Luis Lopez lopram@icloud.

com
 HOW TO FLY IFR

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

 Copyright © 2025
Author: Ales Aranburu Juaristi
In cooperation with: Andrés del Val, José Luis Pérez-Íñigo Martens,
Megan Pepi, Joshua Smith and Brian Zetocha
Book design by Laia Carbajal Tonini and Natalia López Mikautadze
Fourth edition (February 2025)
[Link]
[Link]
info@[Link]

There are discounts for purchases in large quantities or for purchases

enhancing commercial use. It is understood that each flight center has
different procedures, therefore, it is possible to create special editions,
including personalized covers and the operations manual of each center.
Such editions can be created on a large scale if necessary. For more
information, contact via e-mail at info@[Link].

ISBN: 978-84-09-57421-6

All rights reserved.

Any form of reproduction, distribution, public communication
or transformation of this work is strictly prohibited without the
author’s written authorization, which will be subject to the sanctions
established by law.

DISCLAIMER
Aviation is a form of transport that carries a very high risk, neither the
author nor the company will be responsible for death or bodily injury,
property damage or any other direct, indirect or incidental damage or
other loss suffered by third parties that may arise as a result of the use
of the book by the reader, nor for the damages inflicted with respect
to any property of the client or any other loss suffered by said reader.
Neither the author nor the company will be responsible for the accuracy
or validity of the data entered in the book. All references used are
examples for illustrative and educational purposes, without operational
validity. The client will be responsible for the validation and verification
of the actions carried out, in order to guarantee compliance with the
appropiate norms and standards. Please consider this as a disclaimer.

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

 To my fellow pilots.

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

 TABLE
BEFORE FLYING

0. WHAT IS IFR 7
1. EQUIPMENT 10
1. COCKPIT 12
2. NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT 23

2. FLYING IN IFR 50
1. INSTRUMENT SCANNING 52
2. DETERMINING LOCATION 54
3. RADIAL INTERCEPTION 58
4. DME ARC 66
5. IFR FLIGHT OVERVIEW 69

3. FLIGHT PLANNING 72
1. WEATHER 75
2. NOTAMS 77
3. ALTERNATE SELECTION 78
4. PROCEDURES 79
5. ROUTE PLANNING 81
6. FUEL PLANNING 83
7. MASS AND BALLANCE 84
8. OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN 86
9. FILING YOUR FLIGHT PLAN 87

4. GROUND 92
1. PROFICIENCY AND CURRENCY 94
2. DAY OF FLIGHT - CHECKS 95
3. HEADING TO THE AIRPORT 98

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

OF CONTENTS
FLYING

5. DEPARTURE 114
1. UNDERSTANDING THE SID 117
2. PREPARING THE DEPARTURE 125
3. FLYING THE DEPARTURE 136

6. CRUISE 144
1. LEVELING OFF 146
2. ROUTING CHANGES 147
3. ALTITUDE CHANGES 149
4. PREPARING THE DESCENT 150

7. ARRIVAL 154
1. UNDERSTANDING THE STAR 157
2. PREPARING THE ARRIVAL 163
3. FLYING THE ARRIVAL 176
4. HOLDINGS 186

8. APPROACH 212
1. UNDERSTANDING IFR APPROACHES 214
2. PREPARING THE APPROACH 228
3. HANDS ON APPROACH 243
4. THEORETICAL CONCEPTS 303

ON THE GROUND AGAIN

9. FINAL TAXI 310

1. FINAL TAXI AND SHUTDOWN 312

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HOW TO FLY IFR

0. WHAT IS IFR The Evolution of Flight Navigation

In the early days of aviation, pilots could only fly during the
day and in good weather. They relied on visual flight, using
ground references like roads, rivers, towns, and coastlines
to navigate.

A pilot would plot a route on a map, calculating time and

heading based on speed, distance, and wind. During flight,
they verified their position by cross-referencing landmarks.
This method worked well for short distances, but as aircraft
evolved—flying faster, higher, and longer—pilots needed
a way to navigate through clouds and at night when visual
references weren’t available.

To solve this, radio navigation replaced ground landmarks.

Instead of relying on what they could see outside, pilots could
now track signals from ground-based radio stations, or radio
aids, using onboard instruments to determine their position.

This shift marked the beginning of instrument flight, allowing

pilots to fly safely without visual ground references. With
radio navigation, flights could continue at night and in poor
weather conditions.

Early conventional navigation systems like LORAN, NDB,

VOR, and ILS relied on signals from ground-based stations.
However, this method had a major limitation: flight paths
were restricted to the locations of these stations. Pilots
had to navigate directly to or from them, often leading to
inefficient routes, especially in mountainous areas.

Additionally, large obstacle protection zones were required

for safety. The farther a plane was from a station, the greater
the potential for navigation errors.

To overcome these challenges, RNAV was created, and

today, we rely on it for more efficient and flexible routing.

At the heart of RNAV is the Flight Management System

(FMS), which continuously calculates our aircraft’s position
using data from onboard sensors, satellite signals, and
ground-based stations. By integrating this information, the

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

FMS provides precise guidance from one waypoint to the

next, enabling seamless navigation across any airspace.

A key advantage of RNAV is that we can create and store

custom waypoints and procedures in the FMS. This means
our flight paths are no longer restricted by the location of
radio aids, allowing for shorter, more direct routes that save
time and fuel while improving airspace efficiency.

In modern aircraft, all navigation procedures—whether

conventional (VOR, ILS) or RNAV-based—are stored in the
Flight Management and Guidance System (FMGS). While we
can fly traditional navigation without an onboard database,
RNAV requires pre-programmed waypoints in the FMS to
ensure accuracy and efficiency.

Phases of IFR Flight

An IFR flight is divided into four main phases: departure,
cruise, arrival, and approach. Each phase follows structured
procedures that ensure safety, efficiency, and separation
from other traffic, all under the continuous supervision of Air
Traffic Control (ATC).

During departure, we follow a published Standard

Instrument Departure (SID), which guides us safely from the
airport to the enroute airspace. Once we reach cruise, we
maintain a specific altitude and route as assigned by ATC,
ensuring safe separation from other traffic.

As we near our destination, we transition to the arrival

phase, following a Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR),
which prepares us for the approach. Finally, the approach
phase brings us to the runway using an Instrument Landing
System (ILS) approach or an RNAV approach, ensuring a safe
landing even in poor visibility.

Unlike in VFR flying, where we navigate independently,

IFR flights rely entirely on charts and ATC communications
at every phase. ATC monitors our position at all times,
providing clearances and instructions that we must follow
precisely. Every change in altitude, heading, or speed
requires ATC approval, ensuring a controlled and predictable
flow of traffic in the airspace.

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1.
EQUIPMENT
When operating under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR),
we rely heavily on various flight instruments in order to
conduct safe flights. The instruments can be displayed in
various formats among different types of aircraft, including
analog, digital, or a combination of both. Regardless of the
way in which the instruments are displayed, it is important
for us to understand how these instruments display
information, and how to use them to conduct safe flight
operations. Let’s explore the flight instruments, how they
are arranged among the various formats, and how they
provide essential flight information.

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

1. COCKPIT FULLY ANALOG
HYBRID ELECTRONICANALOG SYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

2. NAVIGATIONAL NDB
EQUIPMENT VOR
DME
ILS
RNAV

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

 HOW TO FLY IFR

1. COCKPIT
EQUIPMENT

FULLY ANALOG
Analog instruments are round gauges with mechanical
parts like needles and pointers that display navigation
or performance data to pilots. Aircraft with fully analog
systems use pitot-static and gyroscopic instruments, often
called the “six-pack” because of their layout in the flight
deck. There are also several types of analog instruments
used for navigation.

Pitot static instruments

Pitot-static instruments use the pitot tube, usually mounted under the wing, and static
ports to gather air around the aircraft. This air is used to display airspeed, altitude, and
climb or descent rates on the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator.
Inside each instrument, the air interacts with diaphragms and wafers, causing the
needles to move and show these performance values.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
The airspeed indicator shows an aircraft’s speed by
comparing ram pressure from the pitot tube with static
pressure from the static ports. This pressure difference
moves a diaphragm inside the instrument, causing the
needle to indicate airspeed.

260 40
AIRSPEED
220 KNOTS 60

180 80

160 100

140 120

ALTIMETER
Aircraft must have an altimeter to show altitude relative
to sea level pressure. Air from the static port enters the
instrument case and presses against aneroid wafers,
which are sealed with air at 29.92 inHg (standard sea
level pressure). As pressure changes, the wafers expand
or contract, moving the needles to display altitude. Pilots
adjust the altimeter using the Kollsman window to match
local pressure settings. Before takeoff, the altimeter

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COCKPIT

should read the airport’s field elevation within 75 feet

after adjustment.

EQUIPMENT
0 F
100 EET
9 1

ALTIMETER
8 2

1023

7 3

6 4
5

b
m
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) measures climb and
descent rates by detecting changes in air pressure. Ambient
air flows directly into the aneroid inside the instrument,
while a separate air path passes through a calibrated orifice,
creating a slight delay. The difference in pressure between
these paths determines the aircraft’s vertical speed—larger
pressure changes indicate higher rates of climb or descent.

2
1 4
.5
VERTICAL 6
SPEED
0

x1000 ft/min 6

.5
1 4
2

Gyroscopic Instruments
Aircraft have gyroscopic instruments for pitch and bank (attitude indicator), direction
(heading indicator), rate of turn (turn coordinator), and slip-skid indications (slip-skid
indicator). These instruments rely on gyroscopic principles: rigidity in space (a spinning
gyroscope resists displacement) and precession (a force applied to a gyroscope is felt
90 degrees in the direction of rotation). Gyroscopes are powered either by pneumatic/
vacuum pumps or electrical systems, ensuring their rotation and functionality. These
principles provide stability and accuracy for attitude, heading, and turn/slip indications
essential for IFR flight.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR
The attitude indicator visually represents the horizon with
blue (sky) and brown (ground) areas divided by a horizon

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

line. Bank angles (10°–90°) and pitch angles (nose-up/nose-

down) are marked. A miniature airplane moves relative to the
EQUIPMENT

stationary horizon line to show the aircraft’s pitch and bank.

Inside the instrument, a spinning gyroscope ensures stability
via rigidity in space. Before flight, verify the gyroscope spins
and remains upright within five minutes of power-up.

20º
10º

10º
20º

HEADING INDICATOR
The heading indicator shows the aircraft’s magnetic heading
using a rotating compass card, with a line extending from the
airplane’s nose pointing to the current heading. A gyroscope
stabilizes the compass card, resisting displacement during
turns. Verify proper function during taxi by checking the
heading indicator aligns with the magnetic compass and
moves in the correct direction during turns. Before takeoff,
confirm the heading indicator matches the runway heading.

TURN RATE INDICATORS

Turn rate indicators, including turn-and-slip indicators and
turn coordinators, display the rate and direction of turns.
The turn coordinator, with a tilted gyro, shows turn rate
and roll rate. Both instruments include an inclinometer to
assess turn quality: a centered ball indicates coordinated

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COCKPIT

flight, while slips and skids cause the ball to move. During
taxi, verify turn indicators respond correctly, and ensure the

EQUIPMENT
inclinometer ball moves opposite the turn direction.

L R

Navigation Instruments
Even in aircraft equipped with analog instruments, we have access to instruments
that assist with navigation through ground-based navigational aids, including Non-
Directional Beacons (NDB) and Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR).
We can determine our position relative to these navigational aids by referencing
instruments such as an Omni Bearing Indicator (OBI) with a Course Deviation Indicator
(CDI) or a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI).

OMNI-BEARING INDICATOR (OBI)

Omni-Bearing Indicators (OBI) can be used to track radials
and bearings to and from a VOR station. Although there are
various instrument formats, OBIs will contain the following
components: a knob called an omni-bearing selector (OBS),
a needle called a course deviation indicator (CDI) with an
arrowhead pointer called a Course Indicator, and a flag
called a TO/FROM indicator. VOR antennas installed on
the airplane receive signals from a VOR station, which are
then sent to the aforementioned components of the OBI,
providing the pilot with position and course deviation
information relative to the station.

N
3
33
6
30

E
W

12
24

15
21
S

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

The instrument contains a card on the instrument face

displaying the degrees of magnetic direction. The pilot will
EQUIPMENT

rotate the OBS knob in order to position the CDI needle’s

head on the desired radial or bearing to track. The body of
the CDI needle tells the pilot whether the aircraft is properly
tracking the radial or bearing selected. If the needle is
centered, the aircraft is flying on the radial or bearing that the
pilot selected. If the needle is off-center, the aircraft is not
tracking the desired radial or bearing. The needle will deflect
in the same direction in which the desired radial is located.

HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)

The Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) combines the
directional information of a heading indicator with the course
guidance of an Omni-Bearing Indicator (OBI), providing a
more intuitive and comprehensive navigation display.
The HSI displays the aircraft’s current heading on a rotating
compass card, while a course pointer and deviation bar
indicate the selected course and its alignment with the desired
track. Navigation sources such as VOR, ILS, or GPS can be
selected, and the deviation bar reflects lateral displacement
from the selected course. For ILS approaches, the HSI also
includes a glide slope indicator to show vertical guidance.
Before flight, the HSI should be aligned with the magnetic
compass and verified against the navigation source.

N
3
33
6
30

E
W

12
24

15
21
S

REMOTE MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)

The RMI instrument contains a miniature airplane in its
center, which points to the airplane’s actual magnetic
heading. Magnetic heading is displayed on the perimeter of
the instrument’s face, and it rotates automatically as heading
is changed. The RMI also contains two bearing pointers that
use information from the VOR and ADF receivers to provide
bearing information to the pilot.

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When the pilot tunes to a VOR or NDB, the bearing pointer

points directly towards the station’s location, regardless of

EQUIPMENT
the airplane’s current magnetic heading.

S 21

15

24

W
12

30
E
33

6
3 N

DME INDICATOR
The Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) indicator displays
the aircraft’s distance from a ground-based DME station,
measured in nautical miles (NM). It calculates distance
by timing the delay between signals transmitted from the
aircraft and received from the station. Some DME indicators
also show groundspeed and time-to-station when tracking
a specific frequency. The distance displayed is slant range,
not horizontal distance, meaning it includes altitude. Before
flight, verify the DME is tuned to the correct frequency and
cross-check its readings with navigation charts or GPS for
accuracy. Proper use of the DME ensures precise enroute
and approach navigation.

DME

4.3
NM
0GS
99 TIME

HOLD
N1 N2
OFF

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

HYBRID
ELECTRONIC-
EQUIPMENT

ANALOG
SYSTEMS
As technology has advanced, many flight decks not only
contain the aforementioned analog flight instruments; they
also contain flight management computers and the digital
version of the instruments, called Electronic Horizontal
Situation Indicator (EHSI).

FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)

The Flight Management System (FMS) integrates navigation,
performance, and flight planning into a single system,
simplifying and optimizing flight operations. It manages
waypoints, routes, SIDs, STARs, and approaches, guiding
the aircraft along a planned path. Pilots input flight plans,
including performance data such as fuel, weights, and
V-speeds. The FMS computes lateral and vertical profiles,
providing optimized climb, cruise, and descent paths while
interfacing with the autopilot for LNAV and VNAV modes.
Before flight, verify the FMS is correctly programmed with
accurate data and an updated navigation database to ensure
precise navigation and reduce pilot workload.

CDM NAV ADF TRANSBONDER

121.30 117,9 359 7000
STBY STBY STBY
119,80 115,5 200

WBK
F L I G HT P L A N

DTRK DIST ALT

ABB 230º 10 NM 8000 pt
ACC
ACC 181º 40 NM 3000 pt

WBK 030º 60 NM 3000 pt

ABB

HOME

PROC MENU CDI

GPS

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COCKPIT

While an FMS is not mandatory for all operations, flying

without one significantly limits capabilities. Without an

EQUIPMENT
FMS, RNAV procedures—including advanced SIDs, STARs,
and approaches—cannot be flown, restricting the pilot to
conventional procedures reliant on ground-based navigation
aids like VORs and NDBs. This limitation results in less
efficient routing, increased workload, and fewer options
in complex airspace or challenging conditions. In modern
airspace systems, where RNAV is standard, the absence of an
FMS severely reduces flexibility and operational efficiency.

ELECTRONIC HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (EHSI)

The Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) advances
the traditional HSI by offering a dynamic, selectable color
display of flight progress
WPT ABB
with
DIS
plan view
80 NM DTK
orientation. Pilots
240º
can choose from various FMS
modes,ALT
such as full GS
compass
rose (360°) or HSI arc, to display course needles, bearing
120 KT
pointers, and heading information. The EHSI can10000 also
present additional data, including
150
20 weather
20 radar and Traffic
Collision Avoidance
140 System (TCAS) information,12000 enhancing
situational 130
awareness. This 10 10
versatility allows pilots
11000to tailor

the display120to their specific needs during different flight

10000
phases, improving
110
navigation and safety.
90000
10 10
90
80000
N2 8NM 340º N1 20NM
80
70000

IAS N 29.92
3
33
6
30

E
W

12
24

15
21
S

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

ELECTRONIC
FLIGHT
EQUIPMENT

INSTRUMENT
SYSTEMS (EFIS)
Further technological advancements have led to the
creation of Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS), also
known as “glass cockpits.” Rather than have the primary
instrumentation displayed in analog format and spread
throughout the flight deck, the instruments and additional
navigation displays are consolidated into LCD screens that
are placed closely together. Most aircraft are equipped with
two screens: the Primary Flight Display (PFD) and the Multi-
Function Display (MFD).

The PFD displays the aircraft’s indicated airspeed, altitude,

vertical speed, pitch and bank attitudes, magnetic heading,
turn rate, and course deviation information for ground
and satellite-based navigation systems. Combining this
information onto a single screen optimizes the pilot’s
instrument scan, which can be helpful during moments
of high task saturation during IFR flight in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC). The instruments also

WPT ABB DIS 80 NM DTK 240º

FMS ALT GS

120 KT 10000

150
20 20
12000
140
10 10
130 11000

120 10000

110 90000
10 10
90
80000
N2 8NM 340º N1 20NM
80
70000

IAS N 29.92
3
33
6
30

E
W

12
24

15
21
S

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COCKPIT

present trend vector information, which permit the pilot

to anticipate the airplane’s speed and altitude in a few

EQUIPMENT
seconds’ time, based on the current pitch, bank, and power
inputs, which can be helpful during certain IFR operations,
such as accurately tracking navigation courses and
maintaining climb rates.

CDM NAV ADF TRANSBONDER

121.30 117,9 359 7000
STBY STBY STBY
119,80 115,5 200

WBK
FL I GHT PL AN

DTRK DIST ALT

ABB 230º 10 NM 8000 pt
ACC
ACC 181º 40 NM 3000 pt

WBK 030º 60 NM 3000 pt

ABB

HOME

PROC MENU CDI

GPS

Glass cockpit systems no longer use the interaction of

air pressure on wafers and diaphragms, and gyroscopes,
to determine flight attitude information as their analog
counterparts do; rather, they obtain relevant data and
calculated instrument values from two main units. The Air
Data Computer (ADC) receives and processes information
from the pitot tube, static ports, and temperature probes
to determine airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, and air
temperature information. The Attitude and Heading
Reference System (AHRS) contains tilt and rate sensors
to determine pitch, bank, and tun rate and quality, and it
receives data from the aircraft’s magnetometer to display
magnetic heading. This technology has reduced weight,
costs, and complexity in flight deck management systems.

The MFD is usually placed directly next to the PFD and

normally displays navigation, flight planning, and engine
performance data, acting as the FMS. Using the Global

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

Positioning System (GPS) database and GPS receivers, the

pilot can view and enter GPS-based flight plan data (e.g.,
EQUIPMENT

waypoints, instrument procedures, etc.); access instrument

approach and navigation charts; and view a “moving map,”
which displays the airplane’s real-time position relative to
GPS waypoints, airports, NAVAIDs, etc.

The pilot can also see potential terrain conflicts along

the route through the Terrain Awareness Warning System
(TAWS), which acquires terrain information from the GPS
database. If the airplane being flown and other aircraft in
the area are equipped with ADS-B In and Out, the pilot
can see potential real-time traffic conflicts with respect to
the airplane’s position on the moving map. The pilot can
also view and adjust elements of the flight plan, and load
departure, arrival, and approach procedures via the MFD.

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NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT

2. NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT

EQUIPMENT
Ground-based and satellite-based navigational equipment supply information to the
navigational instruments in the flight deck, so that the pilot can determine position and
course deviation information during flight.

Prior to IFR flight, it is imperative that pilots are proficient in operations using
navigational aids and corresponding onboard equipment. It is also important that
pilots check their onboard equipment and NOTAMs for operability prior to flight. The
following sections detail the various types of navigation equipment available, how they
operate, how pilots can use them, and their limitations or inherent errors.

NON-
DIRECTIONAL
BEACON (NDB)
An NDB is a ground-based radio station that transmits radio
signals on low or medium frequencies (190 to 535 kHz) in
all directions. NDBs are largely being phased out, due to
the increasing prominence of GPS navigation, but there are
still some stations that are available for use. If the aircraft is
equipped with Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) antennas,
the signals received from the NDB station can be used to
determine the aircraft’s bearing to the station.

NDBs can be used for general navigation guidance, as a

holding fix, or lateral course guidance along instrument
approaches. Pilots can find NDB stations on both IFR En
Route Charts and Instrument Approach Charts. They are
symbolized by a small hollow circle that is surrounded by
smaller dots arranged in a circular shape. The station’s name,
three-letter identifier, frequency, and Morse Code identifier
are displayed in an accompanying information box.

OPERATIONS
When the pilot tunes to the NDB station, the ADF antennas
will pick up the station’s signals and provide bearing
information to the pilot on the corresponding instrument

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

in the flight deck. There is a bearing pointer arrow on the

instrument that will point directly to the station.
EQUIPMENT

303 00:41
ADF

USE STBY/TIMER

ADF BFO FRQ FLT/ET SET/RST VOL

OFF

SERVICE VOLUMES
Like most external navigation aids, the range in which
NDB signals can be received is limited. Aircraft must be
flying within a certain distance of the station in order for
the onboard receiving equipment to be able to receive the
signals broadcast by the station.

There are three main classes of service volumes associated

with NDB signal range: Medium High (MH), High (H), and
High High (HH). Regardless of the altitude at which the
aircraft is being flown, pilots can expect to receive strong,
uninterrupted signals from the NDB beacons within the
following distances of the station: 25, 50, and 75 nautical
miles for the MH, H, and HH classes, respectively. There are
some exceptions to the standard service volumes, but these
will be publicized in Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs) and/
or the Chart Supplement.

LIMITATIONS
NDBs are subject to several limitations that can yield
erroneous signals and navigation readings. First, the radio
signals generated by navigation equipment that operate
on lower frequencies tend to be disturbed by static. This
can cause erroneous or erratic instrument indications.
Static noise from the radio can hint to the pilot that static
may be interfering with the station. Next, NDBs can be
affected by sky wave propagation. Radio waves that are
sent to the ionosphere and are refracted back towards
Earth may be interrupted by the sun’s radiation coming
into contact with them. This occurs especially during the
period after sunset and before sunrise, yielding unreliable
navigation information. Similarly, when operating near a
body of water, the radio waves tend to bend more than
they would if operating in a land-locked area, due to the
higher conductivity of the water. This could cause the
bearing pointer on the instrument to point towards the shore,
rather than directly to the station. When crossing the shore,
the bearing pointer should point directly to the station,

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NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT

but it may do so very suddenly. Additionally, lower radio

frequencies tend to bend over terrain and other obstacles.

EQUIPMENT
This helps reduce line-of-sight signal errors, but the
navigation information shown may be distorted.

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Aircraft equipped with ADF systems are able to receive signals from NDB stations for
navigation. The ADF contains two antennas from which it processes the signals received:
a sense and a loop antenna. The sense antenna receives signals with equal intensity from
all directions. The loop antenna receives signals more efficiently from two particular
directions that are 180 degrees apart, as compared to other directions, which allows the
ADF to narrow down the aircraft’s position relative to the station. One of the bidirectional
signals is weaker than the other, which the ADF determines to be the aircraft’s magnetic
bearing to the NDB station. The data captured and calculated by the ADF system can be
shown on both analog and electronic instrument displays.

ANALOG PRESENTATION AND OPERATION

The pilot will first tune to the NDB station using the
frequency noted on the appropriate IFR chart by twisting
the knobs of the ADF tuner. To identify the station, the pilot
will press the Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) button, which
allows the Morse Code identifier to be heard aloud. Once the
station’s identification has been confirmed, the pilot can use
the instrument to aid with navigation to or from the station,
or to intercept and track courses relative to that station.

The instrument may consist of a fixed or movable card, but,

regardless of configuration, the principles of navigation are
the same. On a fixed-card display, North (0/360 degrees)
will always be positioned at the top of the instrument and
represents the direction in which the airplane’s nose is
pointing, regardless of the aircraft’s magnetic heading or
bearing to the station. The bearing pointer will always point
towards the NDB station.

A movable card allows the pilot to rotate the card, allowing

him to position the airplane’s current magnetic heading,
shown on the Heading Indicator, to the top of the card. The
bearing pointer will still point directly to the station.
The ADF display may also consist of a Radio Magnetic
Indicator (RMI). The RMI combines the functions of
the heading indicator and the ADF. As described, the
gyrocompass of the RMI causes the compass card to rotate
without pilot intervention; thus, the top of the card will
always indicate the aircraft’s magnetic heading. The RMI
has a bearing pointer that shows the magnetic bearing to an
NDB station. It also includes a second needle that can be set

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to indicate either an ADF or a VOR station, depending on

the pilot’s selection. When set to VOR, the needle points to
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the bearing of the tuned VOR station. Both needles provide

real-time directional guidance, helping the pilot navigate
using either NDB or VOR signals.

S 21

15

24

W
12

30
E
33

6
3 N

ELECTRONIC FLIGHT DISPLAY

In glass cockpits, the ADF is typically incorporated in the
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI). Like the RMI, the HSI
shows the aircraft’s current magnetic heading as calculated
by onboard magnetometers, and indicates heading changes
without pilot intervention.

VERY-HIGH
FREQUENCY
OMNIDIREC-
TIONAL RANGE
(VOR)
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) is
another type of radio and ground-based navigational aid. A
VOR ground station emits radio waves in each direction of
magnetic bearing to or from the station, called radials, on
the “very high frequency” (VHF) range (108.0–117.95 MHz),
which the aircraft can intercept and track.

There are several types of VORs that pilots can find on IFR
departure, en route, arrival, and approach charts. The ground
station transmits a rotating directional signal 30 times per
second, covering all 360 degrees of azimuth. When this signal
aligns with magnetic north, a reference signal is emitted. The
aircraft’s receiver measures the phase difference between
the received directional signal and the reference signal to
determine its bearing from the station. This information is

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then processed and displayed on the flight deck instruments,

enabling the pilot to navigate relative to the station.

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Aircraft Equipment and Instrumentation
Aircraft capable of using VORs for navigation are equipped with VOR signal receivers,
radios for tuning to the station, and analog or electronic instrumentation that display
course deviation and bearing information.

The aircraft contains receiver antennas that can capture signals from VOR and ILS
ground-based equipment. The signals received are sent to the flight deck instrumentation
for the pilot’s navigational use. Aircraft may be equipped with two receiver antennas,
which would allow the pilot to receive navigation information from multiple stations at
one time.

Regardless of the display format, the pilot will tune the onboard radio to the station
frequency as indicated on the appropriate IFR chart. The pilot will load the frequency in
the primary NAV radio frequency box. To identify the station, the pilot will increase the
volume to listen to the Morse Code identifier transmission.

117.85 116.45
NAV1
NAV1

USE STBY

VOL
OFF

116.45 113.95
NAV2

USE STBY

VOL
OFF

S 21 N
33 3
15
24

30

6
12

E
30
E

24

33
12
6

3 N 15
21 S

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Using VORs
VORs can be used in a variety of ways during flight under IFR. They can help the pilot
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locate the aircraft’s current position, provide navigational guidance between the airport
of origin and destination, and provide lateral course guidance on instrument approaches.

TUNING TO AND IDENTIFYING THE VOR STATION

IFR charts will provide essential station identification to the
pilot. IFR En Route charts contain VOR information boxes
next to the station’s hexagonal symbol. They display the
station’s three-letter and Morse Code identifiers. The station’s
VHF frequency is placed to the left of the three-letter
identifier; for VORTACs, the TACAN channel is positioned
to the station identifier’s right. The box also includes the
station’s latitude and longitude location coordinates.

60000 ft ATH
100NM 45000 ft

130NM

18000 ft
100NM 14500 ft
40NM
12000 ft
40NM
25NM
100 ft
Station Elevation (MSL)
Terminal (T) Low (L) High (H)

60000 ft ATH
100NM 45000 ft

130NM

18000 ft
100NM 14500 ft
70NM 70NM
500 ft
40NM 40NM 100 ft

VOR Low (VL) VOR High (VH) Station Elevation (MSL)

The information box also displays the “Standard Service

Volumes” (SSV) of the station and any available DME
equipment. The SSVs include Terminal (T), Low (L), High
(H), VOR Low (VL), and VOR High (VH). As explained in
the example above, the pilot can gain an idea of how far the
aircraft can be from the station at a certain altitude, during
off-route operations, while still receiving a reliable signal
from the station.

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Another use for VORs is for remote communication with

a Flight Service Station (FSS), which can provide certain

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services to the pilot such as weather information before
and during flight, as well as opening and closing IFR flight
plans. Below the information box, there is another box that
displays the station’s name. The top of the information box
lists any specific radio frequencies with which the pilot can
communicate with the FSS, as well as any communication
limitations associated with the frequency. For instance, an
“R” next to the frequency indicates that the FSS can only
receive communications on the listed frequency.

ANALOG DISPLAY
Omni Bearing Indicator (OBI)
Aircraft with traditional analog instruments have an Omni
Bearing Indicator (OBI). The instrument’s face contains a
card with the 360 degrees of magnetic bearing around the
perimeter. The pilot can twist the Omni Bearing Selector
(OBS) knob to point the arrowhead, called the Course Index,
towards the course he or she desires to track. Or, the pilot can
determine which radial-bearing that the aircraft is tracking
by twisting the knob until the needle aligns with center, then
read the number to which the Course Index is pointing.
The needle of the arrow, called a Course Deviation
Indicator (CDI) moves from side to side as the aircraft drifts
further away from the course set, while it centers when
the aircraft becomes closer to the desired course. The pilot
can determine how far away the aircraft is from the desired
course using the deflection dots arranged in a horizontal
line towards the center of the instrument. Deviation amount
varies based on the instrument installed, but each dot
usually represents 2 degrees of deviation.
If the VOR station’s signal is weak, a warning flag will appear
on the instrument to alert the pilot that the information
received and displayed may be unreliable.

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

The Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) combines the
directional information of a heading indicator with the course
guidance of an Omni-Bearing Indicator (OBI), providing a
more intuitive and comprehensive navigation display.
The HSI displays the aircraft’s current heading on a rotating
compass card, while a course pointer and deviation bar
indicate the selected course and its alignment with the desired
track. Navigation sources such as VOR, ILS, or GPS can be
selected, and the deviation bar reflects lateral displacement
from the selected course. For ILS approaches, the HSI also

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includes a glide slope indicator to show vertical guidance.

Before flight, the HSI should be aligned with the magnetic
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compass and verified against the navigation source.

RMI
RMIs can also be used for VOR navigation. As previously
described, the RMI contains a compass card that is
automatically adjusted based on changes in heading, as sensed
by its gyrocompass. The VOR needle’s arrowhead points
directly towards the station (bearing), while the tail of the
needle points to the radial that the aircraft is currently flying
over. To track directly towards the station, the arrowhead
would need to be pointing to the top of the instrument.

Electronic Flight Display

In glass cockpit aircraft, the Primary Flight Display (PFD)
typically includes an electronic Horizontal Situation
Indicator (HSI), which combines the functions of a traditional
Heading Indicator and Course Deviation Indicator. Like
its analog counterpart, the electronic HSI displays course
deviation and station position information. However, it
enhances situational awareness by providing a clearer
depiction of the aircraft’s position.

Errors
Although VORs are monitored for accuracy and normally have a signal accuracy within
1 degree, VORs are subject to several limitations and errors.

First, VORs are subject to line-of-sight signal limitations. If there is terrain or another
obstruction blocking the station’s transmission and the aircraft’s onboard receivers, the
aircraft will not be able to capture a strong signal from the station. This is why SSVs exist
and are typically greater as altitude increases.

Also, an area called the “Zone of Confusion” exists directly above the VOR station and
when operating within very close proximity to the station. Since the station projects
radio waves outward, the aircraft’s receivers cannot capture the station’s signals as the
aircraft flies directly above the station. As a result, the instrument’s course deviation
indicator will erratically move from side to side, as it cannot determine which bearing-
radial pairing it is tracking. This erratic needle movement usually starts to occur when
the aircraft is in very close proximity to the station as well, due to the fact that the
radials are more closely spaced together the closer they are to the station. As a result, it
is difficult for the aircraft’s receivers to distinguish between the variable and reference
phases to determine station bearing and course deviation information. If the pilot is
tracking towards a VOR station with a consistently centered CDI needle but notices
erratic side-to-side movement of the needle, it is likely that the aircraft is in the zone of
confusion. The pilot should maintain the current heading and wait to see if the needle
will return to the center of the instrument after passing over the station. If the needle

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returns to the center shortly after the ambiguity indicator switches to a FROM flag, then
the pilot has exited the zone of confusion. If the needle remains in an off-center position,

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then it is likely that the aircraft is no longer tracking the desired outbound course.

Another error that mainly occurs due to pilot error is called reverse sensing. If the pilot
seeks to track directly towards the station, he or she should rotate the OBS knob until the
CDI needle centers, and the ambiguity indicator shows a “TO” flag. The bearing to the
station is shown in the direction of the arrowhead, while the radial on which the aircraft
is flying is under the needle’s tail. If the pilot seeks to intercept a specific radial and then
track directly to the station, the pilot may erroneously point the needle’s head to the
radial that he or she desires to intercept. The pilot may successfully intercept the radial,
but if the pilot turns the aircraft towards the head of the needle, the aircraft would be
tracking away from the station, as indicated by a “FROM” flag on the ambiguity indicator.

On propeller-driven aircraft, at certain RPMs, the propeller may cause the VHF signal
from the VOR station to be distorted. As a result, the CDI may fluctuate and indicate
erroneous information.

Equipment Inspections
For aircraft airworthiness, it is required that the aircraft’s VOR equipment must have been
checked, using an approved procedure, within the 30 days before a flight under IFR.
There are a variety of methods that can fulfill the inspection requirement.

First, a VOR Test Facility (VOT) may be used. The locations of VOTs can be found in
the Chart Supplement. The pilot will tune the VOR receiver to the appropriate VOT
frequency. The CDI needle should be centered; the Course Index should be pointed to
180 degrees; and a “TO” flag should appear. If a bearing error of more than 4 degrees
is observed, then the aircraft is not airworthy for IFR operations, and the equipment
should be inspected and repaired.

