusion, and mixing. Our explanations for reaction rates and equilibrium also rest on
the concepts of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory.
Gases are tremendously compressible, can exert massive pressures, expand
nearly instantaneously into a vacuum, and fill every container they are placed in
regardless of size. All of these properties of gases are due to their molecular
arrangement.

Volume of Gases

In dealing with gases, we lose the meaning of the word ―full.‖ A glass of water
may be 1/4 full or 1/2 full or full, but a container containing a gaseous substance is
always full. The same amount of gas will fill a quart jar, or a gallon jug, a barrel, or a
house. The gas molecules separate farther from each other and spread out uniformly
until they fill whatever container they are in. Gases can be compressed to small
fractions of their original volume and expand to fill virtually any volume. If gas molecules
are pushed together to the point that they touch, the substance would then be in the
liquid form. One method of converting a gas to a liquid is to cool it and another
method is to compress it.
The two most common ways of expressing volume are using mL and L. You will
need to be able to convert between these two units. The relationship is as follows:
1000 mL = 1 L

Pressure of Gases

The constant random motion of the gas molecules causes them to collide with
each other and with the walls of their container. These collisions of gas molecules with
their surroundings exert a pressure on the surroundings. When you blow up a balloon,

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the air particles inside the balloon push against the elastic sides, the walls of the balloon
are pushed outward and kept firm. This pressure is produced by air molecules pounding
on the inside walls of the balloon.
There are three two units of pressure commonly used in chemistry. Pressure is
commonly measured on a device called a monometer, similar to the barometer which
a meteorologist uses. Pressures in monometers are typically recorded in units of
millimeters of mercury, abbreviated mmHg. Pressure is defined as the force exerted
divided by the area over which the force is exerted.

The air molecules in our atmosphere exert pressure on every surface that is in
contact with air. The air pressure of our atmosphere at sea level is approximately 15
pounds/in2. This pressure is unnoticed, because the air is not only outside the surfaces
but also inside allowing the atmospheric air pressure to be balanced. The pressure
exerted by our atmosphere will become quickly noticed, however, if the air is removed
or reduced inside an object. A common demonstration of air pressure makes use of a
one-gallon metal can. The can has a few drops of water placed inside and is then
heated to boiling. The water inside the can vaporizes and expands to fill the can
pushing the air out. The lid is then tightly sealed on the can. As the can cools, the water
vapor inside condenses back to liquid water leaving the inside of the can with a lack of
air molecules. As the water vapor condenses to liquid water, the air pressure outside the
can slowly crushes the can flat.
People, of course, also have atmospheric pressure pressing on them. An
averaged sized person probably has a total force exerted on them from the
atmosphere in excess of 25,000 pounds. Fortunately, people also have air inside them to
balance the force. A device to measure atmospheric pressure, the barometer, was
invented in 1643 by an Italian scientist named Evangelista Torricelli (1608 – 1647) who
had been a student of Galileo. Torricelli’s barometer was constructed by filling a glass
tube, open at one end and closed at the other, with liquid mercury and then inverting
the tube in a dish of mercury.
The mercury in the tube fell to a height such that the difference between the
surface of the mercury in the dish and the top of the mercury column in the tube was
760 millimeters. The volume of empty space above the mercury in the tube was a
vacuum. The explanation for why the mercury stays in the tube is that there are air
molecules pounding on the surface of the mercury in the dish and there are no air
molecules pounding on the top of the mercury in the tube. The weight of the mercury in
the tube divided by the area of the opening in the tube is exactly equal to the
atmospheric pressure.