The Chart Supplement also lists certified ground and airborne checkpoints, if available.
The pilot will tune to the listed VOR station and twist the OBS knob until the Course
Index points to a specific radial. For ground checkpoints, the maximum permissible
bearing error is 4 degrees, while it is 6 degrees if the check is completed while airborne.

If there are no checkpoints or VOTs available, the pilot can use a Victor Airway to check the
equipment. Before flight, the pilot will find a prominent visual reference point, preferably
located at least 20 nautical miles from the station, that falls along the radial that defines the
Victor Airway. During flight, the pilot will fly the aircraft over this point, tune to the VOR
station, and note the radial-bearing. The instrument should indicate the radial-bearing that
defines the Victor Airway. The maximum permissible bearing error is 6 degrees.

If an aircraft is equipped with dual VOR receivers, the pilot will tune both receivers to
the same VOR station. Then, he or she will determine the radial-bearing that the aircraft
is currently tracking, as stated by each receiver. The two receivers should indicate the
same radial-bearing, but there is a maximum permissible bearing error of 4 degrees
between the two sources.

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Regardless of the method used to complete the equipment check, the individual who
completed the inspection should sign and record the date, location of inspection, and
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amount of bearing error in an aircraft log.

DISTANCE
MEASURING
EQUIPMENT
(DME)
Ground-based navigation stations do not, by themselves,
provide explicit information regarding the aircraft’s distance
away from the station. Some VOR, Instrument Landing
System (ILS), and Localizer (LOC) stations and equipment
include an additional element called Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME). DME operates on UHF frequencies
between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz and supplies pilots with
the aircraft’s approximate distance away from the station.
With this additional piece of data, the pilot can not only
determine the aircraft’s bearing to the station but also the
aircraft’s proximity away from the station.

On IFR Low En Route charts and instrument approach

charts, VORs with DME contain boxes surrounding the
hexagon symbol for the station. All VORTACs contain DME.
Standalone DME stations are simply charted as boxes.

Aircraft that can use DME are equipped with an external

DME antenna that sends an interrogation signal to a DME
antenna located at the ground station. The ground station’s
antenna sends a reply to the aircraft’s antenna. The aircraft’s
onboard DME equipment measures the time lapsed between
the interrogation and reply signals, which helps to determine
the approximate distance the aircraft is flying from the station.

RANGE
Similar to VORs, DME signal is limited to line-of-sight. On
a general scale, if aircraft and station equipment are not
blocked by obstacles, aircraft can receive reliable signals up
to 199 nautical miles away from the station.

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DME is also similar to VOR in that there are service volumes

assigned to stations to inform pilots about the range in which

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an uninterrupted, reliable signal can be received. Like VORs,
the SSV classes originally consisted of Terminal (T), Low (L),
and High (H).

The DME Low (DL) and DME High (DH) were added to
accommodate new requirements for signal coverage given
the increasing reliance on navigation systems that are not
radio-based nor ground-based. The PAN DME station is
classified as DH.

60000 ft ATH
100NM 45000 ft

130NM

18000 ft

130NM
12900 ft

Station Elevation (MSL)

DME Low (DL) DME High (DH)

LIMITATIONS AND ERRORS

The distance information supplied to the pilot does not
equate to the horizontal distance along the ground between
the aircraft and the station. DME measures slant-range
distance, since the aircraft is airborne. To visualize this,
the distance would be calculated by drawing a straight
line from the station located on the ground to the aircraft,
which is in the air. GPS measures distance as the horizontal
distance between a fix and the aircraft, so there may be
some discrepancies between the DME and GPS-calculated
distances. Some DME equipment can correct for any
discrepancies between the horizontal and slant-range
distances, but the variance between both amounts are
usually negligible, if the aircraft is operating more than one

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mile from the station. The errors also decrease for each
1,000 feet the aircraft flies above the station.
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DME is also subject to line of sight, so if there are

obstructions blocking the signals transmitted to and from the
aircraft’s and the station’s DME equipment, a reliable signal
may not be able to be generated.

INSTRUMENT
LANDING
SYSTEM (ILS)
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) has been used since
1929 to help pilots safely navigate to the runway, even in
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMS). The ILS is a
precision instrument approach system, as it provides both
lateral and vertical instrument approach course guidance that
meet the strict accuracy requirements of ICAO Annex 10.

Components
The ILS incorporates ground-based equipment, including localizer (LOC) antennas and
a glideslope (GS), that supply lateral and vertical courses that the aircraft should track to
safely descend to the runway. Some ILS systems have equipment that can make the pilot
aware of the aircraft’s current location along the approach (marker beacons, compass
locators, or DME), as well as approach lighting systems that provide further assistance to
pilots as they transition to visual flight.

LOCALIZER (LOC)
The localizer is a group of antennas that provide lateral
approach course guidance by transmitting radio signals
down the centerline of the runway. The antennas are situated
at the departure end of the runway to which the instrument
approach leads. The antennas transmit two modulation
frequencies, side by side, down the centerline of the runway.
One signal is modulated at 90 Hz, while the other signal is
modulated at 150 Hz. When the aircraft radio is tuned to the
localizer, which broadcasts on VHF frequencies between
108.10 and 111.95, the receiver antennas can receive
the signals and display corresponding indications on the
instruments in the flight deck.

The lateral course that the aircraft should track falls along
the line formed between the two signals. If the aircraft drifts
to the right or left of the lateral course, then the onboard
receivers receive a stronger signal from the modulated
frequency located on the side of the course where the
aircraft drifted. The instruments in the flight deck will then
show the pilot that the aircraft is off course, so that the
lateral course deviation can be corrected.

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Although the signals from the localizer are limited in

range, they are able to provide reliable coverage along the

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approach course down to the runway. When the aircraft
is within 10 nautical miles of the antennas in the direction
in which the signals are projected, the localizer provides
coverage within 35 degrees of either side of the course’s
centerline. When the aircraft is within 18 nautical miles
of the antennas in the direction in which the signals are
projected, and the altitude flown is less than or equal
to 4,500 feet above the antennas’ height, the localizer
provides coverage within 10 degrees of either side of the
course’s centerline.

The localizer course is highly sensitive and narrows as the

course comes closer to the antennas. Eventually, over the
threshold the course width narrows to 350 feet to either side
of the centerline. To illustrate, if the aircraft is merely 350
feet to the side of the centerline, the instrument’s course
deviation indicator will indicate a full-scale deflection.

When the signals are projected towards the approach end

of the runway that the ILS approach serves, the approach
course is called the front course. If the course line is
projected on the opposite side, the course is called the
back course. If the localizer has back course capabilities,
the instrument approach procedure chart will note this
capability. The same signal coverage previously detailed also
applies to back course localizer systems.

GLIDESLOPE (GS)
The glideslope provides vertical course guidance to aircraft
as they descend and approach the runway. The equipment
consists of a building that is located 750 to 1,250 feet
beyond the runway threshold and 400 to 600 feet to the side
of the runway centerline. The glideslope can provide signal
coverage starting from 10 nautical miles from the touchdown
point on the runway.

Similar to the localizer system, the glideslope equipment

projects two modulation frequencies (90 Hz and 150 Hz).
Instead of a lateral projection, the signals are transmitted
within 0.7 degrees (about 750 feet) above the vertical course
of the approach. The vertical course to track is located
where the two modulation frequencies touch one another.

RANGE INFORMATION
ILS systems may include equipment, such as marker
beacons; DME; or compass locators, that allows the pilot

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to determine where the aircraft is located on the approach

course. Marker beacons are VHF radio beacons that are
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located at specific places along the approach course. They

transmit signals upward that aircraft antennas capture as
they fly over them. A signal is broadcast in the flight deck
that alerts the pilot that the aircraft is passing over a specific
marker beacon.

An ILS approach may include up to three marker beacons

along the approach course: the Outer Marker, Middle
Marker, and Inner Marker. Each type is situated at a specific
location and triggers a specific Morse Code frequency that is
sounded in the flight deck.

The Outer Marker is typically located 4 to 7 nautical

miles from the runway along the localizer-based lateral
course where the aircraft, if it is flying at the appropriate
altitude, will intercept the glide path. It usually identifies
the Final Approach Fix for non-precision approaches such
as localizer-only approaches. To indicate marker beacon
passage, a blue light will flash in the flight deck, and the
Morse Code identifier sounds at two dashes per second.

If installed, the Inner Marker is typically located 3,500 feet

away from the runway. At this location, the aircraft should be
about 200 feet above the touchdown zone elevation, or the
highest elevation within the first 3,000 feet of runway. The
indication of beacon passage in the flight deck consists of an
amber flashing light with a Morse Code identifier consisting
of 95 alternating dots and dashes per minute.

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Inner Markers are only present along CAT II ILS

approaches, which require special pilot training, aircraft

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equipment, etc., in order to be used. The Inner Marker is
typically located at the location along the approach where
the aircraft should arrive at the Decision Height (DH). The
indication of beacon passage includes a white flashing light
and a Morse Code identifier consisting solely of dots at a
rate of six dots per second.

Compass Locators are NDB stations that are often positioned

where the Outer and Middle Markers are located. The
Locator Outer Marker (LOM) transmits the first two letters of
the localizer’s identifier, while the Middle Locator transmits
the second two letters of the localizer’s identifier.

Most ILS systems include a glideslope with DME. If the

aircraft is properly equipped, the pilot can access DME-based
distance information while tracking an approach course to
determine where the aircraft is flying. This can be helpful with
verifying that the aircraft is maintaining required altitudes and
with being aware of the aircraft’s distance from the runway.

Aircraft Equipment
Similar to the other ground and radio-based equipment covered in this guide, the aircraft
contains equipment that allows the aircraft to receive signals from the ILS system’s
transmitters, as well as instruments that provide navigational guidance to the pilot.

The onboard NAV antennas capture signals transmitted by the localizer antennas and
glideslope. The pilot tunes the NAV radio to the specific frequency for the localizer and
listens to the Morse Code tone to verify the localizer’s three-letter identifier. These are
the same antennas and radio systems that are used for VOR navigation. Typically, when
the pilot tunes to the localizer frequency, the receivers will also pick up the glideslope’s
signal without the need to tune to a separate frequency on a separate equipment.

Regardless of whether the flight deck contains analog or electronically displayed flight
instruments, the instrumentation used for ILS operations will include an instrument that
shows lateral and vertical course deviation information and marker beacon alert systems.

Analog instruments consist of a compass card that contains the degrees of magnetic
bearing around the perimeter of the instrument, a course index needle, an OBS knob,
and course deviation indicator needles. The pilot can twist the OBS knob to set the
localizer course of the published approach procedure at the top of the instrument with
the course index pointing to it. Although adjusting the OBS knob does not cause the
course deviation indicator needles to move, it increases the pilot’s situational awareness.
There are two course deviation indicator needles: one that moves laterally to either side
from the center, and one that moves up and down. There are also dots of deflection
that are arranged horizontally and vertically about the center of the instrument, forming

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a cross. Once established on the approach, the pilot’s goal is to maintain the lateral
course and vertical course; the needles will align with the dots of deflection, forming
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a cross shape. If the pilot deviates to the right of the localizer course, the vertically-
formatted needle will move to the left to indicate that the pilot needs to move the
aircraft to the left in order to recapture the lateral approach course. The opposite will
be the case for a left-of-course deviation. If the aircraft falls below the glide path, the
needle will move upwards, and vice versa.

In electronic flight displays, the localizer’s CDI needle is incorporated into the HSI.
Similar to VOR navigation, when the ILS localizer is tuned to and identified, the
localizer needle, shown in green, will match the identified frequency and three-letter
identifier that is also labeled in green. The pilot will also set the localizer course the
same way in which he or she will set the VOR course bearing: press the CRS soft key
and twist the CRS knob until the course index points to the desired course. The needle
will deflect to the left if the aircraft is to the right of the localizer course and vice versa,
just as the analog instrument will. The glideslope deviation information, however,
is displayed next to the altimeter. Once the glideslope signal has been captured, a
diamond that moves up and down along the height of the altimeter will turn green. If
the aircraft deviates below the glide path, then the diamond will move upwards above
the center of the altimeter, and vice versa. The aircraft is tracking the glide path if the
green diamond is positioned in the center of the height of the altimeter.

For localizer back course procedures, the instrument displays and corresponding pilot
actions will vary between analog and digital instruments. Since the modulated localizer
signals are transmitted on the opposite side of the antennas from the front course, the
onboard receivers capture the signals from the opposite side. For analog instruments,
it does not matter whether the pilot positions the front or back course above the
course index, as adjusting the course alone does not necessarily cause the needles to
deflect. Because the transmissions are made on the opposite side of the antennas, the
instrument will display reverse sensing; therefore, the needle deflects in the direction in
which the aircraft is located relative to the localizer back course. As a result, the pilot
should steer the aircraft in the opposite direction of the needle deflection. On digital
displays, however, the HSI rotates automatically with changes in aircraft heading. If the
back course is being flown, the heading will show the direction of the back course,
but the course index should be pointed to the front course bearing. As a result, similar
to tracking a standard front course, the pilot will adjust the aircraft’s position in the
direction of the needle deflection.

As discussed, the marker beacon identifiers consist of audible Morse Code tones and
flashing lights in specific colors. In most flight decks, there is a panel with three small
lights: a blue light labeled “O,” an amber light labeled “M,” and a white light labeled
“I.” As the aircraft flies over the marker beacons, the corresponding Morse Code tone
becomes audible and light flashes.

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AREA
NAVIGATION

EQUIPMENT
(RNAV)
Area Navigation (RNAV) is a broad term used to describe
navigation in which the pilot no longer needs to fly directly
to and from ground-based navigational aids to fly from
one point to another. RNAV permits pilots to fly from any
geographical location to another, as long as the navigational
source’s signal is within range of the aircraft’s receiving
equipment. Some examples of RNAV equipment include
the satellite-based systems (e.g., Global Positioning System
[GPS]), ground-based systems (e.g., VOR/DME), and inertial
systems (e.g., Inertial Reference Units [IRU]).

RNAV capabilities are supported and enhanced by the

onboard Flight Management System (FMS), which simplifies
and organizes flight deck management tasks that are essential
in executing safe, efficient flights. The FMS collects data from
various systems throughout the aircraft, including engine and
fuel sensors, navigation antennas, the air data computers, the
attitude and heading reference system, and more. The FMS
computers also contain a database that stores IFR departure,
arrival, and approach procedures, as well as waypoints,
airways, and navigational aid data used for point-to-point
or route-based navigation. As needed, the pilot can submit
the route included in the IFR clearance or make mid-flight
changes to the flight plan into the computer. The computers
collect and make computations using flight plan, navigation,
and performance data to display real-time metrics related to
the flight to the pilot on the FMS’s screens.

Accuracy Requirements
Since RNAV permits aircraft to fly along off-airway routes, a high level of accuracy and
reliability must be consistently provided by the supporting onboard equipment. The
equipment must not only be approved for IFR operations; it must also be able to deliver
accurate navigational and performance information within a slim tolerance for error.
Depending on the IFR procedure or area of operation: en route, departure, terminal,
en route, or approach, the equipment may need to be able to provide lateral course
accuracy within a specific range of error. These requirements are called RNAV
NavSpecs. For example, many IFR Departure Procedures and Standard Terminal Arrival
Routes (STARs) require that systems meet RNAV 1 standards. RNAV 1 NavSpecs require
that the equipment must maintain lateral course accuracy within 1 nautical mile of the
course’s centerline for at least 95% of the time in flight. The pilot can determine whether
the aircraft’s equipment meets the RNAV NavSpecs by referencing the Aircraft Flight
Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook.

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REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE

Required Navigation Performance (RNP) not only requires
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aircraft equipment to meet the NavSpecs requirements

for certain IFR operations. It also requires that the aircraft
is equipped with Onboard Performance Monitoring and
Alerting (OBPMA): systems that will continuously monitor
the integrity of the navigation data received, calculated, and
supplied to the pilot and will alert the pilot of any major
inaccuracies. Like RNAV, RNP also has its own NavSpecs
requirements, depending upon where the aircraft is in the
IFR environment. RNP 1, for instance, requires that the
onboard systems maintain lateral course accuracy within 1
nautical mile of the centerline of the course for at least 95%
of the flight time. It is important to note that, just because
an aircraft can meet RNP NavSpecs capabilities, it does not
mean that the aircraft’s equipment automatically also meets
RNAV NavSpecs.

SUITABLE RNAV SYSTEMS

Aircraft RNAV equipment that meets certain requirements
may be used to track courses, execute DME arcs, hold
over, and determine horizontal distance from certain
non-RNAV navigation sources, without needing to monitor
that other navigational source. These are called Suitable
RNAV Systems. The pilot should refer to the Aircraft Flight
Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook to verify whether
the onboard equipment is eligible to serve as a suitable
RNAV replacement.

To illustrate an example of using Suitable RNAV Systems, if

an aircraft contains a Suitable RNAV System but does not
have DME receiving equipment, the RNAV equipment can
be used to calculate how far away the aircraft is from the
VOR station. For instance, the notes included on the chart
for the VOR RWY 5 approach into KRKS states that DME
is required. Even if the aircraft is not equipped with DME
equipment, the pilot can use the distances calculated by
the Suitable RNAV System to legally and safely meet the
approach’s execution requirements. In this example, the
pilot can use the distances calculated by the suitable RNAV
system to identify fixes along the approach and execute the
charted DME arc.

There are, however, certain procedures for which Suitable

RNAV Systems cannot replace standard equipment. For
example, pilots cannot use Suitable RNAV Systems to
provide lateral course guidance on localizer-based courses
without being able to refer to course data provided by the

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actual localizer system. For these operations, the aircraft

must receive and track the localizer signal directly to ensure

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precise lateral guidance. While RNAV systems can assist
with situational awareness, they cannot substitute for the
system required when following a localizer course during
the final approach segment.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

Navigation using satellites that are orbiting Earth is
commonplace around the world today for aviation and non-
aviation purposes. The satellites that help determine position
information, in addition to any accompanying augmentation
systems, are known collectively as the Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS). The Global Positioning System (GPS)
is part of the United States’ GNSS.

GPS can be a helpful navigational aid for pilots under IFR,

especially when visibility is limited. The information supplied
is highly accurate, and the equipment installed in aircraft
helps to ease some of the workload demands required for
using other NAVAIDs that have been previously explored.

Components and Operation

SEGMENTS
The GPS system consists of three major “segments:” the
space, control, and user segments.

The space segment consists of a group of over 30 satellites,

24 of which are operating for at least 95% of the time to
assure that there are spares available in the event that there
is an issue with any of the satellites. The 24 satellites are
arranged in 6 orbital planes that are spaced evenly apart from
one another and orbit around Earth. At least five satellites are
within range of the Earth at a time. The satellites use time-
based calculations to help determine position information.

The second segment is the control segment, which consists

of Department of Defense personnel and ground stations
that monitor satellite position and accuracy, and send
commands to the GPS satellites.

The third segment is the user segment. In order for pilots to

make use of the position information generated by the GPS
satellites, aircraft must be equipped with GPS receivers that
capture the information broadcast by the satellites and send
that information to the onboard display(s). GPS equipment
must meet specific requirements, which are contained in

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Technical Standard Order (TSO) C-129, to be eligible for use

under IFR. The pilot can refer to the Aircraft Flight Manual to
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verify whether the onboard equipment meets this standard.

OPERATION
The satellites in orbit contain atomic clocks that keep track
of time at a very high level of accuracy. The satellites send
course acquisition codes containing specific time and
satellite location information at specific time intervals down
to aircraft [Link] aircraft GPS receivers capture these
signals and send them to onboard systems for processing.

In order for the user segment to determine aircraft position

information, the onboard systems need to know two major
pieces of information: the distances between the satellites
and the aircraft receiver, and where the satellites are located
in space. Each satellite broadcasts a “Course/Acquisition
(C/A) Code,” which contains details about the time kept by
the satellite’s atomic clock and the satellite’s position. The
time lapsed between when the signal was sent and when
it was received is measured, which aids in calculating a
distance based on time, known as pseudo-range distance,
between the satellite and the aircraft. Additionally, the
satellite will transmit a message that contains data about the
trajectory of its orbit over time, which allows the aircraft’s
receiving equipment to determine its location in space.

To determine both the aircraft’s longitudinal and latitudinal

coordinates, as well as its altitude, the aircraft’s receivers
need to obtain the information described above from four
different satellites. The intersection of the signals from three
of the satellites help the receivers pinpoint the aircraft’s
longitudinal and latitudinal position on Earth, which is called
trilateration. The fourth satellite provides an additional
source of data, which increases the accuracy of the time
inputs that calculate pseudo-range data. The data is further
refined through various types of augmentation systems,
which will be discussed later.

The aircraft’s FMS also contains the GPS database, which

stores a collection of known locations on Earth. The database
is updated every twenty-eight days. The aircraft’s GPS
equipment is able to compare the aircraft’s location to the
location of waypoints, airways, etc., stored in the database
to provide distance, bearing, estimated times in arrival and
en route, etc., information to the pilot. The database houses
departure, arrival, and approach procedures, which the pilot
can load into the FMS for procedural execution.

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Aircraft Equipment
In order to receive signals from the GPS satellites, aircraft are equipped with GPS

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antennas. The information captured is then sent to the FMS for processing, which
allows the position, bearing, time, distance, etc., information to be displayed on the
PFD and MFD.

In glass cockpits, pilots can reference the HSI to ascertain course tracking and deviation
information, just as they would if they are tracking VOR or localizer-based courses. The
CDI needle is pink in color when it is being used to track GPS courses. The needle will
deflect to the sides of the instrument if the aircraft is not precisely tracking the selected
course, while it will become centered when the course is being properly followed.
Depending on the current phase of the flight (i.e., departure, en route, approach, etc.), a
full-scale deflection of the CDI needle will indicate a different distance that the aircraft
is deviating from the selected course. For instance, in some Garmin systems, a full-scale
deflection while operating en route indicates that the aircraft is 2 miles or more off
course, while a full-scale deflection when operating in the departure phase represents
a course deviation of 0.3 nautical miles. Also, the same ambiguity indicator shows
whether the aircraft is proceeding towards or away from the selected waypoint. An
additional feature that may be located near the HSI includes information about distances
to and precise bearing values to the selected waypoint.

As shown in the figure below, the HSI indicates that the aircraft is operating in the En
Route (ENR) environment. Below the HSI, the legs of the current and upcoming route
of the flight plan are shown. The GPS-calculated distance between the aircraft’s current
location and the next waypoint is shown in nautical miles.

The pilot can upload the flight plan to the FMS and reference it in the flight plan
page of the MFD. This includes selecting instrument departure, arrival, and approach
procedures that are stored in the database. The MFD also shows a moving map, which
is essentially a map that moves as the aircraft progresses along the course of its flight.
GPS waypoints contained in the database are displayed, as well as an outline of the
course stored in the flight plan.

The pilot can also access information about the integrity and signal strength of the GPS
satellites and related augmentation systems (discussed in the upcoming sections) on the
MFD. Any losses of integrity are typically communicated to the pilot via error messages
on the PFD or MFD.

Errors and Limitations

While GPS has enhanced navigational capabilities, it has some inherent errors and
limitations. Similar to the ground-based NAVAIDs covered in prior sections, GPS
signal range is limited. If there are obstructions blocking the aircraft receivers from the
satellites’ signals (e.g., terrain, man-made obstacles, the aircraft structure itself during
banking turns, etc.), then the signals may be lost. Additionally, since the Department
of Defense is committed to keeping at least twenty-four satellites operational 95% of
the time, some of the satellites may be kept offline, which may cause a lack of signal
availability in specific locations if other satellites cannot reach that particular location.

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Other factors may cause GPS signal interference unexpectedly during flight, which
could result in losses of signal or reduced accuracy. First, the GPS satellites’ atomic
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clocks may have slight errors, causing the data sent to the user segment to be slightly
inaccurate. Additionally, the signals transmitted by the satellites are radio waves, so they
may be refracted by ionospheric effects. This may cause the time-based data sent to the
user segment to be inaccurate. VHF signals received by other aircraft equipment could
also interfere with the GPS signals that are trying to reach the aircraft.

Although GPS has improved navigational capabilities, these errors can negatively
impact operations, affecting safety especially while flying in IMC. Prudent aircraft
operators will therefore have back-up navigation receivers for the flight, in the event
that signal accuracy is compromised. Fortunately, many aircraft are also equipped with
various systems that improve the accuracy of RNAV systems, including GPS, which will
be explored in the sections to follow.

Augmentation Systems
To maximize and enhance the accuracy of RNAV systems, various augmentation
systems, which monitor, detect, and, in some cases, correct erroneous information
supplied to users of RNAV systems. There are a variety of augmentation systems in use
today and can be ground-based, satellite-based, or aircraft-based.

GROUND-BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (GBAS)

Ground-Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS) enhance the
accuracy of navigational data provided by GPS satellites
using ground-based receiving and transmission equipment.
They are typically used by aircraft operating approximately
within 23 nautical miles of airport environments. Upon
receipt of signals broadcast by the GPS satellites to users,
the GBAS system processes the data, identifies erroneous
information, and sends corrected information to aircraft.

GBAS includes a ground station located on the surface of

the airport with several antennas at known coordinates. The
antennas receive GPS signals that are being sent to aircraft
and used in determining position information. There are
processors that analyze the data received and assess it for
erroneous information, based on the known locations of the
antennas’ positions. The ground station also contains a VHF
Data Broadcast (VDB) antenna, which is used to broadcast
correction codes, which occurs roughly every two seconds,
to aircraft receiving equipment.

A common use for GBAS systems is for instrument

approaches. GBAS Landing Systems (GLS) provide highly
accurate lateral, vertical, and angular guidance to aircraft
descending to the runway, as errors from the GPS satellites
could affect approach execution. Aircraft must be properly

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equipped and meet specific RNP requirements in order to

execute GLS approaches.

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SATELLITE-BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (SBAS)
Similar to GBAS, Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems
increase the accuracy and reliability of GPS signals broadcast
to aircraft. The satellite-based systems can provide coverage
in large area ranges, allowing aircraft to have greater access
to integrity services throughout the different phases of flight
(i.e., departure, en route, arrival, and approach).

Many different countries have their own SBAS systems. In

the United States, the SBAS system used is called Wide
Area Augmentation System (WAAS). By assessing the data
transmitted by the GPS satellites and making corrections
to errors, the WAAS system can provide aircraft with more
accurate position data for proper execution of various IFR
procedures. Let us explore how the WAAS system enhances
aircraft navigational accuracy.

Wide-area ground stations that are located throughout

the United States receive signals transmitted by the GPS
satellites, and, based on the ground stations’ known
locations, errors in the GPS-calculated information is
determined. The data is then sent to a wide-area master
station, where erroneous information is corrected. The
corrections are sent using a ground-based uplink station
to three geostationary satellites, which then broadcast the
corrected information to aircraft with compatible GPS and
WAAS receivers.

Onboard WAAS equipment generates vertical and

lateral courses for aircraft to use on certain RNAV (GPS)
approaches without requiring any ground-based equipment.

Two types of RNAV (GPS) lines of minima that- if the aircraft

is properly equipped, and if the approach offers these lines
of minima- require WAAS for use are Localizer Performance
with Vertical Guidance (LPV) and Localizer Performance.
WAAS provides lateral and vertical course guidance that
becomes more sensitive as the aircraft comes closer to the
runway, just like an ILS system, which supports LPV lines
of minima. Although RNAV (GPS) approaches with LPV
lines of minima do not meet ICAO Annex 10’s standards for
precision approaches, the approach is flown to a Decision
Altitude (DA). LP lines of minima use WAAS to provide
increasing lateral sensitivity as the aircraft comes closer to
the runway, just like a localizer. Approaches to LP lines of

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minima do not include vertical guidance for reasons such as

terrain or obstruction conflicts along the approach course;
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therefore, approaches with this line of minima are taken to a

Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA).

When a pilot plans for a flight, it is important to check

the NOTAMs pertinent to the route of flight to become
aware of any potential planned WAAS outages. If WAAS is
available, pilots are not required to check the status of RAIM
availability along the route of flight. Also, if an alternate
airport is required to be filed in the flight plan, pilots flying
aircraft with approved WAAS equipment can choose
airports with RNAV (GPS) approaches. Without approved
WAAS equipment, the alternate airport would need to have
at least one instrument approach that is predicated upon an
operable NAVAID that does not require GPS for use.

AIRCRAFT-BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (ABAS)

Internally, the aircraft may also possess augmentation systems
that assist with monitoring RNAV integrity. A few types of
ABAS systems used today are Receiver Autonomous Integrity
Monitoring (RAIM) and Inertial Navigation Systems (INS).

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a system that allows onboard
GPS receivers to constantly monitor the signals being received by satellites and assess
these signals for accuracy. RAIM can only assess the validity of the signals provided
by a GPS satellite and detect any integrity errors if at least five GPS satellites are in
range. Alternatively, if an aircraft is equipped with a baro-aiding altimeter, then this
tool can be used with just four satellites to detect errors. Some RAIM systems can also
remove a faulty satellite from those that are supplying navigation information, which is
called Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE), which would still permit accurate position
information to be provided. FDE requires six satellites to be in range, or five plus a
baro-aiding altimeter.

It is extremely important that pilots check the availability of RAIM prior to flight.
Many FMS systems provide data on GPS satellite signal strength and make estimates
as to whether RAIM will be available throughout the flight on the course to be flown.
Having an onboard system that continuously monitors the integrity of the navigational
information being provided to the pilot will assure safe, accurate operations under IFR.

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) enable aircraft to navigate with a high level of precision
without the assistance of information provided by external navigational aids, which
can be beneficial if there are satellite and ground-based navigational system outages.
Onboard equipment measures data related to aircraft motion, which helps provide
aircraft position information.

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Prior to flight, the pilot will enter the starting location of the aircraft into the system.
During flight, onboard accelerometers calculate aircraft velocity and acceleration as it

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flies through the air, and various directional gyros that use lasers also sense directional
changes. The computer uses this performance data to compute position information.

One limitation associated with INS is that the position information provided can become
less accurate over the course of the flight. As the aircraft’s motion constantly changes,
small errors sensed by the onboard equipment may accumulate and deliver erroneous
position information to the pilot.

Uses
Similar to ground and radio-based equipment, RNAV equipment can be used to execute
specific procedures under IFR. On a general scale, RNAV can be used to execute
departure, en route, arrival, or instrument approach procedures.

As RNAV permits aircraft to fly on direct routes between fixes, rather than solely
follow Victor Airways to travel from one airport to another. As long as the aircraft is
properly equipped, and space and ground-based NAVAID signal coverage is adequate,
aircraft can navigate between waypoints, or verified locations based on latitudinal and
longitudinal coordinates.

Waypoints may consist of ground-based NAVAIDs, waypoints, or intersections between

courses. Waypoints are typically used to mark transition points with respect to altitude,
airspeed, and direction along a course during specific IFR procedures.

There are two types of waypoints: fly-over and fly-by waypoints. A fly-over waypoint
is one that requires that aircraft fly directly over the waypoint. They are represented by
a waypoint symbol inside of a circle, such as DEHLR in the figure below. On the other
hand, aircraft do not fly directly over fly-by waypoints; rather, RNAV systems are able to
calculate precise navigational paths that permit aircraft to fly abeam the waypoint and
onto the next part of the course. These are symbolized by waypoint symbols that are not
surrounded by a circle, such as IZUFE in the figure below.

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2.
FLYING IN IFR

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1. INSTRUMENT
SCANNING

2. DETERMINING HORIZONTAL
LOCATION VERTICAL

3. RADIAL INBOUND
INTERCEPTION OUTBOUND

4. DME ARC

5. IFR FLIGHT
OVERVIEW

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1. BASICS OF INSTRUMENT
FLYING
Flying VFR, we’re used to looking outside, using the horizon to maintain attitude,
FLYING IN IFR

scanning for traffic, and navigating by using landmarks. But the moment we enter IMC
conditions, everything changes. The horizon disappears, outside references vanish, and
the sensations we once relied on become unreliable. Now, our survival and precision
depend entirely on our ability to trust and interpret our instruments. This transition
relies entirely on developing a instrument scan, one that allows us to extract the right
information at the right time without becoming overloaded or missing critical details.

The Foundation: Understanding the Six-Pack

When we lose outside visual references, our six primary flight instruments become
our only source of truth. The attitude indicator becomes our horizon, giving us an
immediate picture of pitch and bank. The vertical speed indicator tells us whether we’re
holding altitude, climbing, or descending. The airspeed indicator lets us know if we’re
maintaining the right energy state. The altimeter confirms trends in altitude changes.
The heading indicator keeps us tracking in the right direction. And the turn coordinator
ensures our turns are coordinated and at the right rate.

Developing a Proper Instrument Scan

The attitude indicator is our core reference, and everything else supports it. We
shouldn’t move our eyes away from it for more than 5 seconds.

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Some pilots use a radial scan, where they return to the attitude indicator after checking
each supporting instrument. Others prefer a rectangular pattern, moving methodically
between attitude, heading, airspeed, and altitude.

One of the biggest mistakes pilots make when transitioning to instruments is fixation.
It’s easy to get glued to the altimeter, but if we stare at it too long, we neglect the other
instruments and could end up in an unintentional bank or a speed deviation. The same

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happens when we fixate on a turn—we might nail our heading but lose altitude or
airspeed in the process.

Trusting the Instruments Over Our Senses

One of the hardest habits to break is relying on the body’s sensations. In IMC, the inner
ear can deceive us. A gentle turn can feel like level flight, and sudden accelerations can
give the illusion of climbing or descending. This is where we have to remind ourselves:
the instruments don’t lie.

If the attitude indicator says we’re banking left but we feel straight and level, we have to
believe the instrument. This is easier said than done, but it’s what separates proficient
IFR pilots from those who struggle. The moment we start questioning our instruments
based on “feel,” we’re setting ourselves up for spatial disorientation.

Trimming to Reduce Workload

If we’re spending too much energy just trying to keep the airplane straight and level, we
won’t have the bandwidth to handle everything else. A well-trimmed airplane should
be able to maintain altitude and heading with minimal control input. If we have to keep
constant pressure on the yoke just to stay level, we’re already behind. The more we fight
the airplane, the less mental capacity we have for everything else.

For small deviations in altitude, push or pull the control lever without touching the trim,
and let the speed stabilize, trimming when it’s not necessary will increase the workload.

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2. DETERMINING LOCATION
Unlike VFR navigation, where we follow roads, rivers, and landmarks, IFR navigation
relies entirely on charts that depict airways, waypoints, and navigation aids. These
charts provide the structured routing necessary to ensure safe separation from terrain
and other aircraft, guiding us from departure to destination with precision.
FLYING IN IFR

Waypoints are the backbone of IFR navigation. They can be ground-based fixes, such
as VOR stations or intersections defined by radials from multiple navigation aids,
or coordinate-based fixes in RNAV, which exist only in an electronic database and
are defined by latitude and longitude. These RNAV waypoints allow direct routing
independent of traditional VOR networks, making navigation more flexible and efficient.

WAYPOINTS VOR STATIONS

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On IFR charts, we locate our position by referencing our distance and direction from
these waypoints. Modern avionics simplify this process, displaying our aircraft’s real-
time position relative to waypoints, but even with advanced technology, understanding
the fundamentals of waypoint-based navigation is essential. With a solid grasp of charts
and waypoints, we can now move on to the practical skill of radial interception—how
to fly to and from these points with accuracy.

FLYING IN IFR
USING VOR/DME TO DETERMINE LOCATION
One of the most fundamental ways to determine our position in IFR is by using a
VOR (Very High-Frequency Omnidirectional Range) station. A VOR transmits 360
radials, each corresponding to a magnetic bearing from the station. By tuning a VOR
in our NAV radio and reading the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI), Relative Magnetic
Indicator (RMI) or Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), we can determine our position
relative to that station. However, a radial alone doesn’t give us an exact location—it
only tells us the direction we are from the station, not our distance. That’s where DME
(Distance Measuring Equipment) comes in.
To use VOR/DME to pinpoint our location, we follow these steps:
1. Tune and Identify the VOR – We select the appropriate frequency on the NAV radio
and listen to the Morse code identifier to ensure we have the correct station.
2. Find the Radial – By centering the CDI needle with a FROM indication, we determine
which radial we are on relative to the station.
3. Check the DME – If the VOR has an associated DME station, our aircraft’s DME
receiver will display the slant range distance from the station.

With this information, we now know exactly where we are: on a specific radial, at a
specific distance from the station. This is particularly useful for holding patterns, arrivals,
and determining our position along an airway.

If we don’t have DME, we can still determine our position by using two VOR stations.
This method, known as triangulation, involves tuning and identifying two different VORs
in the vicinity and using their radials to establish an exact fix.

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While these modes are a valuable skill to have, it is becoming less common with the
widespread use of GPS and moving maps.

MOVING MAPS: THE MODERN SOLUTION

Modern IFR navigation is heavily reliant on moving map displays, which use satellite-
based and ground-based navigation sources to determine position automatically. This
system, known as RNAV (Area Navigation), allows us to navigate point-to-point without
relying on fixed VOR stations.

Moving maps are integrated into Multi-Function Displays (MFDs), GPS units, and
Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs) like ForeFlight or Garmin Pilot. These displays show our
exact position on a digital map, similar to how a smartphone GPS works. Instead of
tuning VORs and calculating distances manually, the system continuously updates our
position and overlays it on a real-time navigation display.

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CHOOSING THE RIGHT NAVIGATION METHOD

The best navigation method depends on the available equipment and the phase of flight.
Enroute, moving maps and GPS-based RNAV are the most efficient and commonly
used tools. However, when conducting an approach or navigating a non-GPS-equipped
aircraft, VOR/DME remain essential skills.

A good IFR pilot doesn’t just rely on one system—they continuously cross-check

FLYING IN IFR
multiple sources to ensure accuracy. For example, even when using a moving map,
verifying position using a VOR radial or a DME readout can serve as a backup.
Once we know how to determine our position, the next step is learning how to use that
information to navigate efficiently.

VERTICAL
NAVIGATION
Understanding Vertical Navigation: Minimum Gradients
and Charted Altitudes
In IFR flight, altitude management involves adhering to
charted altitude restrictions and minimum climb or descent
gradients. Unlike VFR, where we can visually judge our
clearance from terrain, IFR charts provide all the vertical
guidance we need to ensure safe separation from obstacles,
controlled airspace, and other traffic.

IFR charts specify minimum and maximum altitudes for

different segments of flight. Enroute charts display MEA
(Minimum Enroute Altitude) and MOCA (Minimum Obstacle
Clearance Altitude), ensuring obstacle clearance and signal
reception for ground-based navigation aids. STARs (Standard
Terminal Arrival Routes) and SIDs (Standard Instrument
Departures) include altitude constraints that must be
followed to maintain safe and efficient traffic flow. Some
procedures also specify maximum altitudes to keep aircraft
from conflicting with higher-level traffic.

When climbing, IFR procedures may require a minimum

climb gradient, these gradients ensure that aircraft clear
rising terrain and obstacles along the route.

During an instrument approach, we will rely on minimum

descent altitudes (MDA) for non-precision approaches and
decision altitudes (DA) for precision approaches like an ILS.
Approaches with vertical guidance, such as ILS and RNAV
LPV, provide a glide slope indicator, allowing for a stabilized
descent at the correct gradient to the runway. We will cover
approach vertical guidance in detail later.

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3. RADIAL INTERCEPTION
INBOUND
Intercepting and Tracking Courses
Pilots may be required to intercept specific radials or
bearings defined by VORs under IFR. For instance, Air traffic
FLYING IN IFR

controllers could instruct a pilot to intercept a specific radial

and track towards or away from a VOR station. The pilot
should first tune to the VOR station and confirm the station’s
identity before using the station for navigation.

Let’s illustrate how to intercept a radial and track inbound

to a VOR station. Say that the aircraft is flying from KLAA to
KGLD, and the route includes flying along V263, then V108.

The pilot first tunes to HGO’s frequency (112.1) and identifies

the station by listening to the Morse Code identifier. Since
the portion of V263 leading to HGO from the southeast is
defined by the 123-degree radial of HGO, the pilot positions
the course index towards 303 degrees, which is the bearing
to the station along V263. If the CDI needle is centered, and
there is a “TO” flag, the pilot is properly tracking towards
HGO on V263.

As the pilot is approaching HGO VOR from the southeast

via V263, Air Traffic Control amends the initial clearance
received: “Intercept the One Niner Three radial of Hugo and
track inbound.” Since the controller instructed that the pilot
track inbound towards HGO, the pilot twists the OBS knob
until the course index points to the bearing of the desired

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course, which is the 013 bearing, and a TO flag appears on
the instrument. The CDI needle deflects to the left of center.

The pilot must now determine how the 013 bearing will
be intercepted and tracked. Since V263 falls on HGO’s
123-degree radial (303-degree bearing), the aircraft is flying
to the right of the 013-degree bearing (193-degree radial).
This makes sense, because the CDI needle has deflected to
the left, telling the pilot that the aircraft must be steered to
the left to intercept the course.

A rule-of-thumb method to determine an intercept heading

is to calculate the difference between the radial that the
aircraft is currently tracking and the radial that the pilot
desires to intercept. In this case, the difference between

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193 and 123 is 70. From here, the pilot can double this
value, which equals 140. Normally, the pilot would add this
value to the radial that is to be intercepted to determine the
intercept heading to which the aircraft should be turned.
Intercept headings, however, should never be less than 20
degrees and greater than 90 degrees, so the pilot will add
90 to 193, the desired radial, which yields 283. Assuming
FLYING IN IFR

that the aircraft’s current heading is 303 degrees, the pilot

will turn left to a heading of 283 degrees. As the pilot tracks
towards the radial, the CDI needle moves to the center
of the instrument, and the pilot begins to turn towards a
heading of approximately 013, at the rate at which the
needle is moving, to intercept the course.

HEADING FOR
INTERCEPTION CURRENT

DESIRED

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RADIAL INTERCEPTION

As the aircraft proceeds closer to the station, the pilot should FLYING IN IFR
keep the CDI needle centered. In our theoretical example,
the aircraft is flying on a 013-degree magnetic heading,
which is the same value as the bearing that is being tracked.
This may be acceptable during calm-wind, direct headwind,
or direct tailwind scenarios; however, when wind coming
from different directions is present, the pilot must adjust the
aircraft’s heading in order to maintain the aircraft’s position
on the desired course. The pilot will make minor corrections
to the heading (usually not more than 5 degrees) to adjust for
any wind drift, in order to keep the CDI needle centered.

Once the aircraft passes over the VOR station, the ambiguity
indicator switches to a “FROM” flag. This indicates that the
aircraft is now tracking outbound from the station. As long

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

as the needle remains centered with the course indicator

pointing to 013, the aircraft will remain on course.
FLYING IN IFR

OUTBOUND
Oppositely, if the pilot is instructed to intercept a specific
radial and track away from the VOR station, the pilot should
rotate the OBS knob until the Course Index points to the
numerical value of the radial, and a “FROM” indication
appears. If the aircraft is not currently tracking the selected
radial-bearing, the CDI needle will deflect. The pilot should
turn the aircraft in the direction of the needle deflection
to intercept the radial. As the needle centers, the pilot will
turn the airplane to a heading that will permit the aircraft to
intercept and continue to track the desired radial.

To illustrate using the previous example, say that the pilot

is still tracking outbound from the HGO VOR on the
013-degree radial. The air traffic controller now instructs
the pilot, “intercept Victor One Zero Eight.” Looking at the
IFR Low En Route chart, the pilot sees that V108 falls on the
062-degree radial of HGO. The pilot rotates the OBS knob, so
that the course index points to 062 with a “FROM” indication
on the ambiguity indicator. Since the aircraft is to the left of
the desired course, the CDI needle deflects to the right.

The pilot then uses the same rule-of-thumb formula to

determine an appropriate intercept heading. The difference
between 62 and 13 is 49, which can be rounded to 50 to
make upcoming calculations easier. Doubling 50 leads to
100, but, as stated earlier, the upper limit of the change

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RADIAL INTERCEPTION

FLYING IN IFR
factor to determine the intercept heading is 90 degrees.
The pilot adds 90 to 62, which yields 152, so the pilot turns
the aircraft to the right to a heading of 152 degrees. As the
aircraft nears the 62-degree radial of HGO, the CDI needle
begins to center, so the pilot turns the aircraft to a heading
of approximately 62 degrees at the rate at which the
needle is moving.

CURRENT

DESIRED

HEADING FOR
INTERCEPTION

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FLYING IN IFR HOW TO FLY IFR

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RADIAL INTERCEPTION

As the pilot continues to follow V108, as previously

mentioned, the pilot must eventually switch to the next
station that forms V108, in order to receive adequate
VOR signal coverage. The pilot must determine if there
is a change-over point along the airway that indicates a
nonstandard point at which the next station should be
used. There are no change-over point symbols along V108,

FLYING IN IFR
so the pilot should change frequencies at the midpoint
along the airway. There is no box surrounding a numerical
value that would tell the pilot how long the airway is, but
there are numerical values that specify how long certain
segments along the route are. The pilot would add 58 and
38 to determine the total length of the route, which is 96;
therefore, V108 is 96 nautical miles long. The pilot, therefore,
will switch to receiving signals from GLD when the aircraft
has traveled 48 nautical miles to the northeast along V108.

The pilot first tunes to GLD by programming the station’s

frequency, 115.1, into the NAV radio. The pilot will then
identify the station by listening to the Morse Code tone.
Once the station has been tuned and identified, to maintain
the aircraft’s current position along V108, the pilot should
verify which of GLD’s radials forms V108. As shown on
the IFR Low En Route chart, V108 is formed by GLD’s
238-degree radial (58-degree bearing). The pilot then twists
the OBS knob to point the Course Index to 058 with a “TO”
flag on the ambiguity indicator. The pilot will reorient the
aircraft as necessary to center the CDI needle and continue
flying towards the station.

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4. DME ARC
In a DME arc, we aim to fly in circles around a station, keeping a constant distance at
all times. To do this, we use the RMI and DME. If we keep the RMI needle at 90º, our
course stays perpendicular to the VOR radial, ensuring we fly in circles around it.
FLYING IN IFR

N 3
33

6
30
N 3

E
33

W
90 º 90 º

12

30

6
24
15
21

E
W
S

12
24
15
21 S

N 3
33
30

6
W

90 º E
24

12

21 15
S

To keep the RMI needle exactly at 90º, we would need to maintain a constant, slight
bank, which isn’t practical. Instead, we set the needle at 85º, wait for it to pass 95º, then
turn to bring it back to 85º.

If the needle moves above 90º, we’re getting closer to the VOR; if it drops below, we’re
moving away. This results in a small oscillation—getting slightly closer, then slightly
farther (within 0.5 NM). The same technique helps counter wind effects, as it may push
us toward or away from the station. Knowing the wind’s direction before entering the
arc is essential.

When the wind pushes you inward (closer to the station), adjust by turning until the
needle is near 110º. If the wind pushes you outward, turn to bring the needle to about
60º to regain the correct distance. Once back on track, return to the 85º technique.

A steeper intercept angle will get you back to the correct distance faster, but watch the
DME closely. The ground speed shown on the DME reflects speed toward or away from
the station. To maintain a steady arc, this value should be zero.

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DME ARC

N 3
33

6
95 º

30

E
W

12
24
15
21 S N 3
33

6
85 º

30
85º

E
HD

W
G3

12

FLYING IN IFR
30

24
º
15
21 S

N 3
H 33
D

6
G 95 º

30
33

E
0º

12
24
15
21 S
N 3
33

HD
85 º

6
30
G

E
34

W
8 5º

12
0º

24
10º
15
21 S

10º

10º
0.5N M 0 .5 N M

For example, if we are at 20 miles and need to fly a counterclockwise arc at 15 miles,
we first head toward the station. Before reaching 15 miles, we turn right to set the RMI
needle at 85º. If we wait until exactly 15 miles to start turning, we may overshoot and
end up at a different distance, so we must anticipate the turn.

Once established on the arc, we maintain the heading until the RMI needle reaches
95º. At that point, we turn left to bring the needle back to 85º, repeating this process
to stay on the arc.

3
N 6
33

E
30

12
W

15

24
3
S
N 21
33
6
30

E
W

12
24

15
21 S

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To exit the arc, we select a radial and turn to leave the arc upon reaching it. Just like
entering, we anticipate the turn. Set the desired radial on the HSI and use the CDI’s
guidance to determine when to turn.

N 3
33
30

6
FLYING IN IFR

E
24

12 N 3
21 15 33

6
S
95 º

30

E
W

12
24
15
21 S N 3
33

6
85 º

30
85º

E
W

12
24
15
21 S

4º
H

N 3
33
DG
N

6
IP AT IO

33

95 º

30
0º

E
W

12
24
A N T IC

15
21 S
N 3
33

6
85 º

30
HD

E
W
G 3

12
24
10 º
40

15
21 S
º

10 º

10º

7NM

A N T ICIPAT IO N
0.5NM 0 .5N M

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IFR FLIGHT OVERVIEW

5. IFR FLIGHT OVERVIEW

IFR Flight Overview
An IFR flight follows a structured sequence from takeoff to landing, divided into four
main phases: departure, enroute, arrival, and approach. Unlike VFR flying, where pilots
can navigate freely as long as they avoid controlled airspace, IFR flights are under

FLYING IN IFR
continuous ATC control, with clearances required for every phase of horizontal and
vertical movement.

Departure
The IFR flight begins on the ground, where we receive an IFR clearance from ATC
before taxiing. This clearance includes our route, initial altitude, departure frequency,
and a transponder code. Once airborne, we follow a designated Standard Instrument
Departure (SID) or radar vectors given by ATC to safely integrate into the enroute
structure. ATC dictates our climb and course, ensuring separation from other aircraft.

Enroute
After departure, we transition into the enroute phase, typically at cruising altitude along
predefined airways or direct routings in RNAV-equipped aircraft. Here, ATC ensures
separation from other traffic, assigns altitude changes as needed, and provides reroutes
for weather or traffic management. Unlike VFR, where pilots can choose their own
cruising altitude, in IFR, every altitude change must be cleared by ATC.

Arrival
As we near our destination, ATC begins our descent and may assign a Standard Terminal
Arrival Route (STAR), a structured procedure that guides aircraft into the terminal area in an
orderly manner. Descent is not at the pilot’s discretion; it is managed by ATC, who issues
step-down clearances to maintain separation and integrate arriving aircraft efficiently.

Approach and Landing

In the final phase, ATC provides approach instructions, either through radar vectors
or by clearing us for a published instrument approach. Precision approaches, such
as ILS (Instrument Landing System), provide lateral and vertical guidance down to
the runway, while non-precision approaches require pilots to descend to a Minimum
Descent Altitude (MDA) before visually acquiring the runway. ATC must clear us for
every phase of approach, and if we cannot land, a missed approach procedure is
executed under ATC guidance.

Continuous ATC Communication

Unlike VFR flying, where pilots can navigate independently outside controlled airspace,
IFR flights require constant ATC communication. ATC dictates every altitude change,
course deviation, and approach clearance to ensure safe separation and traffic flow.
Pilots must check in with each controlling sector and obtain clearance before making
any changes in altitude or direction. At no point in an IFR flight can a pilot operate
independently without ATC clearance, ensuring controlled and coordinated traffic
management from takeoff to touchdown.

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WRITE YOUR NOTES HERE

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]
3. FLIGHT
PLANNING
A well-planned flight keeps you ahead of the airplane.
Checking weather, NOTAMs, and alternate airports gives
you a clear picture of what to expect and what your options
are if things change.

Modern apps and software make it easier to plan routes,

calculate fuel, and check mass and balance, but they’re
only as good as the pilot using them. A quick glance isn’t
enough; you need to understand the data and how it
affects your flight.

Spending a few extra minutes on the ground can save you

from tough decisions in the air. In this chapter, we’ll go
through the key steps to make sure nothing gets overlooked
before takeoff.

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

0. OVERVIEW

1. WEATHER AIRPORT WEATHER CONDITIONS

EN ROUTE WEATHER HAZARDS
2. NOTAMS

3. ALTERNATE
SELECTION

4. PROCEDURES

5. ROUTE PLANNING PREFERRED IFR ROUTES

FILED IFR ROUTE
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE PILATUS PC-12
ROUTE PLANNING TOOLS
WEATHER, WINDS, AND ICING CONDITIONS

6. FUEL PLANNING

7. MASS AND
BALLANCE

8. OPERATIONAL
FLIGHT PLAN

9. FILING YOUR
FLIGHT PLAN

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FLIGHT PLANNING HOW TO FLY IFR

0. OVERVIEW
For this book, we will be using a real IFR flight from Seville
San Pablo (LEZL) to Milan Linate (LIML) in a Pilatus PC-12
as our reference example. This will provide a practical, real-
world application of flight. When planning an IFR flight, we
start by defining key flight parameters:
Aircraft: The Pilatus PC-12 is a versatile single-engine
turboprop known for its reliability and performance. It’s
powered by a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-67P engine,
delivering approximately 1,200 shaft horsepower. The
aircraft has a maximum takeoff weight of 10,450 pounds and
can comfortably accommodate up to nine passengers.
Route Type: For this journey, we’ll operate under Instrument
Flight Rules (IFR), utilizing high-altitude jet routes. This
approach allows for more direct routing and often provides
a smoother ride above weather systems.
Cruising Altitude: For the PC-12, a typical cruising altitude for
this route would be FL260 (26,000 feet). This altitude offers
a balance between fuel efficiency and aircraft performance,
keeping you above most weather and terrain obstacles.
True Airspeed (TAS): At FL260, the PC-12 has a normal
cruise speed of approximately 268 knots.
Fuel Capacity & Burn Rate: The PC-12 holds about 402 U.S.
gallons of usable fuel, translating to approximately 2,704
pounds. In cruise flight, it burns around 55 gallons per hour.
Estimated Flight Time: The direct distance between KDAL
and KSLC is roughly 920 nautical miles. Considering the PC-
12’s cruise speed, the estimated flight time is approximately
3 hours and 30 minutes. This estimate can vary based on
factors like winds aloft and air traffic control routings.
Alternate Airport: It’s prudent to plan for an alternate
airport in case landing at KSLC becomes unfeasible due to
unforeseen circumstances. Potential alternates include Provo
Municipal Airport (KPVU), located about 40 nautical miles
south of Salt Lake City, which offers suitable facilities and
instrument approaches.

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WEATHER

1. WEATHER
A thorough weather briefing is critical for safe IFR operations. This involves reviewing
METARs and TAFs for departure and arrival airports, determining the runway in use, and
assessing en route hazards such as turbulence, icing, and winds aloft.

AIRPORT
WEATHER
CONDITIONS

FLIGHT PLANNING
METARs and TAFs
Departure Airport (KDAL):
– Check current wind direction and speed, visibility, ceiling,
and temperature/dew point spread.
– Review the TAF for forecasted wind shifts, cloud cover
changes, precipitation, and any potential convective activity.
Destination Airport (KSLC):
– Examine current conditions for wind trends, visibility,
cloud layers, and barometric pressure.
– The TAF will provide insights into expected changes near
the estimated arrival time, including precipitation, wind
shear, or low ceilings.

Determining Runway in Use

Departure Runway (KDAL):
– Runway selection is based on current wind conditions and
standard departure procedures.
– Verify with ATIS or clearance delivery to confirm the
assigned runway.
Arrival Runway (KSLC):
– The expected landing runway is determined by wind
direction and air traffic flow.
– Review ATIS before arrival for the final runway selection
and be prepared for adjustments based on wind shifts.

EN ROUTE
WEATHER
HAZARDS
Winds Aloft
– Winds at cruising altitude impact fuel burn, groundspeed,
and overall efficiency.
– Compare winds at adjacent altitudes to determine if
adjustments could provide a more favorable wind component.

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 WEATHER HOW TO FLY IFR

SIGMETs and AIRMETs

– SIGMETs provide warnings of severe weather hazards
such as turbulence, icing, or convective activity.
– AIRMETs alert to moderate turbulence, widespread IFR
conditions, and potential icing zones along the route.

PIREPs
– PIREPs provide real-time reports from other aircraft
regarding turbulence, icing, and cloud tops.
– Monitoring reports near key en route waypoints helps
anticipate weather conditions that may differ from forecasts.
FLIGHT PLANNING

Winds Aloft Charts

– Reviewing winds aloft charts allows for informed decisions
regarding altitude and routing.
– Adjusting altitude based on wind direction and speed can
improve fuel efficiency and reduce turbulence exposure.

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NOTAMS

2. NOTAMS
Next, review NOTAMs for KDAL, KSLC, and your alternate airports. These notices
provide critical information about airport and airspace status that could affect your flight.

For example, there might be runway or taxiway closures, changes in available instrument
approaches, or temporary airspace restrictions due to events or hazards. Staying updated
with NOTAMs ensures you’re aware of any operational limitations or requirements.

FLIGHT PLANNING

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

3. ALTERNATE SELECTION
Selecting an appropriate alternate airport is a very important part of IFR flight planning.
An alternate airport serves as a backup destination if landing at your primary destination
becomes unfeasible due to weather or other factors.

Regulatory Requirements:
According to FAA regulations, an alternate airport must be included in your flight plan
unless the destination airport has an instrument approach procedure, and the weather
forecasts indicate that, for at least one hour before and after your estimated time of
FLIGHT PLANNING

arrival, the ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation, and visibility
will be at least three statute miles.

Considerations for Choosing an Alternate:

Distance: Select an alternate that is neither too close nor too far from your destination.
An alternate too close may share the same adverse weather conditions, while one too
far could pose fuel limitations.
Available Approaches: Ensure the alternate airport has suitable instrument approach
procedures that your aircraft is equipped and certified to fly.
Airport Facilities: Confirm that the alternate airport has the necessary services and
facilities, such as adequate runway length, lighting, and available fuel.
Weather Forecasts: Review the weather forecasts for the alternate airport to ensure
conditions will be above the required minima at your estimated time of arrival.

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PROCEDURES

4. PROCEDURES
Familiarize yourself with the Standard Instrument Departure (SID) procedures at KDAL,
the Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STAR) at KSLC, and the Instrument Approach
Procedures (IAPs). These procedures provide structured routing, altitude restrictions,
and required navigational aids to ensure compliance with ATC and maintain safe
separation from other traffic.

Departure from KDAL (Dallas Love Field)

FLIGHT PLANNING
At Dallas Love Field, commonly assigned SIDs include:
SWABR6 SID – Frequently used for westbound departures.
SIDNEY5 SID – Another option depending on traffic flow
and ATC instructions.
Review the SID chart to understand:
Initial routing and altitude restrictions.
Climb gradients and speed restrictions.
Transition points that connect the SID to the en route phase.
Any navigational aids (VORs, RNAV waypoints) required
for compliance.
Check for any NOTAMs affecting departure procedures.

Arrival at KSLC (Salt Lake City International)

Upon arrival at Salt Lake City, you might be assigned one of
the following STARs:
SPANE8 STAR
LEEHY5 STAR
Review the STAR chart to understand:
Waypoints and altitude constraints to comply with
descent planning.
Speed restrictions at various points to maintain safe
traffic separation.
Expected transition from the STAR to the instrument
approach phase.

Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs)

ATC will assign a runway and an instrument approach based
on current weather and traffic flow. Common approaches at
KSLC include:
ILS Approaches – Providing precision vertical and lateral
guidance, useful in low visibility.
RNAV (GPS) Approaches – Used for aircraft equipped with
GPS navigation.
VOR Approaches – A non-precision backup option when
ILS or GPS is unavailable.

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Study the approach chart for your expected procedure. Pay

attention to:
Final approach fix (FAF) altitude and descent profile.
Decision altitude (DA) or minimum descent altitude (MDA).
Missed approach procedures in case of an unstable
approach or unexpected go-around.
Runway lighting and airport elevation details to ensure a
smooth transition to visual conditions.
FLIGHT PLANNING

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ROUTE PLANNING

5. ROUTE PLANNING
Selecting an appropriate route for your IFR flight from Dallas Love Field (KDAL) to
Salt Lake City International (KSLC) is next, in compliance with air traffic control (ATC)
procedures. This process involves analyzing preferred IFR routes, considering airspace
structure, and accounting for the performance capabilities of the aircraft.

PREFERRED IFR
ROUTES
The FAA’s National Flight Data Center (NFDC) maintains a

FLIGHT PLANNING
database of preferred IFR routes designed to optimize traffic
flow and enhance safety. These routes are based on factors
such as airspace congestion, terrain, and navigational aid
availability. Filing a preferred route increases the likelihood
of receiving direct clearance from ATC, minimizing delays
and reroutes.
For this flight, we will be departing via the SWABR6 SID
from KDAL, navigating through key waypoints, and arriving
into KSLC via the FFU transition on a STAR.

FILED IFR ROUTE

KDAL SWABR1 HUDAD TXK FSM MAP HGO BCE FFU KSLC
Route Breakdown:
– SWABR1: Standard Instrument Departure (SID) from KDAL,
leading to HUDAD waypoint.
– HUDAD: HUDAD waypoint– the last waypoint in the SID,
entry for the airway.
– FSM: Fort Smith VOR – Provides course alignment
across Arkansas.
– MAP: Maples VOR – A common fix for westbound traffic.
– HGO: Hugo VOR – Direct routing toward New Mexico.
– BCE: Bryce Canyon VOR – Transition point before Salt
Lake City airspace.
– FFU (Fairfield VOR): STAR transition into KSLC, commonly
assigned for aircraft arriving from the southeast.
This routing follows established airways and navigational
aids, ensuring efficient navigation while facilitating ATC
communication and flow management.

CONSIDERA-
TIONS FOR THE
PILATUS PC-12 The Pilatus PC-12 is a highly capable single-engine
turboprop designed for high-altitude, short-range IFR
operations. Key considerations for this flight include:

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

– Cruising Altitude: FL260 (26,000 feet), balancing fuel

efficiency and performance.
– True Airspeed (TAS): ~268 knots at cruise.
– Fuel Burn: ~55 gallons per hour at cruise altitude.
– Service Ceiling: 30,000 feet, allowing flexibility for
turbulence or weather avoidance.
By flying at FL260, we ensure optimal performance while
maintaining clearance over [Link] this flight, we will
be departing via the SWABR6 SID from KDAL, navigating
through key waypoints, and arriving into KSLC via the FFU
transition on a STAR.
FLIGHT PLANNING

ROUTE PLANNING
TOOLS
To optimize route selection and ensure compliance with
ATC directives, use flight planning tools such as:
– ForeFlight or Garmin Pilot – For real-time weather, route
optimization, and flight planning.
– SkyVector – To visualize waypoints, airways, and terrain
considerations.
– FAA Preferred Routes Database – To confirm optimal
routing and ATC-preferred flight paths.
– [Link] – For winds aloft forecasts and en
route weather monitoring.

WEATHER, WINDS,
AND ICING
CONDITIONS Winds Aloft
– Check winds aloft charts to determine potential headwinds
or tailwinds.
– If strong headwinds exceed 50 knots, consider adjusting
altitude for better efficiency.

Icing Risk
– The PC-12 is equipped with de-icing systems, but icing can
still impact performance.
– Check AIRMETs/SIGMETs for icing advisories along the
route, particularly near BCE and FFU, where clouds and
precipitation could exist.

Turbulence Considerations
– Mountain wave turbulence is common near BCE (Bryce
Canyon VOR) and KSLC, especially in strong westerly winds.
– Monitor PIREPs along the route for real-time turbulence
reports.

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FUEL PLANNING

6. FUEL PLANNING
Ensuring precise fuel planning is critical for the safety and regulatory compliance of IFR
flights, particularly when considering the differences between piston and turbine engines.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) outlines specific fuel requirements under 14
CFR § 91.167, which apply to both engine types, but with distinct considerations.

Fuel Requirements for IFR Flights:

1. Trip Fuel: Sufficient fuel to fly from the departure airport to the intended destination.
2. Alternate Fuel: If an alternate airport is required, enough fuel to proceed from the

FLIGHT PLANNING
destination to the alternate.
3. Final Reserve Fuel: Additional fuel to fly after reaching the alternate (or destination if
no alternate is required):
– Piston-Engine Aircraft: 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.
– Turbine-Engine Aircraft: 30 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 feet above the alternate
airport under standard temperature conditions.

Additional Fuel Considerations:

– Contingency Fuel: Extra fuel to account for unforeseen factors such as air traffic
delays, adverse weather requiring deviations, or extended holding patterns.
– Taxi Fuel: Fuel consumed during ground operations, including engine start, taxiing,
and pre-takeoff delays.
– Holding Fuel: Specific fuel allocated for planned holding procedures, which may be
required due to traffic management or arrival sequencing.
– Extra Fuel: At the pilot’s discretion, additional fuel may be loaded based on specific
flight considerations, such as anticipated delays or potential rerouting.

Regulatory Compliance:
We must ensure that the total fuel onboard meets or exceeds the sum of all required
fuel categories: trip fuel, alternate fuel (if applicable), final reserve fuel, and any
additional fuel deemed necessary. Adhering to these requirements is essential for both
safety and regulatory compliance.
By meticulously calculating and adhering to these fuel requirements, pilots can ensure a
safe and compliant IFR flight, whether operating piston or turbine-engine aircraft.

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

7. MASS AND BALLANCE

Ensuring that your aircraft’s weight and center of gravity (CG) is the next step before
filling the operational and flight plan. This process involves an assessment of all factors,
including fuel, passengers, baggage, and cargo.

Key Considerations:
Aircraft Empty Weight and CG
Begin by referencing the aircraft’s empty weight and CG
FLIGHT PLANNING

location, as provided in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook

(POH) or Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM). These documents
offer essential data for accurate calculations.

Weight Additions
Account for the weight of all items to be loaded onto the
aircraft:
– Fuel: Calculate the total weight based on the fuel’s density
(e.g., aviation gasoline typically weighs approximately 6
pounds per gallon).
– Passengers and Crew: Include the weight of each
individual on board.
– Baggage and Cargo: Consider the weight and distribution
of all additional items.

Moment Calculations
For each loaded item, determine the moment by
multiplying its weight by its arm (the horizontal distance
from the reference datum). This step is vital for assessing
the CG location.

Total Weight and CG Determination

Sum the weights and moments of all items, including the
aircraft’s empty weight and moment. Then, divide the total
moment by the total weight to find the CG. Ensure that both
the total weight and CG fall within the limits specified in the
POH or AFM.

Verification Against CG Envelope

Consult the aircraft’s weight and balance envelope to
confirm that the calculated CG is within permissible limits
for the intended flight operations. Operating outside these
limits can adversely affect stability and control.

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MASS AND BALLANCE

Importance of Compliance:
Adhering to prescribed weight and balance parameters is essential for several reasons:
Safety: Improper weight distribution can lead to adverse flight characteristics, including
reduced stability and control issues.
Performance: Exceeding weight limits can impair takeoff, climb, cruise, and landing
performance, potentially leading to hazardous situations.
Regulatory Compliance: Operating within the specified weight and balance limits is a
regulatory requirement, and non-compliance can result in legal and safety ramifications.

FLIGHT PLANNING

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8. OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN

An Operational Flight Plan (OFP) is a comprehensive document that outlines the
specifics of a flight, including route, fuel requirements, weather considerations,
and contingency plans. While not explicitly mandated by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) for all flight operations, the creation and use of an OFP are
considered best practices, especially for complex or commercial flights.

Regulatory Requirements:
– Commercial Operations: Under 14 CFR Part 121, airlines and commercial operators are
FLIGHT PLANNING

required to prepare and use an OFP for each flight. This plan must detail the route, fuel
calculations, weather information, and alternative airports, among other critical elements.
– General Aviation: For private pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 91, there is no
explicit requirement to create an OFP. However, pilots are responsible for conducting
thorough pre-flight planning, which includes assessing weather conditions, calculating
waypoints, fuel requirements, and ensuring the aircraft’s weight and balance are within
safe limits. Utilizing an OFP can aid in organizing this information systematically.

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9. FILING YOUR FLIGHT PLAN

This process communicates your intended route, altitude, and other pertinent details
to Air Traffic Control (ATC), facilitating effective traffic management and providing
essential information in case of emergencies.

METHODS OF FILING AN IFR FLIGHT PLAN:

Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) Applications:
– Modern EFBs, such as ForeFlight or Garmin Pilot, offer
integrated flight planning tools that allow you to file your IFR

FLIGHT PLANNING
flight plan directly from your tablet or smartphone. These
platforms provide user-friendly interfaces to input your route,
altitude, and other necessary information. Once submitted,
the flight plan is transmitted to the appropriate ATC facilities.

Telephone:
– You can file your flight plan by calling Flight Service.
This method allows you to speak directly with a briefer
who can assist with filing your plan and provide additional
information such as weather updates and NOTAMs.

ATC Clearance Delivery:

– At towered airports like KDAL, you have the option to file
your flight plan directly with ATC Clearance Delivery. This
can be done via radio communication on the designated
clearance delivery frequency. However, to avoid frequency
congestion, it’s generally more efficient to file your flight
plan in advance using one of the methods mentioned above.

INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR FILING:

When filing your IFR flight plan, ensure you have the
following details readily available:
– Aircraft Identification: Your aircraft’s tail number (e.g.,
N123AB).
– Aircraft Type/Special Equipment: Specify your aircraft
model and any special equipment or capabilities (e.g.,
PC12/G for a Pilatus PC-12 equipped with GPS).
– True Airspeed: Your planned cruising true airspeed in knots.
– Departure Point: The ICAO identifier for Dallas Love Field
is KDAL.
– Departure Time: Proposed time of departure in
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
– Cruising Altitude: Your planned cruising altitude (e.g., FL260).
– Route of Flight: Detailed description of your planned route,
including waypoints, airways, and transitions.