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 The height to which the mercury is held would only be 760 millimeters when air
pressure is normal and at sea level. The atmospheric pressure changes due to weather
conditions and the height of the mercury in the barometer will change with it.
Atmospheric pressure also varies with altitude. Higher altitudes have lower air pressure
because the air is ―thinner‖ – fewer air molecules per unit volume. In the mountains, at
an altitude of 9600 feet, the normal atmospheric pressure will only support a mercury
column of 520 mmHg.
For various reasons, chemistry has many different units for measuring and
expressing gas pressure. You will need to be familiar with most of them so you can
convert them into preferred units. Because instruments for measuring pressure often
contain a column of mercury, the most commonly used units for pressure are based on
the height of the mercury column that the gas can support. The original unit in
chemistry for gas pressure was mmHg (millimeters of mercury). Standard atmospheric
pressure at sea level is 760. mmHg. This unit is something of a problem because while it is
a pressure unit, it looks a lot like a length unit. Students, in particular, occasionally leave
off the Hg and then it definitely appears to be a length unit. To eliminate this problem,
the unit was given another name. It was called the torr in honor of Torricelli. 760 torr is
exactly the same as 760 mmHg. For certain work, it became convenient to express gas
pressure in terms of multiples of normal atmospheric pressure at sea level and so the unit
atmosphere (atm) was introduced. The conversion you need to know between various
pressure units are: 1.00 atm = 760. mmHg = 760. Torr

This example shows how to perform this conversion using dimensional analysis. If
you are the memorizing type, you can just memorize that to convert from mmHg to atm
you must divide by 760.

Gas Temperature and Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion and therefore, all moving objects have
kinetic energy. The mathematical formula for calculating the kinetic energy of an
object is KE=1/2 mv2, where m is the mass and v is the velocity of the object or particle.
This physics formula applies to all objects in exactly the same way whether we are
talking about the moon moving in its orbit, a baseball flying toward home plate, or a
gas molecule banging around in a bottle. All of these objects have kinetic energy and
their kinetic energies can all be calculated with the same formula. The kinetic energy of

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 172

a molecule would be calculated in exactly this same way. You should note that if the
mass of an object is doubled while its velocity remains the same, the kinetic energy of
the object would also be doubled. If, on the other hand, the velocity is doubled while
the mass remains the same, the kinetic energy would be quadrupled because of the
square in the formula.
When you measure the temperature of a group of molecules, what you are
actually measuring is their average kinetic energy. They are the same thing but
expressed in different units. The formula for this relationship is KEave=3/2RT where R is the
gas constant and T is the absolute temperature, measured in Kelvin. When a substance
is heated, the average kinetic energy of the molecules is increased. Since the mass of
the molecules cannot be increased by heating, it is clear that the velocity of the
molecules is increasing.
Remember, the motion of molecules is related to their temperature. If you think
of the average kinetic energy of a group of molecules and temperature measured in
degrees Kelvin, the relationship is a direct proportion. That means that if the
temperature, in Kelvin, is doubled the kinetic energy of the particles is also doubled. It is
absolutely vital that you keep in mind that the mathematical relationship between the
temperature and the average kinetic energy of molecules only exists when the
temperature is expressed in the Kelvin scale. In order for the direct proportion to exist,
the molecules must have zero kinetic energy when the temperature is zero. The
temperature at which molecular motion stops is 0 K (-273 C). It is surely apparent to you
that molecules do NOT have zero kinetic energy at 0 C. Balloons and automobile tires
do not go flat when the outside temperature reaches 0 C. If temperature is measured in
Kelvin degrees, then the average kinetic energy of a substance at 100 K is exactly
double the average kinetic energy of a substance at 50 K. Make sure all the
calculations you do dealing with the kinetic energy of molecules is done with Kelvin
temperatures.
Some important principles can be derived from this relationship:
1. All gases at the same temperature have the same average kinetic energy.
2. Heavier gases must move more slowly in order to have the same kinetic energy as
lighter gases.

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 173

Lesson 10.2: Gas Laws

Introduction

Gases are often characterized by their volume, temperature, and pressure.

These characteristics, however, are not independent of each other. Gas pressure is
dependent on the force exerted by the molecular collisions and the area over which
the force is exerted. The force exerted by the molecular collisions is dependent on the
absolute temperature and so forth. The relationships between these characteristics can
be determined both experimentally and logically from their mathematical definitions.
The gas laws are mathematical relationships that exist for gases between the
volume, pressure, temperature, and quantity of gas present. They were determined
experimentally over a period of 100 years. They are logically derivable from our present
day definitions of pressure, volume, and temperature.