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– Destination: The ICAO identifier for Salt Lake City

International is KSLC.
– Estimated Time Enroute: Total expected flight time from
departure to arrival.
– Alternate Airports: List of alternate airports in case landing
at KSLC becomes impractical.
– Fuel on Board: Total amount of fuel available, expressed in
hours and minutes of flight time.
– Pilot’s Contact Information: Your name and a method of
contact for search and rescue purposes.
FLIGHT PLANNING

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WRITE YOUR NOTES HERE

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Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]
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4.
GROUND
The ground phase is all about preparation, and it’s the most
important step in ensuring the flight will go smoothly. This
is where we take the time to check every detail—weather,
NOTAMs, the condition of the aircraft—so there are no
surprises later. It’s not just about following a checklist; it’s
about building confidence in every part of the flight.
During this phase, we focus on making sure everything
is ready: the airplane, the paperwork, and even our own
mindset. The walkaround, cockpit setup, and engine checks
may feel routine, but they’re critical. A well-prepared ground
phase sets us up for a flight that’s not just efficient, but safe
and predictable. It’s the work we do here that ensures the
rest of the flight will feel seamless.

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1. PROFICIENCY
AND CURRENCY

2. DAY OF FLIGHT - PRE-FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING

CHECKS APPROACH SEGMENTS
NOTAMS
DAY OF FLIGHT
DAY OF FLIGHT BRIEFING

3. HEADING TO THE REACHING THE AIRCRAFT

AIRPORT PICKING UP CLEARANCE
TAKE OFF BRIEFING
START UP
AFTER START
LINEUP CHECKS
NON TOWERED AIRPORT
TAKEOFF ALTERNATE SCENARIO

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1. PROFICIENCY AND
CURRENCY
Each aircraft has its own characteristics, and if you’re flying multiple types, it’s essential
to practice and master the specific skills each one requires. But no matter what you’re
flying, one thing is constant: knowing your procedures thoroughly is non-negotiable.

Procedures must be second nature. When you know them inside and out, you free
yourself to focus entirely on flying, decision-making, and managing the unexpected.
If you’re trying to remember the next step or double-checking what to do, you’re
losing valuable time and mental energy. Familiarity with your procedures will make
all the difference in how smoothly and confidently you handle the flight, especially
under pressure.

Understanding your aircraft is just as important. This means knowing the general
GROUND

procedures for the model and being aware of any specific quirks or behaviors of the
particular plane you’re flying. No two aircraft are exactly alike—some may have more
power, different handling, or unique maintenance issues. Talking to the previous crew
about any recent concerns or anomalies can give you critical insight before you even
start your checks.

Staying current in your skills is another key piece. For IFR operations, that means
completing six instrument approaches, holding patterns, and tracking within the last six
months, as required by the FAA. If you’re not current, an Instrument Proficiency Check
(IPC) might be necessary to get back on track.

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2. DAY OF FLIGHT - CHECKS

PRE-FLIGHT
WEATHER
BRIEFING
Before starting the flight, it’s essential to check the weather
conditions along the entire route. Begin by obtaining a
thorough weather briefing—not just for the departure point,
but also for the destination and any alternate airports.
Use approved aviation sources such as [Link],
ForeFlight, FSS stations, or [Link] to access
METARs, TAFs, and NOTAMs.

TYPES OF WEATHER BRIEFINGS

Pilots utilize three main types of weather briefings—
Standard, Abbreviated, and Outlook—to meet specific

GROUND
operational needs.

Standard Briefing
This is the most comprehensive briefing, typically obtained
when the pilot has not reviewed prior weather information
for the intended flight route. It includes:
– METARs (Meteorological Aerodrome Reports)
– TAFs (Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts)
– NOTAMs (Notices to Airmen)
– PIREPs (Pilot Reports)
– En route forecasts
– Airspace restrictions
A Standard Briefing provides a full situational overview,
helping pilots assess the feasibility of the flight and plan
any necessary route adjustments. It is best used during
pre-flight planning.

Abbreviated Briefing
This briefing is tailored for pilots who already have
preliminary weather information and only need specific
updates or details. It’s particularly useful:
– For in-flight or last-minute pre-flight checks
– To focus on critical updates, such as SIGMETs, AIRMETs,
or convective activity
The Abbreviated Briefing ensures pilots stay informed
about critical weather changes that may impact the route
or destination.

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Outlook Briefing
Designed for flights departing six or more hours from the
time of the request, this briefing provides a long-range
forecast. It helps pilots:
– Gauge general weather trends
– Prepare alternate plans if adverse conditions are anticipated
This briefing is especially valuable for longer, complex flights
or for identifying potential weather disruptions during the
early stages of flight planning.

NOTAMS
NOTAMs are critical for every flight. They provide essential
information about temporary changes or significant
conditions affecting the route, departure, destination,
or alternate airports. Reviewing NOTAMs helps ensure
you’re aware of last minute notices or problems, involving
Temporary runway closures, Airspace restrictions,
GROUND

Navigational aid outage, or Other operational factors that

could impact safety.

DAY OF FLIGHT
Flying is inherently risky, which is why we rely on checklists
to ensure safe and thorough operation. Before every flight,
two critical checklists—the IMSAFE and PAVE—should be
performed. These ensure not only that you are fit to fly but
also that the flight is conducted for the right reasons and
under appropriate conditions.

IMSAFE checklist
The IMSAFE checklist is a personal health and readiness evaluation to ensure you’re
physically and mentally fit to fly. Let’s break it down:
I – Illness: Are you feeling sick or unwell? Even minor illnesses can affect your
performance in the cockpit. If you’re not at 100%, postpone the flight.
M – Medication: Are you taking any medications? Some may impair judgment, reaction
times, or cause drowsiness. Ensure any medication you take is FAA-approved for flying.
S – Stress: Are you dealing with significant personal or professional stress? Stress can
cloud judgment and impair decision-making abilities.
A – Alcohol: Have you consumed alcohol in the past eight hours? Are you below the
legal blood alcohol limit? FAA regulations state “8 hours bottle to throttle” and require a
blood alcohol content below 0.04%.
F – Fatigue: Are you well-rested? Fatigue can impair cognitive function just as much as
alcohol. Avoid flying if you’re overly tired.
E – Emotion or Eating: Are you emotionally stable and well-fed? Flying on an empty
stomach or when emotionally distracted can reduce your performance.
Taking a moment to run through IMSAFE before every flight ensures you’re fully prepared
to pilot the aircraft safely. Being honest with yourself during this self-assessment isn’t just
good practice—it’s essential for the safety of everyone on board and around you.

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PAVE checklist
The PAVE checklist evaluates the overall safety of a flight by focusing on four key areas:
P – Pilot: Are you ready to fly? This includes reviewing your proficiency, currency,
and personal health (covered by IMSAFE).
A – Aircraft: Is the aircraft airworthy and suitable for the mission? Consider factors such
as fuel, equipment, maintenance status, and performance limitations.
V – enVironment: Are the weather, airspace, terrain, and airport conditions favorable
for a safe flight? Carefully review forecasts and NOTAMs.
E – External pressures: Are there any external factors—such as time constraints,
passenger expectations, or personal commitments—that could pressure you to fly when
it’s unsafe? Avoid letting these pressures cloud your judgment.
Using the PAVE checklist helps you systematically assess the risks of your flight.
Combining it with the IMSAFE checklist ensures you’re not only prepared but that the
overall flight environment is as safe as possible.

DAY OF FLIGHT
BRIEFING

GROUND
Before starting the day, we’ll take the time to sit down with
our colleague and have an honest discussion about what’s
ahead. We’ll talk through the flights we’re scheduled to
perform, the weather conditions we expect to encounter,
the NOTAMs, the route, the procedures, if we are familiar
with the airports, with each other, anything about the aircraft
that’s worth mentioning. But just as important, we’ll talk
about ourselves—how we’re feeling, physically and mentally.

This is when we use tools like the PAVE and IMSAFE

checklists to make sure everything is in order. Are we fit to
fly? Are there personal or external factors that could affect
our performance? This conversation isn’t just about logistics;
it’s about preparing as a team for anything the day might
throw at us. It’s a time to share anything unusual, no matter
how small or personal it might seem.

Maybe you didn’t sleep well, you’re feeling stressed about

something at home, or you’re hungry and know it’ll distract
you later. These are the kinds of things that might not seem
relevant, but they absolutely are. Bringing them up here
helps us address them before they become a problem in the
air. This open, honest conversation sets the tone for the day
and ensures we’re both ready.

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3. HEADING TO THE AIRPORT

With everything prepared, it’s time to head to the airport. Be sure to bring your pilot’s
license, identification, and flight plan, as these documents are essential.

Our aircraft is parked in the General Aviation (GA) area of Dallas Airport. Upon arrival,
we will first stop by the C Office to handle any necessary landing or parking fees. Once
that is complete, we will proceed to the handling office, which will take care of various
aspects of the flight preparation.

The handling team will assist with tasks such as refueling the aircraft, providing
transportation to and from the aircraft, and managing passengers, cargo, and luggage.
They will also coordinate with the C Office on our behalf to address details such as the
flight plan, payments or any adjustments required due to delays or operational needs.
In the next image, you can see the ground chart of the airport. The yellow circle
highlights the area where we will be located.
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REACHING THE
AIRCRAFT
Upon arriving at the aircraft, there are several steps to
complete to ensure it is ready for flight. The process begins
by checking the documents onboard to confirm the aircraft
is legally fit to fly. This includes verifying that all required
certifications, maintenance records, and operational
documents are present and up to date.

AIRCRAFT CHECKS
Documents
Managing aircraft documentation is critical to both
compliance and safe operations. FAR 91.9(b)(1) requires a
current, approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual (AFM)
onboard any U.S.-registered aircraft. This manual provides
the operating limitations and procedures essential for every
phase of flight. If you’re using an electronic version of the

GROUND
AFM, it’s important to note that in-flight use requires specific
FAA approval under AC 120-78D. Along with the AFM,
you must have placards, supplements, an airworthiness
certificate (FAR 91.203), and valid aircraft registration, now
extended to seven years as of January 2023. For international
flights, a radio station license is also mandatory.
To ensure airworthiness, the AV1ATES acronym covers all
necessary inspections:
A: Annual Inspection (every 12 months).
V: VOR Check (every 30 days for IFR navigation).
1: 100-Hour Inspection (required for hire or instructional
aircraft).
A: Altimeter Check (every 24 months under FAR 91.411).
T: Transponder Check (every 24 months under FAR 91.413).
E: ELT Inspection (every 12 months, with replacement after
one hour of use or half battery life).
S: Static System Check (every 24 months).

Staying current with inspections ensures your aircraft

is always ready to fly safely and legally. Don’t overlook
navigation databases, which must be updated every 28 days
to ensure accurate and reliable flight operations.

Interior and Exterior Checks

After reviewing the documents, we move on to the
preliminary cockpit check. This step ensures that all levers,
switches, and controls are set to their proper positions
according to the aircraft’s checklist, with special attention
to critical systems like the landing gear and flaps. The goal

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is to confirm that when we power up the aircraft by turning

the batteries on, nothing will unexpectedly move or activate.
At the same time, we verify that all required medical and
emergency systems are onboard, functional, and up to date.

Exterior walkaround
The exterior inspection is a crucial step in preparing for any
flight, ensuring the aircraft is ready and safe for operation. In
a multi-pilot operation, the Pilot Monitoring (PM) typically
handles the walkaround and boarding, while the Pilot Flying
(PF) focuses on cockpit preparation, loading the navigation
systems, and listening to the ATIS. If you’re flying solo,
the responsibility for all these tasks falls on you, so being
systematic is key.

The exterior check starts with a walkaround using the

manufacturer’s or company-approved checklist. This ensures
GROUND

every critical area is inspected thoroughly and consistently.

For IFR operations, particular attention is given to the pitot
tubes, static ports, and angle-of-attack sensors—these
systems are vital for providing accurate airspeed, altitude,
and attitude data, which you’ll depend on when flying in
limited visibility.

Control surfaces, like the ailerons, elevators, and rudder,

are checked for free movement and any signs of damage.
These components must operate smoothly to maintain
precise handling. The landing gear is inspected, focusing
on tire inflation, brake condition, and ensuring there are no
hydraulic leaks.

Fuel and oil levels are verified, with an emphasis on ensuring

there’s enough reserve for potential holds or diversions.
Balanced fuel tanks are also critical for maintaining stable
handling during flight. Finally, you’ll confirm that all chocks,
cones, covers, and tie-downs have been removed.

Once the walkaround is complete, the PM joins the PF in

the cockpit to finalize preparations. The systems are set, the
checks are done, and the aircraft is ready to transition from
ground operations to flight. Taking the time to perform this
step thoroughly is what sets up a smoooth operation.

Interior Check
Once the exterior checks are complete, we move on to
Boarding and Cockpit Setup. Doors are closed, interior
checks are completed, and the cockpit is configured for

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operation. Instruments are calibrated, navigation databases

are updated, and communication systems are tested. It’s
also a time to re-verify flight planning elements to ensure
everything aligns with current weather, NOTAMs, and
operational requirements.

Inside the cockpit, we begin by turning on the standby bus

or battery. As the systems power up, we confirm that all
instruments, radios, and backup systems are functioning
correctly. For IFR operations, this step is critical—these
instruments will be your primary reference in low-visibility
conditions, so catching any discrepancies here is essential.
With the systems energized, we check that the FMS (if
equipped) has the latest navigational data. From there, we
load the preliminary flight plan and input key details like
weights, speeds, and any other required data.
Next, we tune in to the ATIS to gather updated airport and
weather information. With that information in hand, we

GROUND
contact ATC to request clearance for departure and startup.

PICKING UP
CLEARANCE
To pick up your IFR clearance, start by ensuring you have
all your flight plan details ready—your route, altitude, and
any other relevant information. You’ll typically request the
clearance about 30 minutes before your planned departure
time. At towered airports, this is done through Clearance
Delivery or Ground Control, while at untowered fields,
you’ll use an RCO frequency or contact Flight Service to
relay your request to ATC.

When making the call, clearly state your aircraft identification,

location, and that you’re requesting IFR clearance. Use
standard phraseology and maintain a steady, clear tone. Once
ATC provides your clearance, write it down carefully. Expect
details such as your cleared route, initial altitude, departure
frequency, and squawk code. Pay close attention, as there
may be changes to your originally filed plan.

Calling for Clearance Example:

Pilot: Dallas Clearance, HTF28A, hello, ready to pickup
IFR Clearance
ATC: HTF28A Dallas Clearance, you are Cleared to the SLC
airport Via SWABR1 Departure, HUDAS Transition, As Filed,
Squawk 3497.

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Read back the clearance fully to confirm your

understanding and allow ATC to correct any discrepancies.
Remember, you cannot enter controlled airspace under
IFR without this clearance. Once everything is confirmed,
you’re cleared to move on to engine start and continue your
departure preparations.

Note that there is no altitude restriction given to the pilots

by ATC, that is because it is on the departure plate and the
restrictions for climb out and the second page tells us to
expect filed altitude 10 minutes after departure.
GROUND

CRAFT
The CRAFT format—Clearance, Route, Altitude, Frequency, and Transponder—is the
standard framework for receiving IFR clearances. Whether you’re flying a small trainer
or a wide-body jet, this structure ensures that all critical information is communicated
clearly and efficiently.
1. Clearance: Confirms your IFR clearance and provides any updates.
2. Route: Details your flight path, including waypoints and airways.
3. Altitude: Specifies your initial assigned altitude for safe separation.
4. Frequency: Gives the departure control frequency you’ll use after takeoff.
5 Transponder: Assigns the squawk code ATC will use to identify you on radar.

The CRAFT format standardizes communication, helping to avoid misunderstandings in

busy airspace. It’s especially important when ATC is handling multiple aircraft at once,
allowing you to focus on each element systematically.

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VOID TIME
When you receive your clearance, pay close attention to
any void time provided. A void time specifies the latest
time you’re allowed to depart. If you don’t take off by that
time, your clearance is no longer valid, and you’ll need to
request a new one. If delays on the ground make it clear
you won’t meet the void time, contact ATC immediately.
They’ll provide guidance on your next steps, whether that
means expediting your departure, issuing a new void time,
or canceling your clearance.

CPDLC
At larger airports with Controller Pilot Data Link
Communications (CPDLC), the clearance process becomes
even more streamlined. CPDLC allows you to receive
clearances and instructions digitally, reducing frequency
congestion and minimizing miscommunication. During busy
periods, this system is a significant advantage, providing

GROUND
timely updates without requiring voice communication.
However, even with CPDLC, it’s essential to stay alert
and ready to switch to verbal communication if needed.
Technology enhances the process, but it doesn’t replace the
need for pilot vigilance.

COMMON PITFALLS AND BEST PRACTICES

One common mistake is failing to obtain your clearance
before departure. This often happens when pilots feel
rushed or overly familiar with local airspace, but it’s critical
to remain disciplined. Always confirm your clearance before
moving forward. If any part of the clearance is unclear,
ask ATC for clarification. It’s better to take a moment to
confirm instructions than to risk confusion later. Good
communication with ATC is a partnership, and being patient
during busy times helps ensure that everyone operates
safely and efficiently.

Mastering the CRAFT format and maintaining strong

communication habits are essential skills for any IFR pilot.

RECEIVING CLEARANCES AT AN UNTOWERED AIRPORT

Picking up an IFR clearance at an untowered airport can
require a bit more coordination, as the communication
methods vary depending on the facility. You may need to
use a Ground Control Operations (GCO) system, a Remote
Communications Outlet (RCO), or even call ATC by phone.

A GCO connects you directly to a nearby control facility,

while an RCO relays your communication to ATC over a

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distance. GCOs and RCOs can sometimes lead to confusion,

especially if the signal is weak or you’re out of range.
Additionally, some airports use repeater systems to extend
communication range, which can result in overlapping
transmissions if multiple pilots are transmitting at once.

If neither a GCO nor RCO is available, you may need to

call ATC on the phone to obtain your clearance. This can
be a straightforward option but may involve some delays
if the lines are busy or if there’s any miscommunication
during the process.

To simplify the process, familiarize yourself with the

clearance procedures for the airport you’re departing
from before you leave the ground. Charts and the airport
directory will tell you whether a GCO, RCO, or phone
contact is available. When it’s time to request your
clearance, stick to clear, concise phraseology, and always
GROUND

confirm receipt of your clearance, especially when using an

RCO where delays or dropped transmissions can occur.

HOLD FOR RELEASE

When departing from an untowered or smaller airport, ATC
might issue a “hold for release” instruction after providing
your IFR clearance. This means you have your clearance, but
you must wait for further authorization before taking off. This
practice is common in busy airspace or when ATC needs
to coordinate traffic flow. You might be held due to arriving
or departing traffic in the area, a busy enroute sector, or
weather conditions affecting traffic spacing.
If you’re instructed to hold for release, acknowledge
the instruction and ask for an estimated time if none is
provided. Use this time efficiently—run through your pre-
takeoff checklist, confirm your flight plan, and monitor the
frequency for updates. Staying situationally aware of other
aircraft around you can help you anticipate when ATC might
release you for departure.

While holding for release can be frustrating, it’s a necessary

measure to ensure safe and organized operations. Patience
and readiness are key—when your release comes, you’ll be
prepared to depart without delay.

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TAKE OFF
BRIEFING
Before starting the engine, we conduct a takeoff briefing
to ensure a clear understanding of the plan ahead. This
briefing sets expectations and prepares us for departure. It
covers two main aspects: the taxi to the holding point and
the departure itself. While we will go over both parts here,
the specific departure briefing is explained in detail in the
departure section of this book.

First, we review the taxi plan. This includes confirming the GROUND
assigned runway, expected taxi route, and any potential
hotspots or areas requiring extra attention. We consider the
airport layout, markings, and signage to avoid confusion
or unnecessary delays. We do it with the review the taxi
chart in hand, to ensure we are familiar with the route to
the runway. We also plan for possible runway crossings,
verify hold-short points, and discuss how we will manage
communication with ground control.

Next, we brief the departure. This includes a quick review

of the expected departure procedure, initial altitude, and
any specific instructions from ATC. We discuss the standard
climb-out, potential restrictions, and our plan in case of
an emergency. This ensures that if anything unexpected

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happens, we are already mentally prepared to respond.

While we will outline these elements here, the detailed
discussion of departure briefing and considerations can be
found in the departure chapter.

START UP
With clearance to depart in hand, the next step is engine
start. Begin by running through the before start checklist to
confirm that all systems and controls are set up correctly for
startup. This checklist ensures the safety of the process and
prevents any unnecessary strain on the engines or systems.
Once completed, follow the startup procedures outlined in
the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP), which may
also include contacting ATC to request clearance to start
the engines or pushback.

Once you have clearance to start up, proceed with the

engine start sequence as outlined in the Aircraft Flight
GROUND

Manual (AFM). For single-engine aircraft, focus on

monitoring key parameters like oil pressure and RPM as the
engine comes online. For multi-engine aircraft, start each
engine systematically, confirming proper indications before
moving to the next. Throughout the process, keep an eye on
engine instruments to ensure everything is operating within
normal parameters. Once all engines are running and stable,
transition to the after start checklist.

AFTER START
Avionics/Flight Deck Management
After starting up the engine, set up the FMS and avionics. Start by loading the flight
plan. Whether manually entering it or uploading it from a planning tool, double-check
every waypoint, airway, and procedure, including SIDs and STARs. Pay special attention
to accuracy here—small errors can lead to big problems later.

Once the route is entered, input performance data such as takeoff and landing
weights, fuel reserves, and V-speeds. If you introduced this information before, check
everything is correct. With the FMS configured, move to the rest of the avionics. Preset
communication and navigation frequencies for both primary and standby channels, and
set your altitude and heading bugs based on expected clearances. If possible, preload
arrival or approach procedures to reduce workload later.

For crewed flights, use this time to review the setup with your co-pilot. Check the route
together and discuss expected challenges, ensuring both pilots are on the same page.
This fosters effective Crew Resource Management (CRM), sharing the workload and
maintaining situational awareness. In single-pilot operations, this step becomes even
more critical—you are solely responsible for catching input errors and verifying all
settings. Take your time and be methodical.

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Automation setup is another key element. Configure autopilot modes like heading,
navigation, and altitude preselects to minimize workload after takeoff. If available, set
VNAV and LNAV with altitude constraints to streamline the climb, cruise, and descent
phases. Ensure terrain awareness and TCAS systems are configured and ready.

Finally, include weather data. Review winds and temperatures along your route to allow
the FMS to optimize fuel and time calculations. Preloading an alternate airport and route
provides flexibility if conditions change unexpectedly.

Before takeoff, conduct a final review. Verify that all settings match your clearance,
especially if ATC issues a last-minute change. Whether you’re flying with a crew or
solo, this last check ensures everything is aligned and you’re ready for a smooth and
safe start to the flight.

You will find a thorough explanation on setting up the FMS and briefing in the
Departure chapter.

Ground Taxi

GROUND
After engine start, request taxi clearance for your IFR flight. Complete the pre-taxi check
by verifying engine instruments, confirming your flight plan, and ensuring systems are
operational. When contacting ground control, provide your aircraft type, location, and
destination (e.g., “Ground, [call sign], at [location], ready to taxi to [runway] for IFR
to [destination]”). Ground control will issue taxi instructions along specific taxiways.
While taxiing, monitor instruments, comply with ATC instructions, and stay alert
for other aircraft and vehicles. Use an airport chart to confirm your route and avoid
runway incursions. In low visibility, maintain situational awareness, increase spacing,
use taxi lights, and rely on visual aids like runway guard lights. Ground radar or other
technologies may assist when visibility drops below limits.

Always understand and confirm “hold short” and crossing clearances. Read back
instructions, double-check surroundings, and use your airport chart to avoid errors.
Sometimes, the departure clearance will be issued during taxi, so stay prepared to
copy and confirm it while moving. On particularly hectic days, you may need to start
the engine quickly and begin taxiing right away, postponing some system setups and
completing them during taxi. This might also include conducting the takeoff briefing
en route to the runway. Be ready to adapt to these situations by staying organized and
prioritizing critical tasks to ensure everything is completed safely and efficiently.

Then, we will arrive to the holding point. Before reaching the runway, conduct final
checks—set the altimeter, verify equipment, and ensure flight controls are clear—
then contact the tower for takeoff clearance (e.g., “Tower, [call sign], holding short of
[runway], ready for departure”).

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LINEUP CHECKS
Final Pre-Takeoff Checks are completed just before
reaching the runway and include verifying engine settings,
flight controls, instrument settings, trim, and autopilot
configurations. Once everything is set, confirm takeoff
clearance with the tower, align with the departure path, and
position the aircraft on the runway.

Before starting the takeoff roll, conduct a quick lineup check

to ensure readiness. Turn on necessary lights, such as landing
lights and strobe lights. Scan the final approach for conflicting
traffic or hazards. Confirm the runway number and alignment
through callouts, ensuring proper orientation. Verify that the
trim is set correctly for takeoff, allowing balanced control
during the roll and initial climb. Finally, check critical
systems, including engine instruments and flight controls, to
confirm all are functioning properly. Once complete, you’re
ready to apply power and commence the takeoff roll.
GROUND

NON TOWERED
AIRPORT
When departing from a non towered airport under IFR, the
first thing you’ll want to do is file your IFR flight plan and
receive your clearance. This is usually done while you’re
still on the ground. For example, ATC might clear you for a
departure route, like the Dallas Three (DAL3) SID, and give
you a direct route to a waypoint like TTT, climbing to an
altitude at or above 1,800 feet. With that clearance, you’ll
know exactly how to depart and what to expect in terms of
route and altitude.

Once you’re ready to go, you’ll taxi to the runway, making

sure your aircraft is all set for IFR operations—check your
altimeter, set your transponder, and review the departure
routing. When you’re cleared for takeoff, you’ll lift off and
begin your climb, making sure to follow any initial altitude
restrictions as instructed. If you’re flying a SID (Dallas Three
(DAL3) SID), follow that until it’s time for your next instruction.

As you climb and establish yourself in the air, you’ll check

in with ATC, letting them know you’re transitioning to
IFR. A simple call might sound like, “Dallas Departure,
HTF28A, climbing through 1,000 feet, direct TTT.“ ATC
will acknowledge and provide you with additional routing
instructions, altitude changes, or vectors to keep you on course.
Once you’ve hit your cruising altitude and are on your
way, you’ll continue to follow the routing laid out in your

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CRAFT clearance. If a SID was assigned, you’ll follow

it until you’re handed off to a Center frequency or start
transitioning to your enroute airways. If no SID is in the
plan, ATC will guide you along the correct airways or to
specific waypoints. Throughout the flight, ATC will continue
to guide you with vectors, altitude adjustments, or course
corrections as needed. As you near your cruising altitude
and start following your route, you will keep in touch with
ATC, who will ensure you’re on track and clear of any other
traffic. When it’s time to transition to a different airspace
or frequency, ATC will handle the handoff, and you’ll just
follow the flight plan until you reach your destination.

So in short, departing from KLNC under IFR means you’ve

got your clearance, taxiing’s straightforward, and once
you’re airborne, it’s all about staying in communication with
ATC, following the instructions, and sticking to the assigned
route and altitudes.

GROUND
TAKEOFF
ALTERNATE
SCENARIO
A takeoff alternate is required when the weather conditions
at your departure airport don’t meet the minimums needed
for takeoff, especially in situations with low visibility or a
low ceiling. If the visibility is too low, such as in fog, or if
the ceiling is below the minimums for a standard takeoff,
you’ll need to plan for a takeoff alternate. This also applies
if the airport doesn’t have standard takeoff minimums or if
there’s no published minimum visibility for the departure. In
some cases, even if the weather looks good at the time of
departure, if the conditions are expected to worsen during
the departure phase, you must still plan for an alternate.

When you’re departing under IFR, a takeoff alternate is

required if the weather at the departure airport is below
the takeoff minimums. The alternate airport must be within
1 hour of flying time at cruising speed, and the weather at
the alternate must be above the required minimums at the
time you depart. Additionally, the alternate needs to have a
published approach procedure, like an ILS or RNAV, so you
can safely land if needed.

On the other hand, if the weather at the departure airport is

good and meets or exceeds the minimums for takeoff, you
won’t need a takeoff alternate. However, if the weather is
marginal or if conditions change rapidly, you’ll want to have

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a backup plan in place. The idea behind the takeoff alternate

is to ensure you have a safe option in case the weather at the
departure airport becomes unsuitable after takeoff.

Imagine you’re departing from KLNC (Lancaster Regional),

and the visibility at the airport is below the minimums
required for a standard takeoff. In this case, you’ve already
chosen KDAL (Dallas Love Field) as your takeoff alternate.
Here’s how it plays out: You’re cleared for takeoff on
Runway 31 at KLNC, but since the visibility is below the
required minimums, you can not come back to KLNC.
You’ve confirmed that the weather at KDAL is suitable for
landing, with an ILS approach that has a visibility minimum
of 1 mile. You’ve already reviewed the route to KDAL and
know it’s within 1 hour’s flying time. You also brief the
departure, keeping KDAL in mind, and review the approach
procedures there, specifically the ILS.
GROUND

Once airborne, ATC gives you a heading and clearance

for your departure route. If you encounter any issues, ATC
will direct you to KDAL for the ILS approach, where you’ll
be able to land safely in low visibility. In low visibility
conditions, always have a takeoff alternate prepared
and ready to go. Make sure it’s within range, meets the
necessary weather minimums, and has appropriate approach
procedures for landing.

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5.
DEPARTURE
Departures provide us with a structured framework to safely
transition out of an airport’s controlled airspace, ensuring
efficient climb to our assigned flight paths. By following
these defined and predictable routes, we reduce the
workload for us and air traffic controllers, enabling efficient
sequencing of outbound flights while maintaining proper
separation between aircraft.

For us, these procedures ensure a safe and efficient climb,

taking into account terrain, airspace structure, and potential
hazards. Departures help us avoid obstacles and restricted
areas while supporting a controlled and gradual ascent to
cruising altitude.

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0. DEPARTING FROM AIRPORTS

1. UNDERSTANDING SID CHARTS

THE SID NAVIGATION METHODS
INSTRUMENTATION
TYPES OF DEPARTURES

2. PREPARING THE CLIMB PROCEDURE

DEPARTURE

3. FLYING THE DEPARTURES WITHOUT SID

DEPARTURE IFR JOININGS

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

0. DEPARTING
FROM AIRPORTS
At smaller airports, our departures are often guided by ATC-
provided vectors, with specific headings and altitudes designed
to help us avoid terrain, obstacles, or restricted airspace. With
less traffic, this system offers flexibility and directness, but we
must stay alert to maintain situational awareness.

At larger airports, by contrast, structured Standard

Instrument Departures (SIDs) are used to manage the high
traffic volumes. SIDs provide us with clear waypoints,
DEPARTURE

headings, and altitude restrictions, streamlining the flow of

aircraft through congested airspace. When we’re cleared for
a SID, we must adhere strictly to the published route and
altitude limits. However, ATC may occasionally issue vectors
that allow us to deviate from the SID for a more direct climb
or routing. This requires our close attention to instructions
and situational awareness.

Regardless of the airport size, terrain and obstacle clearance

are always critical. While SIDs account for terrain, we
must ensure that our climb performance is sufficient to
meet minimum safe altitudes, especially when flying ATC-
directed vectors. Thorough pre-flight planning and a strong
understanding of the area’s terrain and climb requirements
are essential for a safe departure.

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1. UNDERSTANDING THE SID

SIDs, or Standard Instrument Departures, are designed to standardize our transition from
the airport into the en-route structure. These predetermined routes provide specific
paths and altitude requirements to ensure a safe and efficient departure, especially in
congested airspace. Airports with SIDs offer multiple routes to accommodate various
destinations, ensuring we can seamlessly join the appropriate airway regardless. Each
SID is clearly named and detailed on a chart, allowing us to follow the designated
procedures with precision.

DEPARTURE
SID CHARTS
SID charts, or Standard Instrument Departure charts,
provide detailed information on standard departure
procedures. They outline the specific routes, climb
gradients and altitude requirements for departing aircraft
while also offering crucial details about the airport’s
surrounding terrain and airspace structure.

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At larger or busier airports, SIDs may be divided into

multiple charts, often referred to as transition SIDs. These
are used to accommodate departures from different
runway configurations or when the departure area spans a
particularly wide or complex airspace.

Horizontal profile
The SID’s horizontal profile provides a detailed diagram outlining the route from the
departure runway to the initial en-route waypoint. The chart typically includes written
instructions and specific waypoints to follow along the path. These waypoints may be
defined by radials and distances from ground-based navigation aids in conventional
SIDs or by precise coordinates in RNAV SIDs. We navigate through these waypoints as
they take us from the airport to the airway. The horizontal profile of a SID is carefully
designed to avoid terrain, restricted airspace, and other hazardous areas, ensuring a safe
and efficient departure route.

Vertical profile
The vertical profile in a SID is carefully constructed to ensure a safe and efficient
climb. This is typically achieved by defining a minimum climb gradient and a
maximum climb altitude. The minimum climb gradient represents the angle of climb
required to safely clear terrain and obstacles in the departure area, while the maximum
climb altitude specifies the level to which we are cleared to climb unless otherwise
DEPARTURE

instructed by ATC. Adhering to these parameters ensures that we avoid all orography
and obstacles in the region.

The SID may also specify minimum altitudes for particular segments between two
waypoints. These minimum altitudes act as additional safeguards, ensuring that the
aircraft remains above terrain and obstacles. The combination of the minimum climb
gradient, cleared altitude, and any specified minimum segment altitudes creates a
robust framework that guides us safely through the departure phase while maintaining
separation from the terrain and restricted areas.

NAVIGATION
METHODS
Departures, no matter the type, can be flown using two
primary navigation methods: Conventional and RNAV. Each
method employs different technologies and techniques to
guide aircraft safely and efficiently during the departure
phase. SID charts will clearly indicate whether the departure
procedure is a conventional SID or an RNAV SID. Here’s a
breakdown of the two methods:

Conventional SIDs
Conventional SIDs rely on ground-based navigation aids, such as VORs (Very High-
Frequency Omnidirectional Range), NDBs (Non-Directional Beacons), and DMEs (Distance
Measuring Equipment). These departures require pilots to manually tune, monitor, and

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track signals from these navigation aids, adjusting the aircraft’s course and altitude as
dictated by the SID chart. Waypoints on conventional SIDs are typically defined by:
– Radials from a VOR.
– Distances measured from a ground station.

Flying a conventional SID requires careful management of navigation equipment and

close attention to the charted instructions. While effective, conventional SIDs are
limited by the location and coverage of ground-based navaids, which can restrict
route flexibility and efficiency, particularly in areas with challenging terrain or sparse
navigation infrastructure.

RNAV SIDs
RNAV (Area Navigation) SIDs are more modern and rely on satellite-based systems,
onboard Flight Management Systems (FMS), and sometimes ground-based augmentation
systems. These departures define waypoints using precise latitude and longitude
coordinates, which are programmed into the FMS or navigation system before departure.

RNAV SIDs are increasingly preferred at larger airports and in complex airspace where
streamlined traffic management is crucial. They also allow for more sophisticated route
designs that can avoid obstacles and restricted airspace with greater precision.

DEPARTURE
INSTRUMENTATION
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
Analog or conventional instruments, typically found in older
aircraft, are based on gauges.

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These include arrow-type navigation instruments like the

RBI and RMI, as well as CDI-based instruments such as the
OBI (also known as VOR) and HSI, with distance measured
by the DME on a different instrument.

In analog cockpits, we find two situations: first, a fully

analog cockpit without FMS, where all we can do is tune
our equipment to ground-based radio aids and follow the
signal. In these cockpits, we cannot fly RNAV procedures.
The workload and risk of uncertainty and disorientation are
higher with analog instruments, especially during the early
stages of training, compared to the more intuitive glass
cockpit systems.

FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)

The second situation is analog cockpits with FMS. The
addition of the FMS allows us to have a database with all the
procedures and coordinate based waypoints, which allows
us to fly RNAV procedures. We can fly both conventional
and RNAV procedures in these types of aircraft, but since
we will be flying raw data without any map display, this
requires constant attention to the instruments.
DEPARTURE

The addition of the FMS will also incorporate GPS antennas.

In these cockpits, the main navigation instrument, probably
an HSI, will be able to switch between receiving navigation
information from ground-based instruments (VLOC) or
from the FMS, which is connected to GPS. We will be
able to switch between GPS and VLOC from the FMS,
the procedure to do so will depend on the manufacturer,
sometimes with a designated button for it (called CDI), or
from the FMS menus.

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GLASS COCKPIT
Glass cockpit systems in modern aircraft offer a more
intuitive way of navigating, equipped with FMS and
advanced avionics such as the Primary Flight Display,
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator, or Navigation
Display and Multi Function Display. These setups provide
clear visual displays of routes and positions, allowing for
both conventional and RNP approaches.

In glass cockpit operations, we will program the FMS with

the route, which is then displayed on the screens, showing
our position and the flight plan. The system handles the
complex navigation tasks, and we follow turn and climb/
descent indications given by the Flight Directors on the
Primary Flight Display (PFD). This simplifies navigation and
enhances situational awareness, making the process more
precise and manageable.

While glass cockpits significantly reduce the chances of

uncertainty and disorientation compared to conventional
instruments, the challenges in this system come from the
complexities of setting up the procedures and correctly
selecting the different modes of flight.

DEPARTURE
Although conventional instruments like the RMI, HSI, or
OBI are still available in an electronic format, there’s little
reason to rely solely on raw data when advanced avionics
are at your disposal. Always utilize the full capabilities of
the FMS and electronic displays to make your flight easier
and more efficient.

AUTOPILOT (AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM)

If we are flying on an aircraft with FMS and autopilot, we
create a flight plan with our route by connecting waypoints
in the FMS. The FMS takes care of the complex navigation

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calculations, showing our planned route on the form of

a Map. Then, using the flight directors, it transmits us the
necessary maneuvers (pitch and roll variations) to follow the
route. We can decide to manually follow the flight directors
or activate the autopilot and let the system perform the turns
and pitch changes.

We have specific modes to control the autopilot: regarding

lateral modes, Heading (HDG) mode lets us manually select
the heading, while NAV mode is used when we want the
autopilot to follow the route we’ve set in the FMS flight plan.

For climbing and descending, we select the desired altitude

with the Altitude Selector, and then, have a few options:
Vertical Speed (VS) mode allows us to set a specific rate
of climb or descent, and Flight Level Change (FLC) mode
maintains a steady airspeed as we climb or descend,
adjusting pitch to reach our target altitude efficiently.

Another mode is VNAV (Vertical Navigation), this mode will

require us to introduce / cross check the altitudes in a route
or procedure, as well as select the final altitude in the altitude
selector, and the system will make the necessary changes to
DEPARTURE

reach the desired waypoints at the desired altitudes along

the route automatically. This mode helps keep us at the right
altitude at the right time, making climb execution smoother.

We will find the active and armed modes in the Flight

Mode Annunciator, most likely located at the top of our
Primary Flight Display.

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TYPES OF
DEPARTURES
IFR departures are categorized based on the complexity
of the airspace, surrounding terrain, and available
navigation aids. The main types include SID departures,
omnidirectional departures, and IFR joining procedures.
Each serves a specific purpose and is tailored to the needs of
the airport and its airspace.

a. SID departures
Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) are pre-designed
routes that guide us from the airport to the en-route structure
in a safe and efficient manner. These are commonly used at
larger airports with high traffic volumes or complex airspace.
SIDs are divided into two main categories:

1. RNAV SIDs
RNAV (Area Navigation) SIDs rely on satellite-based
navigation systems to define precise waypoints. We navigate
these routes using the aircraft’s onboard navigation systems,
programmed to follow specific coordinates. RNAV SIDs
offer flexibility in route design, helping us avoid obstacles,

DEPARTURE
terrain, and restricted airspace while maximizing airspace
capacity. These are increasingly common at airports with
advanced infrastructure.

2. Conventional SIDs
Conventional SIDs use ground-based navigation aids, such
as VORs (Very High-Frequency Omnidirectional Range)
and NDBs (Non-Directional Beacons), to define waypoints
and paths. We navigate by interpreting radial and distance
information from these stations. While still widely used,
conventional SIDs are less flexible compared to RNAV
procedures and are often found in areas where satellite
navigation infrastructure is limited.

b. Omnidirectional departures
SIDs typically define both horizontal and vertical profiles,
including waypoint sequences, minimum climb gradients,
and altitude restrictions, ensuring a safe departure from the
airport. Omnidirectional departures are the simplest type of
IFR departure, often used at smaller airports or in areas with
minimal terrain and obstacle concerns. These departures
do not follow a pre-defined route, but rather provide initial
indications, allowing us to climb in any direction, typically
with a minimum climb gradient to ensure terrain clearance.

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c. IFR joining procedures

IFR joining procedures are used when departing from
airports without a SID or established IFR departure route.
In these cases, ATC provides us with direct instructions to
guide our aircraft from the departure point to an initial fix or
waypoint where the en-route phase begins.

ATC may issue vectors, headings, or altitude instructions to

ensure safe separation from traffic and terrain. For instance,
we might be directed to climb to a specific altitude and fly
a particular heading to join an airway or navigate toward
a navigation aid. IFR joining procedures are common at
smaller or uncontrolled airports or in less congested airspace
where detailed departure routes are not available.
DEPARTURE

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2. PREPARING THE
DEPARTURE
Before departure, we ensure that all necessary preparations are completed during the
after-start procedure. This includes obtaining and reviewing the ATIS, setting up the FMS
and aircraft systems for the planned departure, and conducting a thorough briefing.

WEATHER AWARENESS
Before starting up, obtaining the latest weather information is
essential. We accomplish this by tuning in to the Automatic
Terminal Information Service (ATIS) to gather the current
meteorological conditions. If ATIS is unavailable, we
request weather details directly from the control tower. Key
information includes the active runway, visibility, cloud
cover, ceiling, wind conditions, and any other relevant
details. This data helps us assess whether the airport is
suitable for takeoff and ensures we are prepared to return
safely if needed during the departure phase.

CLIMB GRADIENT CALCULATION

DEPARTURE
During pre-flight planning, we calculate the climb gradients
achievable with our current setup and meteorological
conditions. This involves evaluating aircraft weight,
engine performance, and environmental factors such as
temperature, wind, and pressure altitude. The resulting
climb gradient is critical to ensuring we can meet or exceed
the minimum climb gradient requirements specified for our
departure procedure, guaranteeing obstacle clearance and
compliance with ATC instructions.

SYSTEMS SET UP
Setting up the systems for the departure involves configuring
the Flight Management System (FMS) (if equipped) and
tuning the necessary navigation equipment. In multi-pilot
operations, the Pilot Monitoring (PM) typically handles the
task of building and bugging the systems, while the Pilot
Flying (PF) performs the briefing afterwards.

Here’s the process: First, the SID route is selected in the

FMS. Then, the necessary radio frequencies for navigation
aids, such as VOR or NDB, are tuned to be used during
the departure. Finally, the PF briefs the entire departure
procedure to ensure the crew is fully prepared.

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A simple way to remember this is the “3 B’s” method:

– Build the departure in the FMS.
– Bug the navigation aids.
– Brief the departure to align the crew on the plan.

Build
When flying a FMS-equipped aircraft, and expecting to
perform a published SID, you will need to configure the
SID in the FMS. This typically involves opening the main
menu of the FMS and selecting the procedure from the list of
procedures loaded in the navigation database.

If you’re not flying an FMS-equipped aircraft, you can

skip this step and move straight to tuning the navigation
equipment and briefing.

Also, if the airport we are flying to doesn’t have published

SID, we will not be able to load the departure in the system,
so we will load the waypoints of the expected departure.

Here’s a guide on how to set up the SID in the FMS:

1. Open the FMS main menu and go to the Procedures page.
DEPARTURE

Depending on the aircraft, you may access this page by

selecting the departure airport directly from the flight plan
page, but systems can vary.

2. Choose the destination airport and select the expected

departure runway based on current conditions, ATIS
communication or ATC instructions.

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Our departure airport is KDAL and we expect to depart from

the runway 31R.

3. A list of available SID procedures will appear. Select the

appropriate departure procedure (SID).
We expect to perform the SWABR1 departure.

DEPARTURE

4. If the DEPARTURE includes a transition, choose the

transition, which will be named after the waypoint where
the procedure ends.

We will proceed via HUDAD point, so that is our transition.

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5. After selecting the procedure, press “LOAD”. The flight plan

will automatically update and add the departure waypoints.
DEPARTURE

6. Verify the departure waypoints, speed, and altitude

restrictions against the SID chart to ensure everything
matches correctly.

Once this is done, you can proceed to the next step of

setting the frequencies.

Bug
This step is to tune the navigation aid frequencies, we will
find them in the SID chart, and set them in the active and
standby frecuencies in sequence of use.

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We can also make use this part to set the communication

frequencies ready, since we know that we will probably be
speaking to the ground frequency and then tower, select the
standby frequencies accordingly.

DEPARTURE
Brief
The SID briefing is a critical step before departure, ensuring
all flight crew members (or a single pilot in single-pilot
operations) are aligned on the plan for the Standard Instrument
Departure (SID). It covers key aspects of the departure
procedure, including routing, altitude, speed, and threats. The
C-FARTS framework provides a structured way to present this
information. Here’s a breakdown of the framework:

C-FARTS Framework
1. Chart
– The Chart section specifies the SID designator (e.g.,
SWABR1), the name of the chart, and its effective date. This
ensures everyone is referencing the correct, current procedure.

2. Flight Path
– This outlines the horizontal routing, including initial
headings, waypoint sequences, and any expected ATC
instructions such as vectoring. It ensures the crew
understands the exact flight path to follow during departure.

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3. Altitude
– The Altitude section specifies the cleared altitude,
climb profile, and any restrictions at specific waypoints.
Proper adherence to these ensures terrain clearance and
airspace separation.

4. Radios and Route

– This includes setup of navigation aids (e.g., VOR or RNAV
frequencies) and communication frequencies for ATC
coordination. It also confirms that the route is programmed
and cross-checked in the FMS.

5. Threats
– This covers potential risks, such as weather, terrain, and
emergencies, as well as situational factors like fatigue or
unfamiliarity with the airfield. It also includes contingency
plans for emergencies before or after takeoff (e.g., engine
failure procedures).

6. Speed
– Key speeds for takeoff are briefed here, including:
– V1: Decision speed (commit to takeoff).
– Vr: Rotation speed (initiate liftoff).
DEPARTURE

– V2: Minimum safe climb speed in case of engine failure.

Example Briefing
Chart: KDAL 10-3Q2, effective 31st October 2024.
SID: SWABR1.
Flight Path: Departing Runway 31R. Initial heading 313° to 1,000 ft, then right turn to
heading 333° or as assigned by ATC. Expect RADAR vectors to BOTCH, then proceed
to SWABR, PGLET, MUTEE, and HUDAD.
Altitude: Climb to 3,000 ft as cleared, set in the altitude selector.
Radios and Route: RNAV departure, no primary radio aids required.
NAV1 set to 116.2 MHz as a backup.
COM1 tuned to Tower at 113.7, with departure frequency 124.3 on standby.
Route is programmed and verified in the FMS.

Threats:
Single-Engine Operations (Emergency Procedures):
– Before V1: Abort takeoff and execute rejected takeoff
procedures.
– After V1: Continue takeoff.
– Below 400 ft AGL: Land straight ahead.
– Above 400 ft AGL: Execute a right turn and return to the
field if required.

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Multi-Engine Operations (Emergency Procedures):

– Before V1: Abort takeoff and execute rejected takeoff
procedures.
– After V1: Continue takeoff.
– Engine failure during climb: Maintain V2, secure the
affected engine, and continue with an engine-out climb to
a safe altitude. Plan for a return to the field or a diversion if
needed.

Speed: V1 is the decision speed. Vr is the rotation

speed. V2 is the minimum safe climb speed. Monitor these
throughout the takeoff and climb.

Single-Pilot Considerations:
For single-pilot operations, manage workload effectively,
ensuring focus on FMS programming, waypoints, altitude
compliance, and communication with ATC.

Multi pilot considerations:

The PF will focus on controlling the aircraft and following
the flight path, and keeping track of altitude and speed
restrictions, while PM will assist with managing the radios,
checking altitudes and verifying FMS route.

DEPARTURE
CLIMB
PROCEDURE
Before explaining the actual departure, it’s important to
understand the climb procedure effectively. Let’s consider a
three-step climb scenario. We will begin by climbing from
the ground to an initial altitude of 3,000 feet, as cleared on
the SID. Next, we will climb to 7,000 feet, and finally, we
will ascend to the cruise altitude.

This climb can be executed in two cockpit scenarios. The

first involves a fully analog cockpit and a manual climb,
while the second uses the Flight Management System (FMS)
along with flight directors. These scenarios highlight different
methods of preparing for and executing the climb effectively.

During the climb, two essential procedures must be

addressed. The first is the transition level. As the aircraft
approaches the transition level, it is important to set the
altimeter to the standard setting of 29.92 inHg. Once the
altimeter is set, altitude references will switch to flight levels.
At this point, conduct an altimeter check with your crew.
Select a specific flight level, announce it aloud—such as
“FL110”—and state “NOW” when the altimeter indicates the

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transition. The Pilot Monitoring (PM) should then verify and

announce any observed variation, such as “plus 20 feet” or
“minus 20 feet.”

The second procedure occurs when passing FL100. At this

point, it is necessary to follow the relevant procedures as
outlined by the aircraft manufacturer or operator. Typically,
this includes configuring seatbelts, lights, and pressurization
settings to match the operational requirements for the flight.

ANALOG COCKPIT (MANUAL DESCENT)

In a conventional analog cockpit without an FMS, we will
manually control the climb using basic flight instruments.
To initiate the climb:
– Begin by gradually applying the required engine power
and gently rising the nose.
– Monitoring the air speed indicator, aim for a desired
climb speed.
– Continuously monitor the airspeed to ensure it remains
within safe limits, adjusting pitch and throttle as necessary to
control it.
As you approach 7,000 ft:
– Prepare to level off, by gradually raising the nose to reduce
DEPARTURE

the rate of descent, to level off at 7,000 ft.

– Reduce the throttle to achieve and maintain cruise speed
at this altitude.
– Use the elevator trim to relieve control pressures and
maintain level flight.

Then, we will receive another clearance to climb to the next

level, FL220. For the next step of the climb to FL220, follow
the same procedures: apply power, adjust pitch to achieve
the desired horizontal airspeed, and level off at FL220
using the same techniques. During the climb, perform the
procedures for the transition level and FL100.

GLASS COCKPIT (AUTOMATED DESCENT)

With an FMS and flight directors, we will set up the
climb, and the system will provide indications via the
flight directors to set the correct pitch. We can manually
follow the flight directors or activate the autopilot that
will automatically follow them. There are several modes
available to perform the climb:

Vertical Speed mode

Vertical Speed (VS) mode is an autopilot function that allows
the pilot to control the aircraft’s rate of climb or descent in

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feet per minute (FPM). By selecting VS mode, the pilot inputs

a specific vertical speed, such as +1000 FPM for a climb or
-500 FPM for a descent.

Once engaged, the autopilot adjusts the aircraft’s pitch

to maintain the selected rate, while the throttle or power
settings (manual or automatic) must be managed to ensure
airspeed remains within safe limits.

It’s essential to monitor airspeed and ensure the selected

vertical speed does not lead to a stall in a climb or an
overspeed in a descent.
– Locate the altitude selector knob on the autopilot control
panel and set it to 7,000 ft.
– Engage Vertical Speed mode by pressing the ‘VS’ button,
which should display on your Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA).
– Use the vertical speed wheel or knob to select the desired
rate, such as 1,500 feet per minute.
– Perform the call out “VS - 1,500 ft” as soon as is shown in
the FMA.

DEPARTURE

To initiate the climb:

– The flight directors will move in the PFD.
– Manually follow the flight directors, or activate and

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observe the autopilot as it follows these commands.

– Slightly apply power by pushing forward on the power levers.

The flight directors will set a pitch that will maintain the
selected vertical speed, and we will be able to change the
horizontal speed with the engine power.

The flight directors will start to pitch down reaching 7,000

ft as set in the altitude selector. Level off and adjust thrust to
maintain cruise speed at this new altitude.
For the next climb to FL220, repeat the process.

Flight Level Change Mode

Flight Level Change (FLC) mode is an autopilot function that
manages climbs or descents by prioritizing airspeed rather
than a specific vertical speed. When FLC mode is engaged,
we select a target airspeed, and the autopilot adjusts the
aircraft’s pitch to maintain that airspeed while climbing or
descending to the desired altitude.

In a climb, FLC mode ensures the aircraft does not lose

excessive airspeed by adjusting the pitch as power
DEPARTURE

decreases with altitude. During a descent, it prevents

overspeeding by pitching the nose up as necessary. Power
settings (manual or automatic) must still be managed to
support the desired performance.

FLC mode is particularly useful for safe altitude transitions,

especially in changing atmospheric conditions or when
optimizing climb and descent profiles. It requires less
manual adjustment compared to vertical speed mode, as it
automatically balances airspeed and pitch.
– Locate the altitude selector knob on the autopilot control
panel and set it to 7,000 ft.
– The aircraft will not do anything unless we select a mode.
– Engage FLC mode by pressing the ‘FLC’ button, confirming
and calling out that it displays on the Flight Mode
Annunciator (FMA). “FLC 7,000ft”

To initiate climb:
– The flight directors will do whatever it takes with the pitch
to maintain the selected speed, so set your target indicated
airspeed with the speed selector.
– Follow the flight directors manually or activate and
observe the autopilot as it follows the descent commands.
– Engine power can influence the climb rate: reducing
thrust causes a pitch down, that decreases vertical speed,

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while more thrust causes pitching up, increasing the

vertical speed.

The flight directors will begin pitching down as the aircraft

approaches 7,000 ft for level-off. Adjust thrust as needed to
maintain cruise speed at the new altitude.

For the next climb to FL220, repeat the same process.

DEPARTURE

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3. FLYING THE DEPARTURE

When it comes to navigating the departure phase of a flight, various methods can be
used. The type of departure performed is influenced by factors such as the availability
of procedures, airspace congestion, weather conditions, and instructions from air traffic
control (ATC).

In many cases, you will fly a SID to the first point of the route or airway, following a
predetermined route that guides you from the runway directly to that point. In other
cases, you may fly a SID with variations. These variations could involve vectoring,
where ATC provides real-time instructions to temporarily guide you off the SID, or an
omnidirectional departure, where you follow initial instructions that conclude with a
heading allowing ATC to determine when to turn you toward the airway.

If flying from an uncontrolled airport, you will take off under VFR and then request
an IFR pickup to transition to IFR. It is crucial to remain adaptable and maintain
close communication with ATC, as these variations are often influenced by traffic or
weather conditions.

DEPARTURE CLEARANCE
When receiving the departure clearance, either before
DEPARTURE

startup or during taxi, we will be assigned a departure route

and altitude, along with ATC clearance to fly it. If we do
not have the clearance after startup, we will load and brief
the departure we expect to perform. If the actual departure
clearance differs from the one we briefed, we will load the
correct departure, and brief the new procedure.

Once we are lined up on the runway, we will receive

clearance for takeoff along with any relevant instructions,
such as when to contact approach after becoming airborne.

TAKEOFF
After receiving takeoff clearance, we will set takeoff power
and confirm that all parameters are in the green. Standard
callouts will follow: “V1,” “Rotate (VR),” and we will
establish the initial climb pitch angle, aiming for V2. Once a
positive rate of climb is confirmed, we’ll call “Gear Up.”

For aircraft equipped with autopilot, we will set the

appropriate modes before takeoff. After passing 400
feet AGL, we have the option to activate the autopilot or
continue flying manually, depending on preference and
situational requirements. The procedure will vary by aircraft,
but generally, after passing 400 feet and retracting the flaps,
we accelerate to VX as appropriate. We then perform the

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climb checklist, contact approach if required, and follow the

departure procedure. No turns will be made until reaching
the end of the runway.

Once above the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA), we

accelerate to VY. After passing the transition altitude, we
set the altimeter to standard (29.92 inHg) and continue the
climb to cruise altitude.

DEPARTURE
DEPARTURE COMMUNICATIONS
After takeoff, we will initiate communication with the
approach or departure controller, but only if instructed by
the tower or if required by the Aeronautical Information
Publication (AIP). Each airport may have specific procedures.
It is our responsibility to review and understand these
requirements beforehand. Consulting with colleagues familiar
with the airport and reviewing all relevant documentation
and charts is a good way to ensure preparedness.

When instructed to contact departure, we will provide basic

information, including our callsign, the departure procedure,
and the cleared altitude.
The approach or departure controller may provide updates
to the departure route, issue altitude changes, or give
additional instructions.

Conventional SID
’Departure, hello, HTF28A, WORTH 1, climbing to 8,000 ft.”
One of the most likely responses we will receive is: “HTF28A, Departure, hello,
continue as cleared.” This response confirms that there are no changes to our route and
that we are cleared to follow the SID—in this case, a conventional departure procedure.

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As outlined in the departure procedure, we are departing from Runway 31R. After
takeoff, we will climb on heading 313° until the DME, tuned to ILVF (111.1), indicates 5.5
NM, or until we fly over IOVW (111.5), since both points are identical. Upon reaching
that point, and specifically for this airport, the departure procedure requires us to
transition to a heading of 013°. We will maintain this heading until ATC clears us to turn
and intercept the planned route.
DEPARTURE

For an FMS-equipped aircraft, the WORTH departure is already programmed into

the FMS and briefed. We will set the flight mode to NAV with the source on GPS and
monitor the position of conventional radio aids for additional situational awareness. The
flight directors will provide turn indications as we reach the transition point, followed by
heading guidance for the next segment.

RNAV SID
‘’Departure, hello, HTF28A, SWABR1, climbing to 3,000 ft.”
One of the most likely responses we will receive is: “HTF28A, Departure, hello, continue
as cleared.” This response confirms that there are no changes to our route and clears us to
follow the SID. In this case, it is a RNAV departure procedure.

As specified in the departure procedure, we are departing from Runway 31R and will
climb on heading 313° to 1,000 ft. Upon reaching that altitude, we will turn to heading
013°. At this airport, the departure procedure requires us to maintain heading 013° until
ATC clears us to turn and intercept the planned route.

Since we are flying an FMS-equipped aircraft, the SWABR1 departure is already

programmed into the FMS and has been briefed. The flight mode will be set to NAV

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with the source on GPS. The flight directors will provide turn and heading indications to
ensure compliance with the departure procedure.

DEPARTURE
SID with vectoring
If, at any point along the SID, ATC deems it necessary to alter our route or sees an
opportunity to shorten our departure, they will provide updated altitude instructions or
heading vectors.

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This is common during busy periods when ATC may need to adjust the SID, modify
speeds, or assign different altitudes to maintain safe separation between aircraft.
For example, during the SWABR1 departure, ATC might direct us to proceed directly to
PGLET, bypassing BOTCH and SWABR.

Remain vigilant, as ATC can occasionally make routing errors, particularly on very
busy days. Always stay aware of your route and position, and don’t hesitate to request
clarification if anything seems unclear. Open and clear communication with ATC is
essential to ensure safety.

Omnidirectional
Sometimes, we may need to fly to a point on the route that the airport has not included
in a SID, or the airport might only have departures designed for specific directions, such
as to the north, while we are flying south. In such cases, airports create omnidirectional
departures. These procedures allow us to depart the airport and then proceed on a
designated heading, where ATC will provide further instructions for direction and
altitude as needed.

Omnidirectional departures are typically found in the SID charts or, in some cases, in
the taxi chart.

Transition charts
DEPARTURE

In airports with heavy traffic and wide departure areas, SID transitions help manage
complex departure flows by dividing the SID into two main segments: the initial
transition and the main departure route. This division allows airports with extensive
airspace to maintain an organized structure.

The initial part of the SID guides aircraft from the airport to designated departure points.
From these points, a variety of departure routes can then branch out, accommodating a
wide range of destinations.

DEPARTURES
WITHOUT SID
Some smaller airports may have established approach
procedures but lack dedicated SIDs due to lower traffic
volumes or simpler airspace structures. In these situations,
Air Traffic Control (ATC) plays a critical role in guiding
departing aircraft.

Without a published SID, departing aircraft rely on ATC for

vectoring instructions to safely and efficiently join the route.

Even at airports with published SIDs, ATC may occasionally

simplify traffic flow by providing direct routing. This can
include instructions to proceed directly to specific waypoints
along the SID, bypassing certain segments, or vectoring

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directly to the route. This flexibility allows ATC to maintain

smooth and efficient operations, particularly in lower-
density airspace or during periods of reduced traffic.

IFR JOININGS
When departing from a visual airfield without instrument
departure procedures or ATC, clear communication with
ATC is essential for a safe integration into the IFR system.
While less common than standard IFR departures from
controlled airports, ATC is well-prepared to manage such
join-ups. Since we have filed a flight plan under Y flight
rules, and our departure is from a likely VFR-only field, they
are aware that we will need to join the IFR system shortly
after takeoff. Typically, ATC will ask for our intentions
regarding initial routing, climb plan, and the specific point
where we wish to join IFR. We should respond with our
preferred routing, climb altitude, and the specific point or fix
where we plan to transition into controlled airspace.

A key phrase we must clearly state is, “request IFR pick

up” once we’re in position and prepared to climb under
instrument rules. ATC will respond by issuing a clearance

DEPARTURE
to join the system, typically specifying an altitude, heading,
or fix to proceed to, ensuring both parties understand the
transition process and responsibilities.

Before requesting to join IFR, it’s essential to confirm that

the VFR departure segment allows safe terrain and obstacle
clearance, as well as adherence to VFR minimums for
visibility and cloud clearance. Additionally, situational
awareness is critical—knowing our precise location, terrain
considerations, and planned path toward the transition point.

It’s also important to remain aware of surrounding airspace

classifications and regulations, as each may have specific
requirements for altitude, clearance, and communication
when transitioning from VFR to IFR flight.

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CRUISE
The cruise phase of an IFR flight is a critical period where
we manage power settings, navigation efficiency, weather
considerations, and descent preparation to ensure a smooth
and efficient flight. This section will cover the key aspects
that pilots must monitor and adjust during cruise.

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1. LEVELING OFF

2. ROUTING ICING CONDITIONS

CHANGES

3. ALTITUDE
CHANGES

4. PREPARING THE DESCENT PREPARATION

DESCENT DESCENT BRIEFING

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1. LEVELING OFF
Transitioning from the climb phase to level cruise flight requires altitude capturing,
power adjustments, and system monitoring. At 1,000 feet before the assigned cruise
altitude, the pilot monitoring (PM) or pilot flying (PF) should call out, “One to level”.
This callout serves as a reminder to gradually reduce the climb rate and prepare for
altitude capture. A steep climb rate at this stage can lead to overshooting the assigned
altitude, requiring an unnecessary correction and increasing workload.

LEVELING OFF AT CRUISE ALTITUDE

As the aircraft approaches 200 feet below cruise altitude, the pitch should be gradually
adjusted to reduce the vertical speed smoothly. This prevents abrupt attitude changes
that could affect passenger comfort and aircraft stability. At the assigned cruise altitude,
verify that the aircraft has captured and is maintaining level flight. Check the altimeter,
primary flight display (PFD), and autopilot mode annunciations to confirm altitude hold.
If using an autopilot, ensure the altitude capture mode is engaged and stabilized before
proceeding with power adjustments.

SETTING CRUISE POWER

With the aircraft stabilized at cruise altitude, the next step is adjusting power settings
to optimize performance and fuel efficiency. Using the Performance section from the
Aircraft Flight Manual, cruise power settings must be set carefully to balance speed,
endurance, and engine longevity. The power setting should be adjusted depending on
aircraft weight, outside air temperature (OAT), and altitude.

CONFIRMING CRUISE PERFORMANCE

CRUISE

Once cruise power is set, verify that the aircraft is operating within expected performance
parameters. The true airspeed (TAS) should be checked against planned flight data to
ensure that the aircraft is achieving the expected cruise speed. Fuel burn should be
compared to the operational flight plan (OFP), ensuring that fuel consumption aligns with
pre-flight calculations. Monitor all engine parameters, and electrical system readings, to
detect any anomalies early. If any values deviate from expected norms, consider adjusting
altitude or power settings and consult the aircraft’s performance tables for guidance.

AUTOPILOT AND SYSTEM MONITORING

During cruise, the autopilot should be engaged and maintaining altitude, heading, or
navigation mode as programmed in the flight management system (FMS). The pilot must
periodically check that the aircraft is following the planned flight path or any ATC-
assigned direct routing. If any deviations occur, adjustments should be made promptly
to remain compliant with airspace regulations.

System monitoring should be conducted at regular intervals, including checks of the

pressurization system, electrical status, and fuel levels. Ensuring that all systems are
functioning correctly reduces the risk of inflight issues and allows for early detection of
potential malfunctions.

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2. ROUTING CHANGES
During the cruise phase, we must actively manage routing efficiency, weather
avoidance, altitude adjustments, and icing considerations to ensure a safe and smooth
flight. This includes requesting direct routing from ATC, making altitude changes
for efficiency or turbulence avoidance, deviating around hazardous weather, and
monitoring for in-flight icing conditions.

OPTIMIZING ROUTE EFFICIENCY

In IFR operations, flights typically follow structured airways or ATC-preferred routing.
However, direct routing can significantly reduce flight time, fuel burn, and workload
if traffic and airspace conditions permit. ATC is more likely to approve direct routing
when the aircraft is operating in low-traffic airspace without congestion, no restricted
or military airspace is along the requested route, the request aligns with regional traffic
flow management and radar coverage is sufficient for ATC to maintain separation
without reliance on structured airways.

If a direct route would be beneficial, pilots should request it clearly and concisely. A
proper request might be: “Center, HTF28A requests direct to [waypoint] when able.”

Once ATC approves, the new routing must be entered into the FMS or GPS, verified for
accuracy, and cross-checked against surrounding airspace and fuel planning considerations.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR AIRSPACE STRUCTURE AND TRAFFIC CONFLICTS

While direct routing improves efficiency, pilots must consider airspace restrictions and
ATC workload before making a request. Some areas, such as Class B airspace around

CRUISE
major hubs, restricted military zones, and high-density flight corridors, may limit ATC’s
ability to approve shortcuts.

WEATHER AVOIDANCE AND ATC COORDINATION

Weather conditions along the route must be continuously monitored, especially for
turbulence, thunderstorms, and icing hazards. Pilots should utilize multiple sources
during the pre flight, and be aware of weather conditions once they are in the air.

If a deviation for weather avoidance is necessary, pilots should notify ATC as soon as
possible. A standard request might be: “Center, HTF28A request 10 degrees to the left
for weather.”

ATC will typically approve such deviations unless traffic congestion or restricted
airspace prevents it. Once clear of the weather, the pilot should report: “Center,
HTF28A is clear of weather, requesting direct [waypoint].”

This ensures ATC can efficiently manage aircraft flow and provide the most efficient
routing back on course.

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ICING
CONDITIONS
Flying in icing conditions during cruise can degrade
performance, increase stall speed, and reduce control
authority. Pilots must continuously monitor for ice
accumulation and be prepared to take corrective action.

RECOGNIZING ICING CONDITIONS

Icing is most likely to occur when:
– The aircraft is flying through visible moisture (clouds, rain, or snow).
– Outside air temperature (OAT) is between 0°C and -20°C.
– Supercooled liquid droplets freeze upon contact with the aircraft surface.

Subtle indications of ice buildup include:

– Reduced airspeed with constant power settings.
– Loss of climb performance or increased drag.
– Changes in stall warning indications.
– Ice forming on the windshield wipers, leading edges, or antennae.

If ice accumulation is observed, pilots should immediately activate anti-ice and de-icing
systems, including:
– Surface de-icing boots or heated leading edges.
– Windshield anti-ice systems.
– Pitot heat to prevent instrument failures.

ICING ESCAPE STRATEGIES

If icing conditions worsen despite anti-ice systems being engaged, pilots should take the
CRUISE

following actions:
1. Request a change in altitude.
– Icing often occurs in a narrow temperature range. Climbing or descending by 2,000-
4,000 feet may allow the aircraft to exit the icing layer.
– ATC clearance should be requested: “Center, HTF28A requests descent to FL240
due to icing.”
2. Consider lateral deviations.
– If climbing or descending is not possible, requesting a turn away from cloud layers
may be effective.
– Use onboard weather radar to identify areas with less moisture.
3. Monitor aircraft performance.
– If performance is significantly reduced, further action may be needed.
– Maintain a safe airspeed with reduced maneuvering to avoid unexpected
aerodynamic changes due to ice buildup.

If severe icing is encountered, pilots should follow established emergency procedures

for handling icing-related performance degradation.

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3. ALTITUDE CHANGES
Altitude selection is not static throughout a flight. Pilots frequently request altitude
changes to improve fuel economy, avoid turbulence, or adjust for changing winds aloft.

Altitude changes are commonly requested when:

– Stronger headwinds at the assigned altitude justify climbing or descending for
better efficiency.
– Turbulence or mountain wave activity requires altitude changes for passenger comfort.
– Fuel burn reduces aircraft weight, allowing a higher, more efficient cruising altitude.

Pilots should proactively monitor winds aloft forecasts and PIREPs for trends in turbulence
and consider an altitude change before conditions worsen. If requesting a cruise altitude
change, the phraseology might be: “Center, HTF28A, request climb to FL280.”

If ATC approves the change, the new altitude should be entered into the autopilot and
confirmed with navigation and performance data to ensure expected fuel savings.

CRUISE

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4. PREPARING THE DESCENT

As the cruise phase nears its end, shift your focus to arrival planning. All preparation
and briefing for the arrival and approach must be completed during cruise, even though
detailed explanations of these procedures are covered in the arrival and approach sections.