Boyle’s Law: Pressure vs. Volume

The relationship between the pressure
and volume of a gas was first determined
experimentally by an Irish chemist named
Robert Boyle (1627-1691). The relationship
between the pressure and volume of a gas is
commonly referred to as Boyle’s Law.
When we wish to observe the
relationship between two variables, it is
absolutely necessary to keep all other
variables constant so that the change in one
variable can be directly related to the

change in the other. Therefore, when the relationship Image Source:

CC- Tracy Poulsen
between gas volume and gas pressure is investigated, the
quantity of gas and its temperature must be held constant so these factors do not
contribute to any observed changes.
You may have noticed that when you try to squeeze a balloon, the resistance to
squeezing is greater as the balloon becomes smaller. That is, the pressure inside the
balloon becomes greater when the volume is reduced. This phenomenon can be
studied more carefully with an apparatus like that in Figure 9. This is a cylinder tightly
fitted with a piston that can be raised or lowered. There is also a pressure gauge fitted
to the cylinder so that the gas pressure inside the cylinder can be measured. The
amount of gas inside the cylinder cannot change and the temperature of the gas is not
allowed to change.

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 174

 In the picture on the right, the volume
of the gas is 4.0 L and the pressure exerted by
the gas is 2.0 atm. If the piston is pushed down
to decrease the volume of the gas to 2.0 L,
the pressure of the gas is found to increase to
4.0 atm. The piston can be moved up and
down to positions for several different volumes
and the pressure of the gas read at each of
the volumes.

We might note from casual observation of the data Image Source:

CC- Tracy Poulsen
that doubling volume is associated with the pressure being
reduced to half and if we move the piston to cause the pressure to double, the volume
is halved. The data show that the relationship is an inverse relationship, meaning that as
volume increases the pressure decreases. The opposite is also true. Boyle’s Law can be
summarized in the following equation:

P1V1 = P2V2
Where:
 P1=the initial pressure
 V1=the initial volume
 P2=the final pressure
 V2=the final volume

For this equation, the units used for pressure are unimportant, as long as both
pressures have the same unit (either mmHg or atm) and each volume has the same unit
(either mL or L).

Charles’s Law: Temperature and Volume

The relationship between the volume

and temperature of a gas was investigated by
a French physicist, Jacques Charles (1746-
1823). The relationship between the volume
and temperature of a gas is often referred to
as Charles’s Law.
This relationship is a direction
relationship. If the temperature, in Kelvin,
doubles, so does the volume. This relationship
would also be expected when we recognize
that we are increasing the total force of
Image Source:
molecular collisions with the walls by raising the CC- Tracy Poulsen

MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 175

temperature and the only way to keep the
pressure from increasing is to increase the
area over which that larger force is exerted.
This mathematical relationship is known as a
direct proportionality. When one variable is
increased, the other variable also increases by
exactly the same factor. An equation to show
how these values are related is given by:

Image Source:
CC- Tracy Poulsen

This relationship is ONLY true if the temperature is measured in Kelvin. However, the units
of volume are irrelevant, as long as the two volumes are measured in the same units.

Gay-Lussac’s Law: Temperature and Pressure

The relationship between temperature
and pressure was investigated by the French
chemist, Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778-1850). In an
apparatus used for this investigation, the cylinder
does not have a moveable piston because it is
necessary to hold the volume constant as well as
the quantity of gas. This apparatus allows us to
alter the temperature of a gas and measure the

pressure exerted by the gas at each temperature. Image Source:

After a series of temperatures and pressures have CC- Tracy Poulsen

been measured, a data table like the others can be

produced.
Temperature and pressure are also directly
related, meaning that if the temperature, in Kelvin,
doubles, so does the pressure. This relationship is also
logical since by increasing temperature, we are
increasing the force of molecular collision and
keeping the area over which the force is exerted
constant requires that the pressure increases.

Image Source:
CC- Tracy Poulsen

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Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

It should be apparent by now that expressing a quantity of gas simply by stating

its volume is totally inadequate. Ten liters of oxygen gas could contain any mass of
oxygen from 4000g to 0.50g depending on the temperature and pressure of the gas.
Chemists have found it useful to have a standard temperature and pressure with which
to express gas volume. The standard conditions of temperature and pressure (STP) were
chosen to be 0C (273 K) and 1.00 atm (760 mmHg). You will commonly see gas volumes
expressed as 1.5L at STP. Once you know the temperature and pressure conditions of a
volume of gas, you can calculate the volume at other conditions and you can also
calculate the mass of the gas if you know the formula.