Begin by gathering the latest weather information at your destination. This includes listening
to the ATIS at destination or, if necessary, contacting the control tower for updated weather
reports and runway [Link] weather conditions at destination drop below the required
minimums or are rapidly deteriorating, you must be ready to decide whether to proceed or
divert to your alternate airport.

DESCENT CALCULATION
Once you have confirmed that the weather is acceptable—or have initiated a
diversion plan if it is not—the next step is to calculate the descent. Refer to the STAR
or approach chart to determine the altitude you must follow, and use your descent
planning methods, such as the 3° descent rule, to determine the top-of-descent (TOD)
point. This calculation must consider the aircraft’s current altitude, true airspeed, wind
components, and any ATC-provided descent profiles or restrictions.

DESCENT
PREPARATION
As the cruise phase transitions to arrival, programming the
STAR (Standard Terminal Arrival Route) and instrument
approach in the Flight Management System (FMS) organizes
the descent and approach sequence. Proper setup aligns the
CRUISE

aircraft with ATC instructions and ensures compliance with

altitude and speed constraints.

Start by selecting the assigned STAR in the FMS: enter the

transition waypoint and confirm all altitude and speed
restrictions. Cross-check these with the approach chart to verify
they match published procedures. If any discontinuities appear
in the flight plan, resolve them to maintain a continuous path.

Next, input the instrument approach procedure, selecting

the correct runway, approach type (ILS, RNAV, or VOR), and
the appropriate transition or initial approach fix (IAF). Verify
that the approach path connects correctly with the arrival
route and that altitude constraints match the chart.

After programming the FMS, review the lateral and vertical

profile on the navigation display. The missed approach
procedure should also be loaded and reviewed in case of a
go-around.

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DESCENT
BRIEFING
The descent briefing consolidates the arrival, approach, and
final taxi briefings, allowing the pilot and crew to align on
key operational elements before descent begins.

While we will outline the overall process here, the detailed

explanations of arrival and approach briefings can be found
in their respective sections of this book.

A good time to conduct the descent briefing is approximately

45 minutes before landing. This timing allows for a
structured review of all key elements while still providing
flexibility for adjustments based on ATC instructions or
updated weather conditions.

1. ARRIVAL BRIEFING
The arrival briefing focuses on the transition from cruise flight to the terminal area,
ensuring that the descent and arrival procedures align with ATC instructions and
expected conditions at the destination airport.

2. APPROACH BRIEFING
The approach briefing focuses on the final descent and landing procedure, ensuring that
all aspects of the approach are well-understood and executed correctly. The descent
briefing serves as an overview of key elements.

3. FINAL TAXI BRIEFING

CRUISE
The final taxi briefing ensures that the aircraft is safely maneuvered on the ground after
landing, preventing runway incursions and ensuring smooth taxi operations.

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7.
ARRIVAL
Arrivals are the bridge between en-route navigation and
the start of the approach. These procedures guide us safely
into the airport’s controlled airspace and play a key role in
reducing workload for air traffic controllers. By following
a structured and predictable path, we make it easier for
controllers to sequence traffic efficiently, maintain proper
separation, and simplify overall traffic management.

For us, these procedures provide safe routing that takes

terrain and potential hazards into account. They help us
avoid obstacles and ensure we maintain a steady, controlled
descent all the way to the approach.

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0. ARRIVING TO AIRPORTS

1. UNDERSTANDING STAR CHARTS

THE STAR NAVIGATION METHODS
INSTRUMENTATION
TYPES OF ARRIVAL

2. PREPARING THE DESCENT PROCEDURE

ARRIVAL

3. FLYING THE STAR ARRIVALS

ARRIVAL ARRIVAL WITHOUT STAR
CONGESTED AIRPORTS
IFR CANCELLATION

4. HOLDINGS ENTRY INTO HOLDING

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0. ARRIVING
TO AIRPORTS
Upon exiting the en-route phase and approaching the last
point of our route, we switch communication from the
flight information region to the airport’s arrival controller.
Their job is to manage traffic and ensure we safely enter the
controlled airspace.

At smaller airports, the controller will guide us both

horizontally and vertically, often giving us direct routes and
descent altitudes to eventually intercept either the Initial
Approach Fix (IAF) or the Final Approach Course. Since
smaller airports typically have less traffic, this vectoring
system is both safe and efficient enough.

At larger airports, we follow pre-designed Standard Terminal

Arrival Routes (STARs). These structured routes, with specific
names, horizontal paths, and minimum altitudes, guide
us into the control area and set us up for the approach.
Once cleared to fly a STAR, we’re expected to adhere to its
prescribed path and altitude restrictions.

It’s also common for ATC to vector us off the published

ARRIVAL

STAR to provide heading instructions, allowing them to

streamline traffic and give us shortcuts directly to the IAF or
Final Approach Fix (FAF), saving time and distance.

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UNDERSTANDING THE STAR

1. UNDERSTANDING THE STAR

STARs, or Standard Terminal Arrival Routes, are designed to standardize our entry into
controlled airspace and align us for the approach. They provide predetermined routes to
follow and specified altitudes to maintain, ensuring an orderly flow of traffic.

Airports with STARs offer multiple routes to accommodate different points of origin, so
we can always find one that positions us correctly for the approach. Each STAR has a
designated name and is presented in a detailed chart for reference.

STAR CHARTS
STAR charts provide detailed information for standard
arrival procedures, outlining the routes and altitudes to be
followed while also depicting the surrounding terrain and ARRIVAL
the airport’s area.

In addition to arrival routes and altitudes, these charts often

include other critical details, such as ATIS frequencies,
communication failure procedures, and Minimum Sector
Altitudes (MSAs).

At larger or busier airports, STARs may be divided into

multiple charts, known as transition STARs, which are used
when the arrival area covers a wide geographical region.

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Horizontal profile
The STAR’s horizontal profile provides a diagram that guides us from the last en-route
waypoint to the beginning of the approach. The chart typically includes detailed written
instructions and specific waypoints to follow along the route.

In a conventional STAR, these waypoints are defined by radials and distances to ground-
based navigation stations. In an RNAV STAR, they are defined by precise coordinates.
We will navigate over these waypoints as we make our way to the airport.

The horizontal profile is designed to avoid terrain, obstacles, and hazardous areas,
ensuring a safe path into the terminal airspace. Additionally, it is often constructed to
align us with the Final Approach Course of the approach we’ll perform next.

Vertical profile
The vertical profile in a STAR is typically defined by specifying maximum and minimum
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altitudes along the segments connecting two waypoints. While we may not always
encounter a Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA), we will almost always find a
Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA).
Staying within these altitude limits ensures we remain clear of terrain and obstacles.

Unless directed otherwise by ATC, we are free to fly at any altitude within this range,
allowing flexibility to choose a higher altitude for efficiency or other operational needs.

NAVIGATION
METHODS
STARs can be flown using two navigation methods:
Conventional and RNAV, and the charts will clearly
indicate which type we’re dealing with. Each has its own

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requirements and technology, but both are designed to

guide us safely during the arrival phase.

Conventional STARs
With Conventional STARs, we rely on ground-based navigation aids like VORs, NDBs,
and DMEs. We have to manually tune and monitor these navaids, adjusting our course
based on the signals they provide. The waypoints on these STARs are typically defined
by radials and distances from the navigation aids, so they require active management
and precise navigation on our part.

RNAV STARs
RNAV STARs, on the other hand, use satellite, ground, and onboard navigation systems.
Instead of relying on ground-based navaids, the waypoints are defined by latitude and
longitude coordinates, which we load directly into the FMS. This means the aircraft
can follow the route with much less manual input from us, reducing our workload
and increasing accuracy. Since RNAV STARs aren’t limited by the location of ground
navaids, they allow for more direct and efficient routing, which is a big advantage,
especially in busy airspace.

RNAV STARs tend to give us more flexibility and precision, making them the go-to
choice in most modern operations.

INSTRUMENTATION
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
Analog or conventional instruments, typically found in
older aircraft, are based on gauges. These include arrow-
type navigation instruments like the RBI and RMI, as well
as CDI-based instruments such as the OBI (often referred
to as the VOR) and HSI. Distance is measured separately
using a DME instrument. ARRIVAL

In analog cockpits, we encounter two scenarios. The first is a

fully analog setup without an FMS, where our only option is
to tune into ground-based radio aids and follow their signals.
In these cockpits, we are unable to fly RNAV procedures, as
the required equipment simply isn’t present.

The workload and the risk of uncertainty or disorientation

are higher when using analog instruments, especially during
the early stages of training. Compared to the more intuitive
and integrated systems found in glass cockpits, analog setups
demand greater precision and attention from the pilot,
increasing both cognitive load and the potential for error.

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FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)

The second scenario involves analog cockpits equipped
with an FMS. The addition of the FMS provides a database
with all the procedures and coordinate-based waypoints,
enabling us to fly RNAV procedures. In these aircraft, we
can fly both conventional and RNAV procedures. However,
since we rely solely on raw data without any map display,
this setup demands constant attention to the instruments
for accurate navigation.
ARRIVAL

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The integration of the FMS also includes GPS antennas,

allowing for enhanced navigation capabilities. In these
cockpits, the primary navigation instrument, likely an
HSI, can switch between receiving navigation information
from ground-based instruments (VLOC) or from the FMS,
which connects to GPS. Switching between GPS and
VLOC is managed through the FMS, and the procedure for
switching depends on the manufacturer. Some systems use
a dedicated button, often labeled CDI, while others require
navigating through the FMS menus.

This setup bridges the gap between conventional and

modern navigation systems but requires focused instrument
management to ensure accuracy and safety.

GLASS COCKPIT
Glass cockpit systems in modern aircraft offer a more
intuitive way of navigating, equipped with FMS and
advanced avionics such as the Primary Flight Display,
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator, or Navigation
Display and Multi Function Display. These setups provide
clear visual displays of routes and positions, allowing for
both conventional and RNP approaches.

ARRIVAL

In glass cockpit operations, we will program the FMS with

the route, which is then displayed on the screens, showing
our position and the flight plan. The system handles the
complex navigation tasks, and we follow turn and climb/
descent indications given by the Flight Directors on the
Primary Flight Display (PFD). This simplifies navigation and
enhances situational awareness, making the process more
precise and manageable.

While glass cockpits significantly reduce the chances of

uncertainty and disorientation compared to conventional

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instruments, the challenges in this system come from the

complexities of setting up and managing the system.

TYPES OF
ARRIVAL
When transitioning from the en-route phase to the approach
phase, there are several methods to reach this point:

a. STAR to IAF
In most cases, the last point of the STAR also serves as
the Initial Approach Fix (IAF). This allows for a seamless
transition from the arrival procedure to the approach phase,
ensuring an efficient and continuous flow.

b. STAR with Dead Reckoning

Some STARs do not conclude at the IAF. Instead, they
provide a heading to follow after the final waypoint. ATC
may instruct us to turn to intercept the approach path,
or the given heading will naturally align us with the final
approach course.

c. STAR with Vectored Approach

ATC may occasionally ask us to deviate from the STAR route
to shorten the arrival path or avoid other traffic. In these
cases, the controller will provide vectors to guide us toward
the IAF or another point on the approach.

d. Arrival Without a STAR

At smaller airports without STAR procedures, ATC will issue
vectors and altitude instructions to guide us directly to the
point where the approach begins.
ARRIVAL

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2. PREPARING THE ARRIVAL

Before reaching the last point of the route and beginning the arrival, several preparations
must be completed. In a normal situation, we perform the preparation for both the
arrival and approach during the en-route phase. A good reference time to start is about
45 minutes before landing. This preparation includes listening to the ATIS for weather
and runway information, performing descent calculations, and setting up the FMS and
systems for the arrival and approach.

Additionally, the briefing, which includes the arrival, approach, and taxi plan, must be
completed. These steps ensure everything is in place to transition into the arrival phase.

WEATHER
Before starting the arrival, obtaining the latest weather
information is essential. This is typically done by tuning
into the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) for
the latest meteorological conditions. If ATIS is unavailable,
you can request the weather from the control tower or use
COM2 to contact the destination airport. ATIS broadcasts
are generally accessible within a 90-nautical-mile radius of
the airport.

Pay special attention to key details like the active runway,

visibility, cloud cover, ceiling, wind, and any other
significant factors. This information helps determine
whether the airport is suitable for landing. If conditions are
not favorable, you can consult other sources like Terminal
Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) reports to decide whether to
proceed with the landing or divert to an alternate airport.

DESCENT CALCULATION
ARRIVAL
Horizontal speed
Before starting the descent calculations, we first need to
decide the speed at which we’ll descend and then convert it
to groundspeed. In our case, we’ll be descending as quickly
as possible, aiming for about 10 knots below the maximum
operating speed (VMO). This translates to a TAS of roughly
300 knots during the descent. Assuming a day with calm
wind for simplicity, the ground speed will be the same.

Vertical speed
As a general reference, we will try to maintain a 3-degree
descent angle, we calculate the required vertical speed
using a simple formula: divide the groundspeed by two, then
multiply by 10.

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For example, with a groundspeed of 300 knots:

300 ÷ 2 = 150
150 × 10 = 1,500 feet per minute

Thus, we should descend at a vertical speed of 1,500 feet

per minute for a 3-degree descent angle when flying at 300
knots groundspeed.

Target altitude
The next step is to identify our target altitude and calculate
the distance it will take to descend to that altitude.

The target altitude is the lowest altitude we need to reach.

To determine this, refer to the Standard Terminal Arrival
Route (STAR) chart or the approach chart for the intended
approach. Look for altitude restrictions in the STAR or the
altitude for commencing the approach, or the platform
altitude in the approach chart. Once you have identified the
target altitude, you can calculate the descent there.

For example, when flying to KSLC and landing to the north,

we aim to reach SPANE at 16000 ft, which becomes our
target altitude for the STAR. Since we will cruise at FL220,
we need to descend 6000ft, plus the difference from flight
level to the actual altitude, we can assume the QNH to be
1013 for simplicity.

Top of descent calculation

To determine where to start the descent, if we are
descending with a 3 degree descent angle, we multiply by
3 the thousands of feet we need to descend, to obtain the a
roughly calculated horizontal distance.
ARRIVAL

For instance, if we need to descend 6,000 feet:

6 × 3 = 18 nautical miles

So, to descend with a 3 degree descent angle, we should

begin our descent around 18 nautical miles before the point
where we need to reach our target altitude. It’s important
to say that this calculation is not accurate, but it’s accurate
enough and very quick to calculate.

Accurate top of descent calculation

For a more accurate calculation, we can convert our
groundspeed to nautical miles per minute by dividing by
60, and then calculate the time it will take to descend based

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on our vertical speed. Finally, we multiply the time by the

nautical miles per minute to get the exact descent distance.

Here’s the process for our example:

1. Convert groundspeed to nautical miles per minute:
300 knots ÷ 60 = 5 nautical miles per minute.
2. Calculate descent time:
We need to descend 6,000 feet, and we’re descending at
1,500 feet per minute.
6,000 feet ÷ 1,500 feet per minute = 4 minutes.
3. Calculate descent distance:
4 minutes × 5 nautical miles per minute = 20 nautical miles.

This method, while requiring a bit more effort, gives a more

accurate result, suggesting we should start our descent 20
nautical miles before the target point, rather than 18 nm as
per the quicker rule of thumb.

SETTING UP SYSTEMS
Setting up the systems for the arrival involves configuring
the Flight Management System (FMS) (if equipped) and
tuning the necessary navigation equipment. In multi-pilot
operations, the Pilot Monitoring (PM) typically handles the
task of building and bugging the systems, while the Pilot
Flying (PF) performs the briefing afterwards.

Here’s the process: First, the STAR route is selected in the

FMS. Then, the necessary radio frequencies for navigation
aids, such as VOR or NDB, are tuned to be used during the
arrival. Finally, the PF briefs the entire arrival procedure to
ensure the crew is fully prepared.

A simple way to remember this is the “3 B’s” method: ARRIVAL

– Build the arrival in the FMS.
– Bug the navigation aids.
– Brief the approach to align the crew on the plan.

Although the arrival setup is explained in this chapter

for organization purposes, it’s important to note that the
entire arrival setup and briefing is done at once during the
en route phase, including the arrival, approach, and final
taxi procedures.

Build
When flying a FMS-equipped aircraft, and expecting to
perform a published STAR, you will need to configure the
STAR in the FMS. This typically involves opening the main

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menu of the FMS and selecting the procedure from the list of
procedures loaded in the navigation database.

If you’re not flying an FMS-equipped aircraft, you can

skip this step and move straight to tuning the navigation
equipment and briefing.

Also, if the airport we are flying to doesn’t have published

STAR arrivals, we will not be able to load the arrival in
the system, so we will load the Initial Approach Fix of the
expected approach after the last point of the route.

Here’s a guide on how to set up the STAR arrival in the FMS:

1. Open the FMS main menu and go to the Procedures page.

Depending on the aircraft, you may access this page by
selecting the destination airport directly from the flight plan
page, but systems can vary.
ARRIVAL

2. Choose the destination airport and select the expected

landing runway based on current conditions, ATIS
communication or ATC instructions.

Our destination airport is KSLC and we expect to land on

the runway 34R.

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3. A list of available STAR procedures will appear. Select

the appropriate arrival procedure (STAR).

We expect to perform the SPANE arrival.

ARRIVAL

4. If the STAR includes a transition, choose the transition,

which will be named after the waypoint where the
procedure begins.

We will proceed via HELPR point, so that is our transition.

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5. After selecting the procedure, press “LOAD”. The flight

plan will automatically update and add the arrival waypoints.
ARRIVAL

6. Verify the arrival waypoints, speed, and altitude

restrictions against the STAR chart to ensure everything
matches correctly.

Once this is done, you can proceed to the next step of

setting the frequencies

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BUG
This step involves tuning the navigation aid frequencies, but
the specifics depend on the situation and the type of aircraft
being flown.

In a conventional analog aircraft without an FMS, where we

rely on radio aids for en-route navigation, we won’t be able
to set the arrival frequencies until we actually start the arrival.
This is because the navigation equipment will be in use for
the en-route phase. Once the arrival begins, we can tune the
required nav aid frequencies based on the procedure.

If we are flying with an FMS and GPS guidance, tuning nav

aid frequencies for the arrival becomes possible earlier, as
GPS handles navigation throughout the route. That said,
it may not always be necessary to tune these frequencies
immediately, since GPS can guide us through the arrival
as well. In such cases, we might skip directly to tuning the
frequencies for the approach. However, it’s always good
practice to have the relevant radio aid frequencies tuned for
backup navigation. For example, at HELPR, we would set
FFU in the NAV1 equipment.

Additionally, this is a good time to prepare communication

frequencies. Knowing that we will be transitioning from
the flight information region to arrival (if available), then
approach, and finally tower, we can preset the standby
frequencies accordingly.

Brief
The STAR briefing is conducted to ensure the entire crew is
aligned on the steps we’ll follow during the arrival. Below is
a standard outline for a STAR briefing: ARRIVAL
– STAR Designator
– Chart Name and Effective Date
– Key Details of the Route
– Altitude and Speed Restrictions
– Transition to the Approach

Example Briefing:
“We’ll be flying the SPANE 8 arrival into KSLC. I’m
referencing chart 10-2J, effective 16 May. The ATIS indicates
traffic is landing north, so we’ll plan to transition from this
STAR to runway 34R. We’ll join the STAR at HELPER, with
a crossing restriction at SPANE at 16,000 feet. From there,
we’ll follow R100 from FFU to BOAGY, then continue to FFU
VOR, and expect to transition to the ILS for runway 34R.”

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Note: This is just the arrival briefing, which will be given

along with the approach and taxi briefings during the en-
route phase.

DESCENT
PROCEDURE
Before explaining the actual arrival, it’s crucial to understand
the descent procedure effectively. Let’s use a two-step
descent scenario: first, descending from FL220 to 16,000 feet
over SPANE, followed by a second descent to 11,000 feet
over KAMMP, located 23.7 nautical miles from SPANE, as
part of the LEEHY 5 RNAV arrival procedure.

We will explore two cockpit scenarios: a fully analog cockpit

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with a manual descent and a descent managed with the

FMS (Flight Management System) and flight directors. These
methods highlight the different ways to prepare and execute
the descent.

KEY PROCEDURES DURING DESCENT:

Transition Level
As the aircraft nears the Transition Level, the altimeter
must be set to the local QNH to ensure accurate altitude
readings. After setting the QNH, perform an altimeter check
with the crew:
– Select a specific altitude as the reference point and
announce it aloud (e.g., “17,000 feet”).

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– When the altimeter indicates the reference altitude, the

Pilot Flying (PF) will say, “NOW,” while the Pilot Monitoring
(PM) will verify and announce any variations (e.g., “plus 20
feet” or “minus 20 feet”).

This ensures both crew members are aligned and that the
altimeters are functioning correctly.

FL100
While this scenario does not involve flying below FL100,
procedures for descending through this level remain
essential for other situations. Typically, these include:
– Setting the SEATBELTS sign to ON.
– Ensuring LIGHTS (such as landing lights) are appropriately
configured.
– Adjusting PRESSURIZATION systems as required to
prepare for lower altitudes.

These procedures help ensure the aircraft and cabin are

properly configured for descent and approach.

ANALOG COCKPIT - MANUAL DESCENT

In a conventional analog cockpit without an FMS, we will
manually control the descent using basic flight instruments.

1. Initiating the Descent

– Gradually reduce engine power and gently lower the nose
to begin the descent.
– Monitor the vertical speed indicator and aim for a descent
rate of 1,500 feet per minute, as calculated.
– Continuously monitor airspeed to ensure it remains within
safe operating limits, adjusting pitch and throttle as needed
to maintain control of the descent. ARRIVAL

2. Leveling Off at 16,000 ft

– As you approach 16,200 ft, prepare to level off by
gradually raising the nose to reduce the rate of descent.
– Once level at 16,000 ft, increase the throttle to achieve
and maintain cruise speed.
– Use the elevator trim to relieve control pressures and
maintain level flight.

3. Descending to 11,000 ft at KAMMP

For the descent to 11,000 ft at KAMMP, follow the same
procedures:
– Reduce thrust and adjust pitch to achieve a descent rate of
1,500 feet per minute.

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– Monitor airspeed to ensure it remains within safe limits.

– As you approach 11,200 ft, raise the nose to level off at
11,000 ft.
– Increase throttle to maintain cruise speed and trim the
aircraft for stable flight.

By closely monitoring instruments and applying controlled

inputs, we can manage the descent and level-offs.

AUTOMATED DESCENT
With an FMS and flight directors, we will set up the
descent, and the system will provide indications via the
flight directors to follow the descent path. We can manually
follow the flight directors or activate the autopilot that will
automatically follow them. There are several modes available
to perform the descent:

Vertical Speed Mode

Once we reach our calculated TOD, 20NM before SPANE:
– Locate the altitude selector knob on the autopilot control
panel and set it to 16,000 ft.
– Engage Vertical Speed mode by pressing the ‘VS’ button,
which should display on your Flight Mode Annunciator
(FMA).
– Use the vertical speed wheel or knob to select the desired
rate, such as -1,500 feet per minute.
– Perform the call out “VS - 1,500 ft” as soon as is shown in
the FMA.
To initiate the descent:
– The flight directors will move in the PFD.
– Manually follow the flight directors, or activate and
observe the autopilot as it follows these commands.
ARRIVAL

– Slightly reduce thrust by pulling back on the thrust levers

and manage the airspeed, we will keep it at 300 kt GS as per
our calculations.

The flight directors will set a pitch that will maintain the
selected vertical speed, and we will be able to change the
horizontal speed with the engine power.

The flight directors will start to pitch up reaching 16,000 ft

as set in the altitude selector. Level off and adjust thrust to
maintain cruise speed at this new altitude.

For the next descent to 11,000 ft,

– When reaching the calculated TOD for this altitude

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change (in this case, 15 NM before KEMMY).

– Repeat the process.

Flight Level Change Mode

At the calculated Top of Descent (TOD), 20 NM before SPANE:
– Locate the altitude selector knob on the autopilot control
panel and set it to 16,000 ft.
– The aircraft will not do anything unless we select a mode.
– Engage FLC mode by pressing the ‘FLC’ button, confirming
and calling out that it displays on the Flight Mode ARRIVAL
Annunciator (FMA). “FLC 16,000ft”

To initiate descent:
– The flight directors will do whatever it takes with the pitch
to maintain the selected speed, so set your target indicated
airspeed with the speed selector.
– Follow the flight directors manually or activate and
observe the autopilot as it follows the descent commands.
– Engine power can influence the descent rate: reducing
thrust causes a pitch down, that increases vertical speed,
while more thrust reduces the pitch down, reducing the
vertical speed.

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The flight directors will begin pitching up as the aircraft

approaches 16,000 ft for level-off. Adjust thrust as needed to
maintain cruise speed at the new altitude.

For the next descent to 11,000 ft:

– Start the descent 15 NM before KEMMY, repeating the
same process.

Vertical Navigation Mode

To use VNAV mode for automated descent, begin by
ARRIVAL

programming the FMS. Enter your route, including waypoints

SPANE and KEMMY, then input altitude constraints by
accessing the ‘LEGS’ or ‘WAYPOINTS’ page, setting 16,000
ft for SPANE and 11,000 ft for KEMMY.

To initiate descent:
– Set the altitude selector to the lowest cleared altitude,
11,000 ft.
– Press the ‘VNAV’ button on the autopilot control panel
to arm VNAV mode, confirmed on the Flight Mode
Annunciator (FMA).
– Perform the call out “VNAV” as soon as it’s annunciated.

Monitor the descent profile by checking the Top of Descent

(TOD) point, which the FMS displays on the navigation

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display. As you approach TOD, the FMS may signal it’s

time to begin descent. At TOD, the flight directors will
automatically follow the VNAV path, descending as
programmed. Manually reduce thrust to control speed.

During the descent, ensure the flight director is guiding the

aircraft along the VNAV path and cross-check altitudes to
confirm that the aircraft continues the descent to 11,000 ft
at KEMMY.

Finally, at 11,000 ft, the flight directors will level off as set in
the altitude selector.

ARRIVAL

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3. FLYING THE ARRIVAL

When it comes to navigating the arrival phase of a flight, there are various methods that
can be used. The arrival to be performed is influenced by factors such as availability of
procedures, airspace congestion, weather conditions, and instructions from air traffic
control (ATC).

In many cases, you’ll fly a STAR (Standard Terminal Arrival Route) to the Initial
Approach Fix (IAF), following a predetermined route that guides you from the airway
directly to the start of the approach.

In many other cases you’ll fly a STAR with variations, these variations could involve
vectoring, where ATC provides real-time instructions to temporarily guide you off
the STAR, or dead reckoning, where you may follow the STAR that concludes with a
heading to intercept the final approach course, or with a heading that allows ATC to
determine when to turn to intercept the final approach course.

It is crucial to remain adaptable and maintain close communication with ATC, as these
variations are often influenced by traffic or weather conditions.

In less busy or more direct operations, you might encounter a situation with no STAR
available, or even if there are STAR available, ATC decides to vector you directly to the
IAF or final approach. This is often used in low-traffic environments or when conditions
allow for more direct routing.

DESCENT COMMUNICATIONS
Upon approaching the final point of our route, it is likely that
Air Traffic Control (ATC) will request us to call the approach
controller at the destination airport. If we do not receive any
communication, we will initiate contact to notify them that
we are getting close to the final point. “Control, HTF28A,
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reaching HELPR.”

Subsequently, we would expect to receive instructions to

contact Salt Lake City approach:
“HTF28A, contact Salt Lake City approach on 125.7.”

We would acknowledge it, stating, “Salt Lake City approach

on 125.7.”

Then, switch to the specified frequency. At certain airports,

there are specific procedures to follow when making
the initial call to approach, as outlined in the AIP. These
procedures may include providing the ATIS code received,
specifying our aircraft type on the first call, or simply stating
our callsign without additional information.

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Following this, the destination airport will provide us with

the arrival route and potentially issue altitude requests. If a
Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR) is to be followed,
they will specify the STAR designator.

STAR ARRIVALS
Conventional star
We will initiate communication with the approach
controller as follows: “Salt Lake City Approach, hello,
HTF28A, FL220, HELPR.”

A common response might be: “HTF28A, descend via

SPANE8 arrival, landing north.” This instruction authorizes
us to follow the SPANE8 STAR, which is a conventional
arrival procedure. In Salt Lake City, specific procedures
are designated for landing either north or south, and this
response informs us that we will be landing northbound.

We have already set up the SPANE8 arrival in the FMS and

completed our briefing. However, if we initially anticipated
a different arrival and briefed for that instead, we would
quickly adjust the FMS to reflect the new arrival. Following
that, we would update any necessary frequencies and
conduct a brief revision to confirm the updated procedure.
This would allow us to proceed with a standard briefing,
ensuring all crew members are aligned on the new plan.

ARRIVAL

Each airport may have unique procedures detailed in charts

or the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP). It’s our

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responsibility to be familiar with these specifics before

arrival. Consulting colleagues who have experience with the
airport and thoroughly reviewing all relevant documentation
and charts are excellent ways to ensure we’re fully prepared.

HORIZONTAL NAVIGATION
As noted on the chart, the routing for landing north will be:
HELPR, GOSHU, SPANE, BOAGY, and then to FFU. On
the ILS RWY 34R chart, there is a transition from FFU to
PLAGUE, which serves as the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) for the
approach. From there, we can expect the RWY 34R approach.

Analog Cockpit without FMS

If flying an analog aircraft without an FMS, upon reaching
HELPR, we will set FFU 116.6 in the NAV1 equipment and
adjust the HSI course selector to 280 degrees. The DME
selector will be set to N1 to monitor the distance to FFU.
To follow the arrival route, we will keep the CDI centered.
The en route points are defined by distance: at 71.4 NM on
radial 280, we will be over HELPR; at 35 NM, we will be
over GOSHU, and so forth.

Glass Cockpit
If flying with an FMS, the entire procedure will have been
pre-set in the system. We will engage NAV mode and follow
the flight directors. The flight plan will be displayed on the
navigation display, showing the next waypoint, distance,
and course. Additionally, the EHSI and PFD will provide
necessary guidance for navigation. As long as the system is
set up correctly and the flight directors are activated, we can
rely on their guidance to smoothly follow the arrival route.

VERTICAL NAVIGATION
ARRIVAL

We expect to be at 16,000 ft when crossing SPANE, as we

are landing north and flying a turboprop.

When instructed to “descend via” an arrival, we must stay

below maximum altitudes and above minimum altitudes,
ensuring all crossing and speed restrictions are followed
unless ATC directs otherwise. This involves adhering to
step-down altitudes and speed limits that may vary as
we transition between points. As with any STAR, these
restrictions will be briefed by the pilot flying, and the FMS
should be programmed to honor them.

Altitude Restrictions for SPANE8 Arrival:

– Between HELPR and GOSHU, the Maximum Authorized

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Altitude (MAA) is FL450, and the minimum altitude is 17,000 ft.

– Between GOSHU and SPANE, the minimum altitude is
17,000 ft.
– Between SPANE and BOAGY, the minimum altitude is
12,200 ft.

We expect to cross SPANE at 16,000 ft. If ATC instructs

us to “cross SPANE at 16,000 ft,” we must still respect the
minimum altitude restrictions for each segment, meaning
we cannot descend below 17,000 ft until passing GOSHU.
Depending on the clearance, we may either descend at our
discretion or follow specified altitudes.

Calculating the Top of Descent (TOD)

For this arrival, we have calculated our TOD to descend
from FL220 to 16,000 ft, starting about 20 NM before
SPANE. Since we are cleared for the SPANE8 arrival, we
can initiate the descent at our discretion. This will be
approximately 20 NM before SPANE, or 40 NM from FFU.
Using DME tuned to FFU, when it shows 40 NM, we will
begin descending at a ground speed of 300 knots with a
vertical speed of 1,500 ft/min, ensuring we reach 16,000 ft
at SPANE.

Adjusting Altitude
If ATC does not issue any specific altitude instructions, we
have the flexibility to choose our descent profile. The goal
is to reach the end of the arrival at a safe altitude for the
approach without requiring additional descent maneuvers.
However, since turbine engines are more fuel-efficient at
higher altitudes, we aim to maintain a higher altitude for as
long as possible before beginning the descent.
ARRIVAL
RNAV Star
We will initiate communication with the approach controller as follows: “Salt Lake City
Approach, hello, HTF28A, FL220, HELPR.”

We expect the following clearance: “HTF28A, descend via LEEHY 5 arrival, landing north.”

This instruction authorizes us to follow the LEEHY 5 RNAV STAR arrival. If we don’t have
this procedure already set in the FMS and have briefed for a different arrival, we will
promptly update the system to include the LEEHY 5 procedure. This includes reviewing
the waypoints, verifying RAIM availability, updating any relevant frequencies, and
performing a quick briefing adjustment to confirm the new procedure.

It’s important to note that without an FMS onboard, we cannot perform RNAV
procedures, as they rely on GPS-based navigation and waypoint tracking.

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HORIZONTAL NAVIGATION
As noted in the chart, the routing for landing north will be:
HELPR, GOSHU, SPANE, LEEHY, BLUPE, KAMMP, and
PLAGE. PLAGE serves as the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) for
ARRIVAL

the ILS procedure to runway 34R.

Analog Cockpit
With the FMS loaded and the CDI set to GPS mode, the FMS
will provide lateral deviation information to the HSI, which
we will use to maintain the correct course. After passing
HELPR, we will set the HSI course selector to 285 and
keep the CDI centered to stay on track. We will repeat this
process for each waypoint:
– At LEEHY, set the course to 303 toward BLUPE.
– At BLUPE, set the course to 311 toward KAMMP.
– At KAMMP, set the course to 344 toward PLAGE.
This step-by-step adjustment ensures we stay aligned with
the arrival route.

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Glass Cockpit
With the FMS loaded and the CDI set to GPS mode, the HSI
will show lateral deviation, while the moving map provides
a visual reference of our position relative to the waypoints.
This enhances situational awareness by giving us a clear
overview of the arrival route.

The flight directors will be set to NAV mode, following FMS

guidance. They will indicate the necessary turns and ensure we
stay on the correct path through the waypoints of the arrival.

VERTICAL NAVIGATION
We expect to be at 16,000 ft when crossing SPANE, as we
are landing north.

When instructed to “descend via” an arrival, we must

adhere to maximum and minimum altitude constraints, as
well as any speed restrictions, unless ATC advises otherwise.
This typically involves following step-down altitudes
and speed limits that change as we transition between
waypoints. As with any STAR, these restrictions will be
briefed by the pilot flying, and the FMS will be programmed
to comply with all constraints.

For this arrival:

– Between HELPR and GOSHU, the minimum altitude is
16,000 ft.
– Between GOSHU and SPANE, the minimum altitude is
16,000 ft.
– Between SPANE and LEEHY, the minimum altitude is
12,000 ft.
– Between LEEHY and BLUPE, the minimum altitude is
12,000 ft. ARRIVAL
– At KAMMP, we must be at a mandatory altitude of 11,000 ft.
– Between KAMMP and PLAGE, the minimum altitude is
11,000 ft.