The Combined Gas Law

Boyle’s Law shows how the volume of a gas changes when its pressure is
changed (temperature held constant) and Charles’s Law shows how the volume of a
gas changes when the temperature is changed (pressure held constant). Is there a
formula we can use to calculate the change in volume of a gas if both pressure and
temperature change? The answer is ―yes‖, we can use a formula that combines Boyle’s
Law and Charles’s Law.
This equation is most commonly written in the form shown below and is known as
the Combined Gas Law.

As in the other laws, when solving problems with the combined gas law, temperatures
must always be in Kelvin. The units for pressure and volume may be any appropriate
units but the units for each value of pressure must be the same and the units for each
value of volume must be the same.
Another interesting point about the combined gas law is that all the other gas
laws (Charles’, Gay-Lussac’s, and Boyle’s) can be derived from this equation. To do this,
you simply cancel out the variable that was held constant in the reaction. For example,
temperature is constant in Boyle’s Law. If you cancel the temperature’s out of Boyle’s
Law, you get: P1V1 = P2V2

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Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s Law was known as Avogadro’s hypothesis for the first century of its
existence. Since Avogadro's hypothesis can now be demonstrated mathematically, it
was decided that it should be called a law instead of a hypothesis. Avogadro’s Law
postulates that equal volumes of gas under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure contain the same number of molecules.

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 This relationship is important for a couple of reasons. It means that all gases under
the same conditions behave the same way: all of these equations work equally well for
carbon dioxide, helium, or a mixture of gases. Furthermore, we will be able to use this
relationship again when we deal with balanced reactions. The volume of two gases at
the same temperature and pressure are directly related to the number of molecules (or
moles) of the gases involved in a chemical reaction.

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

Section 7-6 is on the Combined Gas

Law. [Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

Lesson 10.3: Ideal Gas Law

Introduction
The individual gas laws and the combined gas law all require that the quantity of
gas remain constant. The Universal Gas Law (also sometimes called the Ideal Gas Law)
allows us to make calculations on different quantities of gas as well.

The Universal Gas Law Constant

We have considered four laws that describe the behavior of gases: Boyle’s Law,
Charles’s Law, Avogadro’s Law, and Gay-Lussac’s Law. These three relationships, which
show how the volume of a gas depends on pressure, temperature, and the number of
moles of gas, can be combined to form the ideal gas law: PV=nRT
Where each variable and its units are:
 P=pressure (atm)
 V=volume (L)
 n=number of moles of gas (mol)
 T=temperature (K)
 R=ideal gas constant = 0.0821 atm●L/mol●K

Up to this point in gas law calculations, we haven’t worried too much about
which unit you use for pressure and volume as long as the units matched. Notice that
the gas constant, R, has specific units. Your units of pressure and volume must be in atm
and L, respectively, because they must match the appropriate units in the constant, R.
Moles, of course, always having the unit moles and temperature must always be Kelvin.
You can convert the value of R into values for any set of units for pressure and volume, if
you wanted, but the numerical value of R would also change.

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MODULE in GENERAL & INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, page 180
 REFERENCES

BOOKS

Brown, Theodore L., Lemay, Eugene H., Bursten, Bruce E. Chemistry: The
Central Science, 11th edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, International,
2009.

Chang, Raymond. Chemistry, 10th edition (International Edition), New York:

McGraw Hill, 2009.

Hill, John W., Kolb, Doris K. Chemistry for Changing Times, 11th edition. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2007.

Moore, John W., Stanitski, Conrad L., Jurs, Peter C. Chemistry the Molecular
Science, 3 edition. Australia: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning, 2008.
rd

Poulsen, Tracy. Introduction to Chemistry. US: CK-12 Foundation, 2010

Silberberg, Martin S. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and

Change, 4th edition. (International Edition) New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.

Whitten, Kenneth W., Davis, Raymond E., Peck, Larry M., Stanley, George G.
General Chemistry, 8th edition. Australia: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2006.

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