Example ATC Instruction:

“HTF28A, cross and maintain SPANE at 16,000 ft.”

In this scenario, coming from FL220, we will begin the

descent 20 NM before SPANE. With a ground speed of 300
knots and a descent rate of 1,500 ft/min, this ensures we
reach 16,000 ft at SPANE. We will maintain 16,000 ft until
15 NM from KAMMP, where we will descend to 11,000
ft using the calculation (5,000 ft × 3 = 15 NM). We will
maintain 11,000 ft until reaching PLAGE.

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Descent Execution:
We can manage the descent manually, adjusting at each
waypoint, or automate the process by programming the
descent altitudes into the system for each point in the
route. If not already preloaded, we would input these
constraints into the FMS. Using the altitude selector and
activating VPATH mode will guide the aircraft to follow the
programmed descent profile. The flight directors will provide
cues to ensure the descent is executed as planned, in line
with the procedures outlined earlier in this chapter. The flight
directors will be set to NAV mode, following FMS guidance.
They will indicate the necessary turns and ensure we stay on
the correct path through the waypoints of the arrival.

STAR with dead reckoning

In the SPANE8 STAR, we see an example of a STAR with a dead reckoning procedure
when landing south. Dead reckoning is used to conclude a STAR at a point that is not
the Initial Approach Fix (IAF), ending with a specific heading. There are two common
scenarios for this heading: it either aligns directly with the final approach course,
allowing the approach to begin immediately, or it does not. In the latter case, ATC will
provide a heading to intercept the final approach course or guide us to the IAF.

For a south landing at KSLC, the heading at the end of the SPANE8 arrival does not
align with the final approach course. In this case, we will wait for ATC to provide
vectoring instructions to intercept. An example might be: “HTF28A, turn heading 120,
cleared for ILS approach runway 16, report when intercepting the localizer.”

This vectoring ensures a smooth transition from the STAR to the approach phase.
ARRIVAL

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STAR with vectoring

If, at any point along the STAR, ATC needs to modify our route or finds an opportunity
to shorten our arrival, they will provide updated altitude instructions or heading vectors.

This is a common occurrence during busy periods when ATC may need to adjust the STAR,
alter speeds, or assign different altitudes to maintain safe separation between aircraft.

It’s important to remain vigilant, as routing errors can occasionally occur, especially
during high-traffic periods. Always maintain situational awareness of your route and
position, and don’t hesitate to request clarification if an instruction seems unclear. Open
and effective communication with ATC is essential to ensure safety.

Transition Charts
In airports with heavy traffic and wide arrival areas, STAR transitions manage complex
ARRIVAL
arrival flows by dividing the STAR into two key parts: the initial transition and the main
arrival route. This structure allows aircraft arriving from different directions to converge
efficiently into a single, organized path toward the airport.

The initial transition provides routes from various entry points across the enroute
structure. Each transition is designed to guide aircraft from a specific direction to a
common convergence point. From this point, the main STAR path begins, leading
aircraft along a standardized route toward the airport or the Initial Approach Fix (IAF).
By consolidating arrivals from multiple directions into a single flow, STAR transitions
reduce the complexity of managing busy airspace. This system enhances safety and
efficiency, enabling ATC to maintain a smooth and orderly sequence of arrivals, even at
high-capacity airports.

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ARRIVAL
WITHOUT STAR
Some smaller airports may have established approach
procedures but lack dedicated Standard Terminal Arrival
Routes (STARs) due to lower traffic volumes or simpler
airspace structures. In these cases, Air Traffic Control (ATC)
plays a key role in managing arrivals.

Rather than following a published STAR, after the final enroute

waypoint, we rely on ATC to provide vectoring instructions.

These instructions safely and efficiently guide us toward the

Initial Approach Fix (IAF) or another appropriate point in the
approach sequence.
Even at airports with published STARs, ATC may sometimes
provide direct routing to streamline traffic flow. They might
instruct us to proceed directly to specific waypoints along
the STAR, bypass certain segments, or vector us straight to
the approach. This flexibility allows ATC to maintain smooth
and efficient operations, particularly in lower-density
airspace or during periods of lighter traffic.

CONGESTED
AIRPORTS
Typically, aircraft arriving from different directions will
follow STARs based on their respective routes. If other
planes are landing, ATC will likely provide headings and
altitudes to align traffic, ensuring order and separation. They
may instruct us to adjust our speed or vector us to extend
our arrival path, as most aircraft will ultimately perform the
same approach.
ARRIVAL

If traffic is heavy, ATC might direct us to enter a holding

pattern at a designated waypoint, where we will circle
until it is our turn to proceed. In cases of exceptionally
high traffic, we may hold at higher altitudes and gradually
descend to lower levels as they become available. However,
holding patterns are relatively uncommon unless we
specifically request them due to unique circumstances on
our side.

IFR
CANCELLATION
When flying to a “visual field” without instrument approach
facilities, clear communication with ATC is essential
for a safe arrival. While less common than standard

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IFR procedures, ATC is fully prepared to manage these

transitions. Since we’ve filed a flight plan under Z flight rules
and our destination is likely a VFR field, ATC understands
that we will cancel IFR at some point. Typically, they’ll ask
for our intentions regarding routing, altitude, and where
we plan to cancel IFR. We should clearly communicate our
preferred routing, descent plan, and the specific point where
we’ll transition to visual flight.

A key phrase we need to use is, “ready to cancel IFR,” once

we’re prepared to proceed visually. ATC will confirm the
cancellation with, “your IFR flight plan is canceled at time
xxxx,” ensuring both parties acknowledge the transition and
that we are no longer under IFR control.

Before canceling IFR, we must confirm that ground

conditions meet VFR minimums for visibility and cloud
clearance. Situational awareness is also critical—we need
to know our exact location, nearby terrain, and the planned
route to the field.

Additionally, we must remain mindful of surrounding

airspace classifications and their specific altitude, clearance,
or communication requirements, ensuring compliance as we
transition to visual flight.

ARRIVAL

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4. HOLDINGS
Before any approach, there is a designated area where we can hold position, either to
wait for other traffic to land or to descend to a lower altitude.

ATC will instruct us to enter the defined holding pattern and maintain position at a
specific altitude. If a lower level becomes available, ATC may clear us to descend to
the next altitude. We will continue in the holding pattern until it is our turn to begin
the approach. While holdings are rare in modern operations due to efficient traffic
management, we must still be proficient in flying them.

Holdings are based on either a radio aid or a waypoint and are classified by the
direction of the turns:
– Standard Hold: All turns are made to the right.
– Non-Standard Hold: All turns are made to the left.

STA NDA RD

STA NDA RD

NON STA NDA RD

NON STA NDA RD

ARRIVAL

In a holding pattern, the route consists of straight segments defined by time or DME
distance from a station. The turns are 180º, flown with a maximum bank angle of 25º
or a coordinated turn rate of 3º per second.

Key Points to Remember

– Entry: Perform the correct entry procedure (direct,
parallel, or teardrop) based on your approach to the fix.
– Timing or Distance: Straight segments are typically
1-minute legs at or below 14,000 ft or adjusted by DME
distances for RNAV or conventional holdings.
– Coordination: Ensure accurate heading and speed
management.

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Holding speeds – Categories A through E

LEVELS (1) NORMAL CONDITIONS TURBULENCE CONDITIONS

425km/h (230kt) (2) 520km/h (280kt)

Up to 4250m (14000ft) inclusive
315km/h (170kt) (4) 315km/h (170kt)

Above 4250m (14000ft) to 6100m

445km/h (240kt) (5) 520km/h (280kt) (3)
(20000 ft) inclusive
or
0.8 Mach (4)
Above 6100m (20000ft) to 10350m whichever is less
490km/h (265kt) (5)
(34000 ft) inclusive

Above 10350m (34000ft) 0.83 Mach 0.83 Mach (3)

(1)The levels shown represent altitudes or corresponding flight levels

depending upon the altimeter setting in use.
(2) When the holding procedure is followed by the initial segment of an
instrument approach procedure promulgated at a speed higher than 425
km/h (230 kt), the holding should also be promulgated at this higher speed
wherever possible.
(3) The speed of 520 km/h (280 kt) (0.8 Mach) reserved for turbulence
conditions shall be used for holding only after prior clearance with
ATC, unless the relevant publications indicate that the holding area can
accommodate aircraft flight at these high holding speeds.
(4) For holdings limited to CAT A and B aircraft only.
(5) Wherever possible, 520 km/h (280 kt) should be used for holding
procedures associated with airway route structures.

Holding
All holding patterns are based on a radial. The straight legs are approximately one
minute for altitudes up to 14,000 ft, and 1:30 for altitudes above 14,000 ft. With a
standard turn rate of 3º per second, it takes one minute to complete the 180º turns, ARRIVAL
resulting in a total of four minutes per lap at lower altitudes, and five minutes when over
14,000 ft.

Maintaining a constant speed throughout the hold is critical, with variations limited to
±5 knots. Consistent speed is necessary for accurate wind correction calculations. If
speed fluctuates, these calculations become unreliable, potentially causing deviations in
the holding pattern.

Wind correction
Wind will inevitably push the aircraft during the holding pattern. The objective is to
apply corrections so that the aircraft stays established on the radial after completing the
inbound turn. This ensures the inbound leg lasts exactly one minute or 1:30, depending
on the altitude. Proper wind correction allows for precise timing and alignment with the
radial throughout the hold.

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R ADIAL IN W HICH T U RNING P O INT

THE HOL D IS B AS E D

ABE AM P OIN T OU TBOU ND LEG

IN
BOU D TUR AL

BOU
DI WIND F RO M
RA
OP

ND TU
T H E INSIDE
N

D R
AR OF THE HOLD
TE
UT

RN
O

RA DI OA I D I NBOU ND LEG

WIND F RO M
T H E O U T SIDE
OF THE HOLD

ENTRY INTO
HOLDING
To enter a holding pattern, the aircraft must first locate
the station using onboard instruments. These instruments
indicate the station’s position relative to the aircraft. When
the instruments show that the station has shifted from being
directly ahead to directly behind, the aircraft is directly over
the station, signaling the entry point into the holding pattern.

There are three types of holding entry, determined by the

sector from which the aircraft approaches:
– Direct Entry: Enter the holding pattern by flying directly
into the inbound leg.
– Teardrop Entry: Fly outbound at an angle (typically 30º
from the holding course) before turning inbound.
– Parallel Entry: Fly outbound parallel to the inbound course
ARRIVAL

before turning back to intercept the holding radial.

Understanding and executing the appropriate entry procedure

ensures a smooth transition into the holding pattern,
maintaining accuracy and compliance with ATC instructions.

Each type of holding entry has unique characteristics and is

flown differently. It is essential to clearly understand which
entry to use based on your position relative to the holding
fix. The hand rule is a practical tool for determining the
appropriate entry method.

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Priority of entries
Some holding entries are prioritized over others due to the
level of safety they provide. Using certain entries, especially
the offset entry, may take you outside the 5 NM protected
holding area defined by ICAO (Doc 8168, p. I-6-2-2). If you
are positioned on the borderline between two entry types,
you can choose the safer option, adjusting by a maximum of
±5º (ICAO Doc 8168, p. I-6-1-2, 1.4.1).

The order of priority for entries is as follows:

1. Teardrop Entry: The most secure entry type, as it keeps
the aircraft within the protected holding area.
2. Direct Entry: Offers moderate security but is generally
safe when the aircraft approaches directly toward the
holding fix.
3. Offset Entry (Parallel Entry): The least secure, as it
involves flying outside the protected holding area during the
outbound leg.

Understanding the characteristics and priorities of each entry

ensures safety and compliance while executing a holding
procedure. When in doubt, choose the most secure option
to minimize the risk of exiting the protected area.

Determining the holding entry

To determine the correct entry for a holding pattern, use your right hand for standard
holdings (right-hand turns) and your left hand for non-standard holdings (left-hand turns).
The process involves the following steps:
1. Position Your Hand:
– Place your index finger pointing in the direction of your current heading.
– Extend your thumb and middle finger as shown in the illustration.
ARRIVAL

N
3
33

PAR AL L E L
6
30

D I REC T
E
W

12
24

15
21
S

TE AR F ROP

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2. Angle Reference:
– The angle between your index finger and middle finger is approximately 70º,
representing the sector for a teardrop entry.
– The angle between your index finger and thumb is approximately 110º, representing
the sector for an offset (parallel) entry.
– The sector between your thumb and middle finger represents a direct entry.
3. Find the Radial:
– Identify the radial (outbound course) on which the hold is based.
– Compare its position to the sectors created by your fingers:
– Teardrop Entry: If the radial is between the index and middle fingers.
– Parallel Entry: If the radial is between the index finger and thumb.
– Direct Entry: If the radial is between the thumb and middle finger.
4. Practice and Automate:
– Use various approach courses and radials to practice this technique until determining
the correct entry becomes second nature.

PAR ALLEL

DIR ECT

TE ARFROP

3 6
12 15 15 S
N E
ARRIVAL

12

21
33

S
12

24
30

21
15

W
N
W

24

S
3

30

24 21 33 W
30 N 33

21 24 30
W W 33
S

24

N
30
15

21

3
33
12

6
N

E 15 E
6 3 12

By mastering this method, you can quickly and confidently determine the appropriate
holding entry, ensuring smooth and safe execution of the procedure.

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90º

1 M IN UT E

PARALLEL ENTRY (SECTOR 1)

If you are in the parallel sector but within ±5º of the teardrop
or direct sectors, it is good practice to prioritize the more
secure entry method. Inform in the cockpit that you are in
the offset (parallel) sector but will perform a teardrop or
direct entry for safety and compliance with holding priorities.

For a parallel entry, follow these steps:

1. Cross the Station: As you pass over the station or
holding fix, turn to the outbound course specified in the
holding pattern.
2. Outbound Leg: Fly along the outbound course for one
minute, maintaining the altitude and speed specified by ATC.
3. Inbound Turn: After one minute, execute a 180º turn
toward the inbound course, as illustrated in Figure 9.9.6.
4. Intercept the Inbound Radial: Adjust your heading as
necessary to intercept the inbound radial and fly back
toward the station, ensuring you remain within the protected
holding area.

By following these steps, you ensure a proper parallel entry

while maintaining situational awareness and compliance
ARRIVAL
with ICAO standards for holding patterns.

90º

S TA RT T IM E R W HE N
30º GO IN G OV E R S TAT IO N

S TA RT T IM E R W IT H
LE V E L W IN G S

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When passing over the station, timing depends on the

heading maintained before reaching it.

If the turn required to establish the outbound course is 0º to

30º, take the time directly as you pass over the station. If the
turn exceeds 30º, start the timer only once you are on the
outbound heading and the wings are level. Be prepared to
take the time either when passing the station or after leveling
the plane. All turns must be made with a maximum bank
angle of 25º or a 3º per second rate, whichever is less.

After flying outbound for one minute, turn 180º to intercept

the inbound course and return toward the station.

TA KE T IM E W HE N
PA S S IN G T HE
90 º IN BO UN D HE A D IN G

30 s

1 M IN UT E

After turning to intercept the inbound course, we will check

the time. Timing begins once we have passed the inbound
course and established ourselves on it.

If the radial or approach course is not intercepted within 30

seconds, proceed directly to the station instead of continuing
to search for the course.
ARRIVAL

90 º

TA KE T IM E W IT H
W IN G S LE V E LE D

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As shown in the illustrations, when flying to intercept the

inbound course, crosswind conditions can cause deviations,
requiring additional time and distance to establish the
course. In these cases, it will take longer to reach the station
compared to flying a perfectly aligned inbound course.
Holdings with wind influence will be explained later.

Parallel entry advice

The sector for a parallel entry is quite wide, and your
approach angle will determine the best way to establish
yourself effectively and minimize issues.

If you are approaching close to the teardrop sector, as shown

in the illustrations, you will already be nearly aligned with
the outbound heading. However, when you turn back to the
inbound heading, you will find yourself near the teardrop
radial. This will require setting a large cut-off heading to
intercept the approach radial within 30 seconds. Proper
planning and adjustments are essential to stay on track.

TAK E TIME W H EN
PAS S IN G TH E
IN B O UN D H EAD IN G
90º

3 0s

To avoid this situation, you can fly a heading slightly greater

ARRIVAL
than the outbound heading, as shown in the illustrations.
This adjustment helps you better position yourself for the
inbound turn and reduces the need for a large cut-off
heading to intercept the approach radial.

90º

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Remember that holdings provide a 5 NM protected area. Be

cautious not to leave this protected airspace when following
the previous advice.

If you are entering from the direct sector, wait approximately

five seconds before turning to the outbound heading. This
delay will make it easier to intercept the inbound radial and
increases the likelihood of doing so within 30 seconds.

Do not rely on approach timing for this type of entry. For the
time to be accurate, you must first establish yourself on the
inbound radial after completing the turn.

90º

5s

If you anticipate significant headwind before entering the hold,

extend the outbound leg beyond one minute (e.g., 01:15 or
01:30) before turning inbound. This adjustment compensates
for the slower ground speed caused by the headwind.
ARRIVAL

TEARDROP ENTRY (SECTOR 2)

The teardrop entry has the highest priority as it keeps the
aircraft within the protected holding area and follows a
radial. This ensures the safest and most efficient entry into
the holding pattern.

Once we pass over the station, we will follow the teardrop

radial: 30º less than the outbound radial for standard
holdings or 30º more than the outbound radial for non-
standard holdings.

Unless otherwise specified on the chart, we will fly for one

minute on the teardrop radial before turning to the indicated
side. If the hold is longer than one minute or defined by a
distance, after one minute, we will turn to the outbound

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course and maintain it until reaching the specified distance

or until the designated time has elapsed.

90º

TE
I NU
1M

3 0º

After flying one minute on the teardrop radial, we will arrive

at the point where a normal hold turn should begin. At this
point, we will assume that we are now flying the holding
pattern and turn to the corresponding side to intercept the
inbound course.

90º

TE U N TIL REAC H IN G
I NU TH E D IS TAN C E
1M O R TIME PAS S ES

ARRIVAL
If entering a racetrack pattern through this sector (explained
in the Approach section), we will fly for one minute or a
minute and a half on the teardrop radial. After this, we will
turn to the outbound course and maintain it until reaching
the specified distance or until the outbound time has elapsed.

DIRECT ENTRY (SECTOR 3)

The direct entry is the second highest in priority. If given the
choice between a direct entry or a teardrop entry, we would
prioritize the teardrop entry.

For a direct entry, when passing over the station, turn

immediately to the side of the holding turns and fly away
on the outbound course. This entry is flown exactly as if we

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were already established in the holding pattern. Both in this

entry and during subsequent laps of the holding pattern, the
timing for the outbound leg must be carefully taken.

90º

Timing begins:
– When passing through the abeam radial, provided the
wings are already level.
– When leveling the wings, if you have already passed the
abeam radial.

This ensures consistent and accurate timing for the

outbound leg, regardless of the specific circumstances in
the holding pattern.

TAKE TIME 90º

TAKE TIME
ARRIVAL

If we enter through the center of the sector, it will be

straightforward, as it will feel like we are already flying in the
holding pattern. However, issues can arise when entering
near the edges of the sector.

Direct entry advice

The direct entry has a large sector for entry, but challenges
may occur if entering near the teardrop sector. As shown
in the illustrations, entering close to the teardrop sector can
complicate the transition to the outbound course, requiring
precise adjustments to avoid deviations or delays in the

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holding pattern. Proper planning and awareness are crucial

to manage this situation effectively.

90º

TAKE TIME

1 MIN U TE

90º TA KE TI M E

1 MINU T E

5-1 0s

To address the problem illustrated in the entry near the

teardrop sector, delay the start of the turn by five to ten
seconds. This adjustment allows for a smoother transition into
the holding pattern and ensures better alignment with the ARRIVAL

inbound course after the turn, as shown in the illustrations.

When entering the hold, always consider the effect of wind

on your course. If you have prior knowledge of the wind’s
direction and intensity, adjust your actions accordingly to stay
within the protected area and maintain proper alignment.

If the entry is near the offset sector, the path you trace will
resemble the one depicted in the illustrations, requiring
additional adjustments to align correctly with the holding
pattern. Proper timing and wind correction are crucial in
these situations.

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In these cases, there is no need to make any changes, as the

route will closely resemble a normal holding pattern. The
most important aspect of this type of entry is the timing of
the turn. Begin the turn immediately after flying over the
station to ensure proper alignment during the inbound turn.

90º

1 MINU T E

Wind correction
The goal of the holding pattern is to exit perfectly aligned on the inbound course and
to ensure the inbound leg takes exactly one minute. To achieve this, wind correction
is essential.

Wind is divided into two components:

– Headwind or Tailwind: Corrected by adjusting the timing on the outbound leg.
– Crosswind: Corrected by adjusting the heading on the outbound leg.

Both corrections are applied during the outbound section to counteract wind effects
and maintain accuracy in the holding pattern.

ABEAM
The first indication of the wind’s effect will be at the abeam
radial, where adjustments can begin to ensure a precise
ARRIVAL

hold. On a day without wind, we will cross the abeam

radial as soon as we are established on the outbound
course. However, the presence of a headwind or tailwind
will affect this timing.
– If it takes more than five seconds to intercept the abeam
radial after establishing the outbound course, it indicates a
headwind.
– If we have already passed the abeam radial more than five
seconds ago, it means we have a tailwind.
This indication is reliable provided the turn was initiated
directly over the station and performed as a coordinated turn.
The five-second margin accounts for minor deviations or
errors that may slightly affect the timing of radial interception.
We should remain on the outbound course for one minute
during the first lap after the entry. However, if the abeam

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indication clearly shows a headwind or tailwind, we will

adjust the outbound time accordingly.
– Stay on the outbound course for slightly more than a
minute if there is a headwind.
– Stay on the course for slightly less than a minute if there is
a tailwind.

With experience, you’ll develop a better sense of how to

adjust the outbound time based on the abeam interception.
For now, a general guideline is to add or subtract 10 to 20
seconds to account for wind.

It’s critical to be precise when timing. Start the timer the

moment you cross the abeam radial to ensure accurate
timing for the outbound leg.

90º

HEA DWI ND NO WIND TA ILWIND

N 3 N 3 N 3
33 33 33
30

30

30
6

6
W

W
E

E
24

24

24
12

12

12

21 15 21 15 21 15
S S S

ARRIVAL

INBOUND TURN
When the outbound time expires, make the turn to intercept
the inbound course. In a standard hold, this will be a right
turn, and in a non-standard hold, it will be a left turn.

As you begin the turn, monitor its progress. Before starting

the turn, ensure you are on the teardrop radial—this is 30º
less than the outbound radial for standard holds. This step is
crucial for intercepting the inbound course effectively.

The arrowhead of your RMI should move approximately

30º per minute during the turn. When you are halfway
through the turn, check the arrow to see if it is 15º from your
inbound course.

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90º

30º

N 3 N 3 N 3
33 30º 33 33
30
15º

30

30
6

6
W

W
E

E
24

24

24
12

12

12
21 15 21 15 21 15
S S S

– If the arrow is less than 15º from the inbound course,

increase the bank angle to accelerate the turn.
– If the arrow is more than 15º from the inbound course,
reduce the bank angle or stay on an intercept course to
align correctly.

Also, monitor the HSI. The lubber line should push the CDI
when it begins to move, indicating proper alignment with
the inbound course. This feedback ensures you stay on track
while completing the turn.

There are three possible outcomes after completing the turn:

1. Inside the holding
2. Outside the holding
3. Established on the radial (the desired outcome).
ARRIVAL

If we are not properly established on the radial after the turn,

it indicates the presence of a crosswind component. This will
help us identify the crosswind’s influence. By combining the
crosswind quadrant with the headwind or tailwind quadrant,
we can determine the necessary correction to stay on track.
After completing the turn to the inbound course, start the
timer. The timing point depends on your position:
– If you are inside the holding and need to set an intercept
heading, start the timer when you set the intercept heading.
– If you are outside the holding, start the timer when you
cross the inbound heading.

These adjustments ensure precise timing and alignment for

the holding pattern.

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90º

WI ND FROM WIND F RO M
THE OU TSI DE T H E INSIDE
OF THE HOLD I NG CA LM WIND O F T H E H O L DING

N 3 N 3 N 3
33 33 33
30

30

30
6

6
W

W
E

E
24

24

24
12

12

12
21 15 21 15 21 15
S S S

90º

STA RT T IME R WIT H

WING S L E V E L E D

STA RT TI ME R WH E N
PA SSI NG I NBO U ND H E A DING

Try to intercept the approach course within thirty seconds ARRIVAL

and proceed directly to the station. If you are unable to

intercept it within thirty seconds, continue directly to the
station on your current course without considering the time
for that leg. Focus on intercepting the approach course as
soon as possible and apply the necessary wind correction to
remain aligned.

OUTBOUND CORRECTION
In these cases, after turning to the outbound leg, you will
need to turn toward the wind to counteract its effect. To
correct for wind during the turns in this section, multiply the
wind correction angle (WCA) used for the inbound leg by
approximately three. This adjustment ensures that you stay
within the protected holding area.

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If, after turning inbound, you find yourself inside the holding,
it indicates the wind is pushing you from outside the holding
area. Adjust your outbound heading on the next lap to
counteract the wind and stay within the protected area.
Accurate wind correction is crucial to maintaining a precise
holding pattern.

As in the previous situation, after turning to the outbound

leg, you must turn toward the wind and apply a wind
correction angle (WCA) approximately three times greater
than the one used on the inbound leg.

90º
WIND
C O R RE C T IO N
A NG L E
X3

WI ND
CORREC TI ON
A NGLE

90º
WIND
C O R RE C T IO N
A NG L E
X3

WI ND
CORREC TI ON
A NGLE
ARRIVAL

This correction is necessary because it is impractical to

adjust for wind during the turns, leaving only the outbound
leg for wind correction. The factor of three accounts
for the full holding pattern: one minute for the first turn,
approximately one minute outbound, and one minute for the
second turn.

If you have not determined an exact correction angle during

the inbound leg but are aware of a crosswind from one side,
apply a preliminary 10º–15º correction toward the wind
during the outbound leg. You can refine this correction on
subsequent laps as you observe the results.

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Failing to correct for a strong crosswind will lead to a path

similar to what is shown in the illustrations, where the
aircraft drifts far from the desired holding point. This could
leave you struggling to intercept the inbound course and risk
being unable to establish properly in the hold.

90º

Crosswind correction advice

In calm wind conditions, before turning to intercept the
inbound radial, we should be exactly on the teardrop radial
(30º less than the outbound radial for standard holds) and
about three nautical miles from the station when flying at
2,000 ft above it. If the calculated time passes and we are
not in this position, the wind correction we applied was
likely incorrect.

The RMI indication will not directly tell us if the headwind/

tailwind or crosswind caused the deviation, but it can help
in a few situations:
1. Closer to the Outbound Radial
– If the radial we are on is much closer to the outbound radial
than the teardrop radial, it indicates we are inside the hold. ARRIVAL
– In this case, we will need to turn more aggressively to
intercept the inbound radial.
2. Farther Than 30º From the Outbound Radial
– If the radial before turning is more than 30º from the
outbound radial, it likely means we experienced significant
headwind and are still close to the station.
– Alternatively, it could mean we are flying far outside the
hold, possibly due to insufficient correction for a crosswind.

Managing these situations

These deviations generally do not pose a significant problem
unless we are dealing with an extremely strong headwind
during the outbound leg. The first turn and the abeam check
will provide headwind information, allowing us to adjust the

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outbound timing and heading to compensate in subsequent

laps. Proper observation and corrections will help refine our
holding pattern and maintain accuracy.

N 3
33

30

6
W

E
24

12
21 15
S

N
90º 33 3

30

6
W

E
N 3
33

24

12
15

30
21

6
S

E
24

12
21 15
S

If you know you don’t have significant headwind, after the

turn you will have some time to intercept the inbound radial,
even if you come out far inside or outside the hold.

However, if you have strong headwind and remain close

to the station before turning, it can create a challenging
situation. You will have very limited time to intercept the
course before passing the station. The needle will become
extremely sensitive, and the wind will push you toward the
station, further reducing the time available to correct.

In some cases, instead of flying directly over the station, you

ARRIVAL

may pass off to the side, disrupting the alignment for the
next lap. This is a critical error that must be avoided.

Preventing issues with strong headwind

If you are confident there is a strong headwind, lengthen the
outbound leg on the first lap without hesitation. Extending
the time will give you more space and time to stabilize your
turn and intercept the radial properly.

If you still pass off to the side of the station, remain calm
and fly the outbound heading for 1:30 to 1:45 before turning
back to the inbound course. This adjustment will help you
regain alignment in subsequent laps.

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TIME CORRECTION
To correct for headwind or tailwind, we will use the inbound
times as a reference. The goal is to take exactly one minute
on the inbound leg. To achieve this, we will adjust the
outbound time to counteract the wind’s effect, ensuring we
exit the turn perfectly established on the radial.

90º

N 3
33

30

6
W

E
24

12
21 15
S

Time adjustment
– Headwind: If you experience a headwind, extend the
outbound leg to compensate for the slower ground speed.
– Tailwind: If there is a tailwind, shorten the outbound leg to
offset the faster ground speed.

Timing the inbound leg

The approach time is taken either:
– When setting the interception course, or
– When passing the approach course, whichever occurs first.
ARRIVAL
This adjustment ensures precise timing and alignment for
maintaining the correct holding pattern and intercepting the
radial effectively.

? ? :? ?

1: 0 0

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If you fly outbound for one minute but take less time on the
inbound leg, it indicates a headwind during the outbound
leg and a tailwind during the inbound leg. To adjust, use the
following correction rule:

“DOUBLE OF WHAT I NEED.

HALF OF WHAT I HAVE LEFT.”

Applying the Rule

If you flew outbound for one minute, but the inbound leg
took 50 seconds, you are 10 seconds short of the one-
minute target.
– Double of what I need: double the 10 seconds = 20 secs.
– On the next lap, extend the outbound leg to 1:20 minutes
to compensate.

This simple method ensures the necessary correction to

achieve the desired one-minute inbound leg. Properly
applying this rule will allow for better alignment and timing
in the holding pattern.

LA P 2 1:20

LA P 1 1 : 00

LA P 1 0 :50

LA P 2 1 :0 0

LA P 2 0 : 50
ARRIVAL

LA P 1 1:0 0

LA P 1 1: 20

LA P 2 1: 00

If the inbound leg takes longer than the outbound leg, it

indicates a tailwind on the outbound leg and a headwind on
the inbound leg.
For example:
– If you fly one minute outbound and the inbound leg takes
1:20 minutes, you have 20 seconds to spare.

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HOLDINGS

– Apply the correction rule: “Half of what I have left.”

– Half of 20 seconds is 10 seconds, so subtract 10 seconds
from the outbound leg. On the next lap, you will fly 50
seconds outbound.

Continuing the Corrections

Keep correcting until the inbound leg takes exactly 1 minute.
– If after correcting to 1:20 minutes outbound, the inbound
leg takes 55 seconds, you are 5 seconds short of the minute.
– Apply the correction rule: “Double of what is missing.”
– Double of 5 seconds is 10 seconds, so add 10 seconds to
the outbound leg. On the next lap, fly 1:30 outbound.

Important Note on Interception Timing

If during the inbound turn you are not established on the
radial and end up flying on an interception heading for
a long time, you will likely have a headwind and cover
a greater distance. In such cases, do not take timing into
account until you are properly established on the inbound
course. This avoids incorrect corrections due to wind effects
while intercepting.

90º

I DEA L RO U T E

LONGER ROU T E
HE
AD
W
IN
D
ARRIVAL

Reference time
The reference time is the difference between the desired
one-minute inbound leg and the actual time it takes to
fly inbound, assuming you fly one minute outbound. This
time serves as the basis for wind corrections during the
outbound leg.

For example:
– If you fly one minute outbound and it takes 50 seconds
inbound, the 10 seconds remaining is your reference time.
This indicates that the outbound leg should be extended to
1:20 minutes to account for the wind.
– Similarly, if after correcting you are flying 50 seconds

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outbound, the reference time becomes 20 seconds

because, with a one-minute outbound leg, it would take
1:20 inbound.

To determine the reference time, reverse the rule:

“Double what I need. Half of what I have left.”

Adjusting the Wind Correction in Outbound

Once you have determined the correct outbound time,
adjust the wind correction angle accordingly. The time spent
on the outbound leg amplifies or reduces the impact of
the correction because it affects the entire holding pattern,
including the turns:
– The outbound leg corrects for three minutes of flying (two
minutes for the turns plus one minute for the outbound leg).
– For example, if you fly outbound for 1:30 minutes with a 15º
correction, those extra 30 seconds will result in over-correction.
– Conversely, if you fly outbound for 45 seconds, the same
15º correction will be insufficient.

Adjusting the Correction Angle

When the outbound leg is longer than one minute:
– Use a smaller correction angle, as the extended time
increases the effect of the wind correction.
When the outbound leg is shorter than one minute:
– Use a larger correction angle, as less time on the outbound
leg reduces the effect of the correction.
By refining the outbound time and wind correction angle
together, you ensure precise adjustments to stay aligned
with the inbound radial and maintain accurate timing
throughout the hold.
ARRIVAL

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Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]
Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]
8.
APPROACH
The approach is the final stage of a flight. At this point,
we have descended from the airway or route, entered the
airport’s control area, and are approximately 20 NM away
from the runway. What remains is to descend safely, align
with the runway, look out the window, and land.

The fact that we are getting very close to the terrain and
cannot look outside the window until we are about 200 feet
above the ground necessitates having very safe and reliable
procedures. This is the most complex part of the flight.

Throughout this phase, we remain in constant contact

with and under the vigilance of the control tower. We are
assigned a specific final route that aligns us with the runway.
We might also have vertical guidance from our instruments
to help us perform a safe and controlled descent to a point
200 feet above the ground, where we will look out the
window and see the runway directly ahead.

One of the unique aspects of IFR flying, especially in bad

weather or clouds, is the transition from cruising above the
clouds to descending into them. During the approach, you
are surrounded by clouds, unable to see anything outside.
Then, in the final minute, at about 200 feet above the
ground, you look out the window. The clouds suddenly
clear, and the runway appears right in front of you.

In that moment, after a challenging flight, you leave all its

complexities behind: the required precision, communications
with the tower, instruments, speeds, and procedures—
everything you had to manage. You focus solely on flying the
aircraft. You disconnect the autopilot, take manual control,
and guide the airplane back onto the ground.

This is the essence of flying.

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

1. UNDERSTANDING APPROACH SEGMENTS
IFR APPROACHES APPROACH CHARTS
APPROACHES IN AIRPORTS
TYPES OF APPROACHES
INDICATION
INSTRUMENTATION

2. PREPARING THE
APPROACH

3. HANDS ON A. INITIAL AND INTERMEDIATE SEGMENT

APPROACH STRAIGHT IN
CONVENTIONAL
RNAV
VERTICAL PROFILE
B. FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT
3D CONVENTIONAL
3D RNAV
2D CONVENTIONAL
2D RNAV
C. JUST BEFORE LANDING

4. THEORETICAL
CONCEPTS

Luis Lopez lopram@[Link]

 HOW TO FLY IFR

1. UNDERSTANDING IFR
APPROACHES
Approach procedures guide us along horizontal and vertical paths that align us with the
runway and ensure a safe descent. The horizontal profile aligns the us with the runway,
regardless of our initial position, while the vertical profile provides a safe descent path,
enabling a smooth transition to a visual landing once the runway is in sight.

Horizontal profile
In terms of horizontal navigation, the route we follow is indicated on the approach
chart. We must adhere to either the charted route or ATC instructions. The horizontal
routes are generally classified into two categories:

STRAIGHT-IN APPROACHES
We come aligned with the final approach course from a
distance and continue on this course without making any turns.
36

81

Straight-In
Strai g h t- I nApproach
A p p ro ach
APPROACH

MANEUVERING APPROACHES
These horizontal routes involve a series of turns and
maneuvers to eventually align with the final approach
course. This method of alignment is more common at
smaller and less congested airfields.
Larger airports typically handle alignment during the arrival
phase and construct the approaches as straight-in.

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36

81
Maneuvering Approach M ane uv e r i ng Appr oac h

Vertical profile
The vertical profile provides us with the minimum altitudes to be maintained throughout
the approach procedure.

Once cleared to perform the approach by ATC, we are authorized to manage the aircraft’s
altitude without further ATC intervention, allowing us to control our descent freely.

There are three key points to keep in mind:

1. We must not descend below the minimums, although we may fly above them.
2. We must reach the minimum decision altitude (MDA) or platform altitude at the
designated points.
3. We are constrained by maximum vertical speeds along the approach.

Final descent procedures are divided in two:

3D APPROACHES
These approaches provide instrument guidance along a
predefined vertical profile. We capture the glide path at a
specific altitude, known as the platform altitude, and follow
this guidance down to the minimums, enabling a precise and
controlled descent.
APPROACH

2D APPROACHES
In the absence of vertical guidance, we manually calculate
and execute the descent. This involves determining the
distance to be covered during the descent and initiating it at

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 HOW TO FLY IFR

a calculated point, ensuring we arrive at the runway with the

correct altitude and descent rate.

APPROACH
SEGMENTS
All approaches are divided into distinct segments, each
designed to ensure that necessary actions are completed
at specific points before landing. No matter the type of
approach – whether conventional or RNAV, the radio aids
or instruments in use, or the specific approach route – all
approaches consist of the following segments:

Arrival Segment:
This phase transitions from the enroute phase to the
approach phase. It involves navigating along Standard
Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) to bring the aircraft to a
point where it can begin the approach procedure.

Initial Approach Segment:

In this phase, we begin the approach to the runway. The
primary goal is to align the aircraft with the final approach
course. This segment begins at the Initial Approach Fix (IAF)
and ends at the Intermediate Fix (IF).

Intermediate Approach Segment:

This segment serves as a link between the initial and final
approach segments, allowing for any necessary adjustments
APPROACH

in alignment or altitude. It also serves to slow down the

speed to prepare for the final descent. It begins at the IF and
ends at the Final Approach Fix (FAF) or point (P).

Final Approach Segment:

This is the critical segment where the aircraft is aligned with
the runway and begins the descent to the Decision Height
(DH) or Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA), following the
appropriate glide path. We usually configure the landing gear

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and flaps in this segment. It begins at the FAF/P and ends at

the Missed Approach Point (MAPt).

Minimums and Missed Approach Point (MAPt):

Upon reaching the minimums or the MAPt, we must visually
confirm the runway. If the runway is in sight and the aircraft
is positioned to land safely, the landing may proceed. If
not, the pilot must abort the landing and execute a missed
approach procedure.

Missed Approach Segment:

If a landing cannot be completed, this segment outlines the
procedures for climbing away from the runway and re-
entering the procedure or proceeding to an alternate airport.

Each of these segments is governed by specific regulations,

safety margins, and procedures that ensure a safe and
efficient approach.

ATC Vectored to FAF (Final Approach Fix):

In some cases, ATC may vector us to align directly with the
runway, bypassing parts of the standard approach route.

APPROACH

APPROACH
CHARTS
Approach charts provide essential information for
executing instrument approaches safely. Each procedure
has its own chart, detailing the route, altitudes, waypoints,
frequencies, and missed approach instructions. These
charts guide us through each part of the approach while
also specifying the minimum meteorological conditions
required for a safe landing.

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APPROACHES IN
APPROACH

AIRPORTS
Depending on the airport’s size, runway configuration,
and investment in equipment or procedure development,
different types of IFR approach procedures are available at
each airport.

These procedures are constructed following ICAO standards,

which provide the foundation for approach design. Airports
then customize the ICAO standards to suit their specific

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UNDERSTANDING IFR APPROACHES

needs, creating procedures that vary in routes, vertical

speeds, and descent altitudes. These procedures are
subsequently published for public use in the Aeronautical
Information Publication (AIP).

Each runway generally has at least two approach

procedures, one for each landing direction. Airports
typically designate a principal landing runway and often
develop more precise approaches or additional procedures
for that runway. Approach designs also take into account
terrain, noise abatement requirements, airport layout, and
the direction of arriving flights.

To obtain these approach procedures, pilots can refer to

the airport’s AIP. Alternatively, private chart companies
and operators may produce their own versions of these
procedures, sometimes with stricter visibility requirements.

TYPES OF
APPROACHES
When executing instrument approaches, there are two
primary types to consider, based on the references we use to
fly them: conventional approaches and RNAV approaches.
Each type requires specific onboard equipment and
navigation systems, including the need for receivers suited to
the approach type. Conventional approaches, in particular,
rely on antennas to receive ground-based navigation signals
from aids like VOR, NDB, and ILS. RNAV approaches,
on the other hand, require a Flight Management System
(FMS) to integrate satellite and onboard systems for precise,
waypoint-based navigation.

Conventional
These approaches rely on ground-based radio aids that transmit signals detected by the
aircraft’s antennas.

Conventional approaches have been the foundation of instrument flying for decades,
APPROACH

providing reliable methods for guiding aircraft safely to the runway. We must manually
tune and configure these navigation instruments by selecting the frequency of each
ground-based aid. Constant monitoring of directional indications from instruments such
as the DME, RBI, RMI, VOR, or HSI is required, with precise heading adjustments made
based on raw data. The most widely used conventional approaches include:

ILS (INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM):

Provides both lateral and vertical guidance using ground-
based radio signals. We tune the NAV receiver to the ILS

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frequency and follow the localizer for lateral guidance and

the glide slope for vertical descent.

LOC (LOCALIZER-ONLY APPROACH):

Provides lateral guidance only, using the localizer signal from
the ILS system. In this approach, we follow the localizer to
stay on course, but there is no glide slope, so descent must
be managed manually or using step-down fixes.

NDB (NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON):

Relies on signals from ground-based beacons, with the
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) tracking the beacon’s
bearing to help maintain the approach path.

VOR (VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE)

Provides azimuth guidance from VOR stations. We use the
NAV receiver to tune to the VOR frequency and rely on
instruments such as the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
or Relative Magnetic Indicator (RMI) to track radials and stay
aligned with the correct approach course.

Conventional approaches may also include a procedure turn or reversal procedure

to establish proper alignment with the runway, adding complexity to the approach
sequence. These approaches require more manual navigation and interpretation but
remain essential for the final phase of flight.

However, NDB and VOR approaches are becoming increasingly rare as RNAV
approaches, which offer greater flexibility, precision, and efficiency, are rapidly taking
over as the standard for modern instrument flight.
APPROACH

RNAV
RNAV Approaches represent the modern evolution of instrument approaches, relying
on satellite-based systems, and waypoints defined by coordinates, as well as ground and

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onboard navigation technology. These approaches offer greater flexibility compared to

conventional approaches, as they are not constrained by the location of ground-based
navigation aids.

Instead, RNAV approaches use pre-programmed waypoints stored in the Flight

Management System (FMS). When the procedure is selected in the system, it provides
the instruments with the route, enabling more efficient routing and smoother transitions
between phases of flight. The most widely used RNAV approaches include:

LPV (LOCALIZER PERFORMANCE WITH VERTICAL

GUIDANCE):
Provides both lateral and vertical guidance, similar to ILS, but
relies on GPS signals augmented by systems like WAAS or
EGNOS. Sensitivity increases as the aircraft nears the runway,
offering precise guidance comparable to an ILS approach.

LNAV/VNAV (LATERAL NAVIGATION WITH VERTICAL

NAVIGATION):
Delivers both lateral and vertical guidance using GPS data
and barometric altitude. Unlike LPV, the guidance sensitivity
does not increase closer to the runway.

LNAV (LATERAL NAVIGATION):

Provides only lateral guidance based on GPS signals. Vertical
APPROACH

descent must be managed manually or with advisory vertical

guidance, if available.

LP (LOCALIZER PERFORMANCE):
Similar to LNAV but offers more precise lateral guidance,
enhancing accuracy as the aircraft gets closer to the runway.
RNAV approaches are rapidly replacing conventional
navigation methods. They simplify the approach process by
eliminating the need to tune into specific radio frequencies or

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manually navigate ground-based signals. Instead, they rely on

GPS-based guidance through the Flight Management System
(FMS). These approaches reduce pilot workload, improve
accuracy, and are generally more straightforward than
conventional methods. However, they still require precise
setup, RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)
checks to ensure GPS reliability, and vigilant monitoring.

INDICATIONS
For our navigation, we’ll primarily use the CDI instrument
or HSI, depending on the investment in equipment we
have made in the aircraft. These instruments provide lateral
guidance, and for 3D approaches, vertical guidance as well.
In the case of NDB (Non-Directional Beacon) approaches,
we’ll rely on the ADF (instrument) or RMI, which offers
relative directional information to the NDB, aiding in
accurate course tracking.

To fly either conventional or RNAV procedures, we will

have to chose the source of the hsi.

To set the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) source to

VLOC (VOR/Localizer) or GPS mode, follow these steps:
1. Locate the NAV/GPS or CDI button on your
navigation equipment.
2. Switch to desired mode: Press the NAV/GPS or CDI
button to toggle between GPS and VLOC modes.

Lateral indicator
Depending on the type of approach, lateral navigation will be obtained from
different instruments. The main instruments include the ADF for NDB procedures,
the RMI for NDB and VOR procedures, and the OBI or HSI for VOR, ILS, and RNAV
procedures. In analog cockpits, these will be separate gauges. In glass cockpits, all
these instruments are displayed on a single electronic instrument called the EHSI. The
EHSI functions as an HSI but can also display RMI needles if selected.

NDB PROCEDURES
APPROACH

For NDB procedures in an analog cockpit, the frequency

is selected using the ADF frequency selector. The pilot can
monitor the ADF instrument or choose to display the ADF
needle on the RMI to obtain the course from the aircraft to
the ground aid. In a glass cockpit, the ADF function must be
activated, typically by selecting the correct frequency and
pressing an ADF button within the system, to display the
ADF needle on the EHSI.

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VOR AND ILS PROCEDURES

For VOR and ILS procedures, the frequency is selected
using the NAV frequency selector. In an analog cockpit, this
automatically displays the navigation information on the
RMI (by setting the needle to NAV) or on the OBI or HSI.
These instruments will show the radial position relative to
the ground-based aid, calculated from the aid’s location in
reference to magnetic north.

FMS-EQUIPPED COCKPITS
In an FMS-equipped cockpit, the source of the navigation
data for the HSI or OBI must also be selected. The pilot
can choose between the NAV equipment or the FMS as
the data source. Manufacturers provide a way to switch the
navigation source, usually via a button, switch, or page in
the FMS. This function is often labeled something like CDI,
HSI, Navigation Source, GPS/NAV, or RNAV.
When the navigation source is switched, the primary
navigation instrument will reflect the change and display an
appropriate message:
– Magenta GPS/FMS indicates the FMS is the active source.
– Green VLOC, LOC, or VOR indicates conventional NAV
equipment is the source.

DME DISTANCE
In conventional navigation, the Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME) provides the aircraft’s distance from
a ground station. DMEs are often co-located with other
ground-based navigation aids, such as VOR, ILS, or NDB.

To use the DME, tune the VHF frequency of the associated

ground station into the NAV equipment. In most cases,
selecting the frequency for a VOR or ILS station will
automatically provide the DME distance reading as part of
the navigation data.

RNAV PROCEDURES
For RNAV procedures, the approach must first be loaded
APPROACH

into the FMS. The FMS will sequence the waypoints and
automatically change the active leg as the aircraft passes
each waypoint. When the navigation source is set to FMS or
GPS, the HSI or OBI will display lateral deviation relative to
the active leg, indicating whether we are to the left or right
of the defined route between the two waypoints.

MOVING MAP DISPLAYS IN GLASS COCKPITS

Many glass cockpit systems are equipped with a moving
map displayed on the Multi-Function Display (MFD) or FMS.

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This map shows the route selected in the FMS, providing

a visual representation of the aircraft’s position in relation
to the planned route. In some cases, the EHSI itself can
display the selected route in map mode, overlaying the FMS
waypoints, active leg, and other navigational information
directly onto the instrument.

Vertical indicator
In 3D approaches (ILS, LPV, LNAV/VNAV), the glide slope is represented by a vertical
scale and a moving arrow. This operates on the same principle as the CDI, where the
center of the scale represents the aircraft’s position, and the arrow indicates the desired
path. 2D approaches (NDB, VOR, LOC, LNAV, LP) do not provide vertical guidance.

For conventional approaches (e.g., ILS), we select the ILS frequency on the NAV
equipment, and the vertical indication will appear on the HSI or OBI as soon as we are
close to the glide path. If flying an FMS-equipped aircraft, the HSI or OBI will have GPS
capabilities, and the instrument will be set with the source in VLOC mode.

For RNAV approaches, we configure the approach in the

FMS. The vertical scale and moving arrow will appear once
we approach the glide path, displayed on the HSI or OBI
with GPS capabilities and with the source set to GPS or FMS.

In a glass cockpit, the glide slope will be displayed on the

EHSI as well as on the Primary Flight Display (PFD).

INSTRUMENTATION
We may encounter various cockpit configurations, but they
are primarily categorized into four main types: entirely analog
cockpits, analog cockpits with a flight management system
(FMS), glass cockpits, and glass cockpits with autopilot.

ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
Analog or conventional instruments, typically found in
older aircraft, are based on individual gauges, with each
APPROACH

instrument displayed on a separate panel.

In analog cockpits, we encounter two main configurations.

The first is a fully analog cockpit without an FMS, where
navigation relies entirely on tuning the equipment to
ground-based radio aids and interpreting raw data from the
instruments to determine distances and courses to ground
stations. In such cockpits, RNAV procedures cannot be flown.
The workload and the risk of uncertainty or disorientation
are significantly higher with analog instruments, particularly

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during the early stages of training, when compared to the

more intuitive and integrated systems found in glass cockpits.

FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)

The addition of the Flight Management System (FMS) provides
a database containing all the procedures for each airport and
airway, as well as coordinate-based waypoints. This allows
pilots to create flight plans from one waypoint to another.
The addition of the FMS also includes GPS antennas. Aircraft
equipped with an FMS can fly both conventional and RNAV
[Link] main navigation instrument, such as an OBI
or HSI, can switch between receiving navigation information
from ground-based instruments (VLOC) and from the FMS,
APPROACH

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which is connected to GPS satellites. Modern FMS systems

also feature a moving map display, which significantly
enhances situational awareness by visually depicting the route,
waypoints, and other relevant information.

GLASS COCKPIT
Glass cockpit systems in modern aircraft offer a more intuitive
way of navigating, equipped with a FMS, typically integrated
in the Multi Function Display, and advanced avionics such
as the Primary Flight Display, Electronic Horizontal Situation
Indicator, or Moving Map. These setups provide clear visual
displays of routes and positions, allowing for both conventional
and RNAV approaches.

In glass cockpit operations, we will program the FMS

with the route, which is then displayed on the screens,
showing our position and the flight plan. This simplifies
navigation and enhances situational awareness, making
the process more precise and manageable. While glass
cockpits significantly reduce the chances of uncertainty
and disorientation compared to conventional instruments,
the challenges in this system come from the complexities
of setting up the procedures and correctly selecting the
different modes of flight.
APPROACH

Conventional instruments like the HSI will be integrated in

the EHSI, with the possibility of displaying RMI needles if we
chose to do so. There is little reason to rely solely on raw
data when advanced avionics are at your disposal. Always
use the full capabilities of the FMS and electronic displays to
make your flight easier and more efficient.

AUTOPILOT (AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM)

If we are flying on an aircraft with FMS and autopilot, we
create a flight plan with our route by connecting waypoints

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in the FMS. The FMS takes care of the complex navigation

calculations, showing our planned route on the form of
a Map. Then, using the flight directors, it transmits us the
necessary maneuvers (pitch and roll variations) to follow the
route. We can decide to manually follow the flight directors
or activate the autopilot and let the system perform the
turns and pitch changes.

We have specific modes to control the autopilot: regarding

lateral modes, Heading (HDG) mode lets us manually select
the heading, while NAV mode is used when we want the
autopilot to follow the route we’ve set in the FMS flight plan.
For climbing and descending, we select the desired altitude
with the Altitude Selector, and then, have a few options:
Vertical Speed (VS) mode allows us to set a specific rate
of climb or descent, and Flight Level Change (FLC) mode
maintains a steady airspeed as we climb or descend,
adjusting pitch to reach our target altitude efficiently.

Another mode is VNAV (Vertical Navigation), this mode

will require us to introduce / cross check the altitudes in a
route or procedure, as well as select the final altitude in the
altitude selector, and the system will make the necessary
changes to reach the desired waypoints at the desired
altitudes along the route automatically. This mode helps
keep us at the right altitude at the right time, making descent
execution smoother.

Finally, we have Approach (APP) mode for landing. APP

APPROACH

mode allows the flight directors to capture the glide path

and lateral approach.

We will find the active and armed modes in the Flight Mode
Annunciator, most likely located at the top of our Primary
Flight Display. We can use all of these capabilities during
the approach. This whole system reduces our workload
and allows us to focus more on monitoring the aircraft and
situational awareness.

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2. PREPARING THE APPROACH

Before any approach, there are several key elements we must review or prepare. Typically,
during a flight from point A to point B, most preparations are completed during the en
route phase. However, for training flights or specific cases where only the approach needs
to be prepared, the following must be addressed before starting the procedure:
a. Weather awareness
b. Approach overview
c. Runway exit and parking
d. Configuration
e. Descent Planning
f. Speed Management
g. Error Handling
h. 3 B’s
– Build (FMS setup)
– Bug (Equipment setup)
– Briefing

Ideally, most of these preparations will have been completed during the en route phase
or just before the descent. Particular attention should be given to the 3 B’s, as they are
the most essential items for any approach.

WEATHER AWARENESS
Confirm current weather conditions, including wind,
visibility, temperature and other relevant factors, and adjust
plans as necessary. Ensure that the weather conditions meet
the requirements for performing the approach safely.

APPROACH OVERVIEW
Review the approach chart and familiarize yourself with the
procedure’s layout, including the approach shape, starting
point, length, approximate duration, altitude changes,
restrictions, and distances.

CONFIGURATION
With the runway length and desired exit point defined,
APPROACH

select the appropriate flap configuration accordingly. To

determine the optimal configuration, you can refer to the
AFM (Aircraft Flight Manual) charts to calculate the landing
distance or use tools such as apps or onboard systems
designed to calculate landing distances.

Define the points for flap and landing gear extension based
on weather and traffic conditions. Assess the distances and
altitude requirements for the final approach segment. If the
final segment is short (under 6 NM), consider configuring

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flaps and landing gear before the final approach fix to

ensure stability.

RUNWAY EXIT AND TAXI PLANNING

Open the taxi chart and plan your runway exit as well as the
anticipated taxi route to parking.

DESCENT PLANNING
Determine your descent points, speeds, and descent rates.
For 2D approaches, calculate a safe descent to the minimum
descent altitude (MDA). For 3D approaches, calculate a
safe descent to the platform altitude. Ideally, we will avoid
APPROACH

performing a stepped descent, meaning that we will start the

descent at one point in the approach and not level off until
the minimum descent altitude or the platform altitude.

Plan to start the descent at the minimum altitude for the

approach. If you are cleared to begin the approach from a
higher altitude, adjust your descent accordingly.

During the approach, we are constrained by maximum and

minimum vertical speeds to ensure a controlled and safe

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descent, avoiding overly steep or unstable approaches. The

following table displays those maximum vertical speeds.

OUTBOUND TRACK MAXIMUM MINIMUM

Category A and B 245m/min (804ft/min) Not applicable

Category C, D and E 365m/min (1197ft/min) Not applicable

Category H 365m/min (1197ft/min) Not applicable

INBOUND TRACK MAXIMUM MINIMUM

Category A and B 200m/min (665ft/min) 120m/min (394ft/min)

Category C, D and E 305m/min (1000ft/min) Not applicable

Category H 230m/min (755ft/min) 180m/min (590ft/min)

3D Approach Descent Calculation

In a 3D approach, we aim to descend to the platform
altitude, level off, capture the glide slope, and commence
the final descent. Typically, flaps and landing gear are
extended on the glide slope, maintaining a constant speed
during the initial descent. This simplifies calculations for 3D
approaches, since we will have a visual representation of the
glide slope and we wont need to calculate the descent.

Example Scenario:
Approach: KSLC ILS 34R
Initial Altitude: 11,000 ft (maintained until waypoint PLAGE)
Platform Altitude: 6,100 ft at waypoint CHEVL (to capture the
glide slope)
Altitude to Descend: 4,900 ft (11,000 ft - 6,100 ft)
Distance Available: 14.6 NM (from PLAGE to CHEVL)

Steps:
APPROACH

1. Determine Rate of Descent and Ground Speed:

– Aircraft class B Maximum Descent Rates:
– Outbound: 804 ft/min
– Inbound: 655 ft/min
– Since this is a straight-in approach, we’ll use the inbound maximum of 655 ft/min.
– Ground Speed: 120 kt (equals 2 NM/min)
2. Calculate Time to Descend:
– Time = Altitude to Descend / Rate of Descent
– Time = 4,900 ft / 655 ft/min ≈ 7.48 minutes (approx. 7 minutes and 30 seconds)

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3. Determine Horizontal Distance Covered During Descent:

– Distance = Ground Speed × Time
– Distance = 120 kt (2 NM/min) × 7.5 min = 15 NM

4. Compare Required Distance with Available Distance:

– Required Distance for Descent: 15 NM
– Available Distance: 14.6 NM
– Adjustment Needed: The required distance slightly exceeds the available distance.

5. Adjustments:
– Reduce Ground Speed: Slow down to 100 kt or 110 kt during descent to fit within
the available distance.
– Alter Descent Rate: If necessary, adjust the vertical speed marginally.

6. Aim Point:
– Target: In general, aim to be at the platform altitude approximately 2 NM before
the Final Approach Fix/Point (FAF/P).

7. Compliance with Minimum Altitudes.

Minimum Altitudes to Observe:
– At ALGIE (2.4 NM from PLAGE): Do not descend below 10,000 ft.
– At HAKKR (5.5 NM from PLAGE): Do not descend below 9,000 ft.

8. Estimate Altitudes at Waypoints:

– From PLAGE to ALGIE:
– Distance: 2.4 NM
– Time: 2.4 NM / 2 NM/min = 1.2 minutes
– Descent in Time: 655 ft/min × 1.2 min = 786 ft
– Altitude at ALGIE: 11,000 ft - 786 ft ≈ 10,214 ft (Above 10,000 ft minimum)
– From PLAGE to HAKKR:
– Distance: 5.5 NM
– Time: 5.5 NM / 2 NM/min = 2.75 minutes
– Descent in Time: 655 ft/min × 2.75 min = 1,801 ft
– Altitude at HAKKR: 11,000 ft - 1,801 ft ≈ 9,199 ft (Above 9,000 ft minimum)

9. Monitoring and Adjustments:

– Continuously monitor altitudes at waypoints.
– Adjust vertical speed to ensure compliance with minimum altitudes.
APPROACH

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2D Approach Descent Calculation

In a 2D approach, the descent is calculated continuously
down to the Missed Approach Point (MAPT) without leveling
off. Ideally, we will maintain the same rate of descent along
all the approach. We will divide the descent in two: as fully
configured for landing and as not configured, since fully
configured we will be flying at slower speeds.

Considerations:
– Speed Reduction: Ground speed decreases as landing gear
and flaps are extended.
– Descent Rate Adjustment: At slower speeds, a vertical
speed of 655 ft/min may result in the descent angle to be too
steep. Opt for a shallower descent rate, such as 500 ft/min.

Example Scenario:
Approach: KSLC LOC 34R
Initial Altitude: 11,000 ft at PLAGE
Altitude at MAPT: 4,700 ft
Altitude to Descend: 6,300 ft (11,000 ft - 4,700 ft)
Distance from PLAGE to MAPT: Approximately 20 NM

Steps:
1. Calculate Time to Descend:
– Descent Rate: 500 ft/min
– Time = Altitude to Descend / Descent Rate
– Time = 6,300 ft / 500 ft/min = 12.6 minutes

2. Plan for Gear and Flap Extension:

– Segment with Gear and Flaps Extended:
– Speed: 90 kt (equals 1.5 NM/min)
– Segment Length: From CHEVL to MAPT (6 NM)
– Time: 6 NM / 1.5 NM/min = 4 minutes

3. Remaining Descent:
– Time: 12.6 min - 4 min = 8.6 minutes
– Speed: 120 kt (equals 2 NM/min)
– Distance Covered: 8.6 min × 2 NM/min = 17.2 NM
APPROACH

4. Total Distance Required:

– Total Distance: 6 NM (with gear down) + 17.2 NM (without gear) ≈ 23.2 NM
– Available Distance: 20 NM
– Adjustment Needed: Required distance exceeds available distance by 3.2 NM

5. Adjustments:
The calculations don’t fit in the approach, so now we must adjust the descent, we can
do this using various methods, such as reducing the airspeed, or adjusting the vertical

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speed along the approach. Since ideally we will maintain the same vertical speed, with
the objective of changing the least amount of things during the approach, we will try
with a steeper descent of 600ft/minute.

6. Calculate Time to Descend:

– Descent Rate: 600 ft/min
– Time = Altitude to Descend / Descent Rate
– Time = 6,300 ft / 600 ft/min = 10.5 minutes

7. Plan for Gear and Flap Extension:

– Segment with Gear and Flaps Extended:
– Speed: 90 kt (equals 1.5 NM/min)
– Segment Length: From CHEVL to MAPT (6 NM)
– Time: 6 NM / 1.5 NM/min = 4 minutes

– Remaining Descent:
– Time: 10.5 min - 4 min = 6.5 minutes
– Speed: 120 kt (equals 2 NM/min)
– Distance Covered: 6.5 min × 2 NM/min = 13 NM

8. Total Distance Required:

– Total Distance: 6 NM (with gear down) + 13 NM (without gear) ≈ 19 NM
– vailable Distance: 20 NM

9. Top of Descent (TOD)

If we proceed from 11000ft, we will start the descent at 600ft/minute 19nm before the
mapt: 1nm after PLAGE

10 Compliance with Minimum Altitudes:

10.
Perform a rough mental calculation, remember that we will be flying, so calculations
will be approximated.
– At ALGIE (2.4 NM from PLAGE):
– Time to ALGIE: 2.4 NM / 2 NM/min ≈ 1.25 minutes
– Descent in Time: 600 ft/min × 1.25 min ≈ 750 ft
– Altitude at ALGIE: 11,000 ft - 660 ft ≈ 10,250 ft
– At HAKKR (5.5 NM from PLAGE):
– Time to HAKKR: 5.5 NM / 2 NM/min = 3 minutes (a bit less than)
– Descent in Time: 600 ft/min × ≈3 min ≈ 1,700 ft
APPROACH

– Altitude at HAKKR: 11,000 ft - 1,700 ft ≈ 9,300 ft

– Conclusion: Above minimum altitudes.

11. Monitoring and Adjustments:

11
– Monitor altitudes continuously.
– Adjust descent rates as necessary to stay above minimums.

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Descent Calculation Without DME Distance

(Using a Reversal Procedure)
In approaches without Distance Measuring Equipment
(DME), a reversal procedure is used by flying over a radio
aid located at the MAPT. This involves timed outbound and
inbound legs to estimate distances and plan the descent.

This situation is extremely rare, as ground-based 2D arrivals

without distance indications are becoming less common
with the advancement of satellite technology.

Example Scenario:
– Initial Altitude: 10,000 ft
– Target Altitude: 6,000 ft at MAPT
– Altitude to Descend: 4,000 ft
– Descent Rate: 500 ft/min
– Time to Descend: 2,000 ft / 500 ft/min = 4 minutes
– Minimum altitude before inbound: 4,900 ft

Procedure Steps:
1. Flight Plan:
– Outbound Leg: Fly outbound for 2 minutes.
– Turn: Execute a 180-degree turn at a standard rate of 3 degrees per second
– Time to Turn: 180 degrees / 3 degrees/sec = 60 seconds
– Inbound Leg: Fly inbound for 2 minutes
– Total Procedure Time: 2 min (outbound) + 1 min (turn) + 2 min (inbound) = 5 mins

2. Determine When to Start Descent:

– Total Time Available in the procedure: 5 minutes
APPROACH

– Descent Time Required: 4 minutes

– Start of descent: Begin descent 4 minutes before reaching MAPT

3. Compliance with Minimum Altitudes:

Perform a rough mental calculation to ensure compliance with minimum altitudes.
Remember that calculations will be approximate since they are done in-flight.
– Start of Descent: 2 minutes before completing the turn.
– Altitude when inbound: 2 minutes * 500 ft/minute = 1,000 ft
– Altitude at Inbound: 6,000 ft - 1,000 ft = 5,000 ft

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– Minimum altitude before starting the inbound = 4,900 ft, our altitude will be
5,000 ft
– Conclusion: Above minimums

4. Adjusting for Wind:

If wind is present, adjustments must be made to ensure the procedure remains accurate.
– Determine the Reference Time:
Enter the holding pattern and note the time adjustment needed to maintain a
1-minute inbound leg.
Example: If the outbound leg takes 53 seconds due to wind, the reference time is -7
seconds.
– Apply the Reference Time to the Procedure:
For a planned inbound leg of 2 minutes, adjust the outbound time:
– Outbound Time: 2 min - (7 sec * 2) = 1 min 46 sec.
– Inbound Leg: Remains 2 minutes as planned.
– Recalculate Start of Descent:
– Total procedure time: 2 min (inbound) + 1 min (turn) + 1 min 46 sec (outbound)
= 4 min 46 sec.
– Start descent 4 minutes before completing the procedure.
– Start descent: 46 seconds after beginning the procedure.

2 minutes

1 minute
2 min
utes

SPEED MANAGEMENT
Define target speeds for each section of the approach based
on expected airport traffic, weather conditions, and the
selected configuration.

ERROR HANDLING
Have a contingency plan if systems fail mid-approach,
particularly with RNAV procedures.

BUILD
APPROACH

When flying an FMS-equipped aircraft, you will need to

configure the approach in the FMS. This typically involves
accessing the FMS procedures menu and selecting the
desired procedure from the list of approaches available in
the navigation database.
If you are not flying an FMS-equipped aircraft, you can
skip this step and proceed directly to tuning the navigation
equipment and conducting the approach briefing.

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The following procedure applies to all types of approaches,

whether conventional or RNAV. Here’s a guide on how to
set up the approach in the FMS:

1. Open the FMS main menu and navigate to the Procedures

page. Depending on the aircraft, you may access this page by
selecting the destination airport directly from the flight plan
page, but the process may vary depending on the system.

2. Choose the destination airport and select the expected

landing runway based on current conditions, ATIS
information, or ATC instructions.

Our destination airport is KSLC and we expect to land on

the runway 34R.
APPROACH

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3. A list of available Approach procedures will appear.

Select the appropriate approach procedure. We expect to
perform the ILS to the runway 34R.

4. Depending on where you plan to begin the approach,

choose the transition, which will be named after the
waypoint where our procedure begins.

Alternatively, you can select Vectors to Final: Selecting Vectors

to Final will remove all waypoints before the Final Approach
Fix (FAF) or Final Approach Point (FAP) and create an extended
centerline that the system will aim to capture. Activate Vectors
to Final if you expect to be vectored to the FAF.

We will proceed via FFU, so that is our transition.

APPROACH

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5. After selecting the procedure, press “LOAD”. The flight plan

will automatically update to include the approach waypoints.

You have two options:

a. Load: This adds the approach to your flight plan but does
not immediately activate it, allowing you to continue navigating
the current route until reaching the approach transition.
Discontinuity: After loading the approach, a discontinuity
may appear between the last point on the route and the
transition point of the approach. Delete the discontinuity and
ensure the flight plan allows you to fly directly to the initial
point of the approach after the last waypoint in the arrival.
b. Activate: This makes the approach active, deletes all
waypoints before the approach, and directs the aircraft
toward the selected transition or Initial Approach Fix (IAF).

6. Review: Verify the arrival waypoints, speed, and altitude

restrictions against the approach chart to ensure everything
is correct and matches the procedure.
APPROACH

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BUG
This step involves tuning the navigation aid frequencies and
setting the decision height or minimum descent height. The
exact process depends on the specific procedure.

a. Conventional Approach:
– Analog Aircraft Without FMS: If flying in a fully analog
aircraft without an FMS and using a radio aid for en-route
navigation, pre-tune the approach frequency in standby.
You won’t be able to activate the approach frequencies
or courses until you are ready to begin the procedure, as
the navigation equipment is in use for the arrival phase.
Once transitioning to the approach, tune the navigation aid
frequencies as required for the procedure.
– Aircraft With FMS and GPS Guidance: If flying with an
FMS and GPS guidance, you can tune the navigation aid
frequencies for the approach while still navigating the arrival
phase, as GPS provides accurate routing throughout the flight.

b. RNAV Approaches:
For RNAV approaches, load the procedure into the FMS
and verify that the channel is correct. Although no radio
aids are required to fly RNAV approaches, it is essential
to tune the frequencies of nearby radio aids (such as VOR
or ILS) as a backup. This ensures that, in the event of GPS
system failure, you can still navigate using conventional
instruments. For LNAV/VNAV approaches, verify GPS
availability at the time of the approach by performing a
RAIM check to ensure reliability.

c. Final Preparations:
– Set the Minimum Altitude: In a glass cockpit, this can
be done in the FMS or PFD. In an analog cockpit, use the
altitude bug on the altimeter to mark the minimum altitude.
– Input the Final Approach Course: If the equipment allows,
input the final approach course in the NAV preview.
Below is the specific aircraft configuration that should be set
just before starting each procedure.
APPROACH

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NAV1 = 109.05 active 116.8 stby

NAV2 = 115.7 active 116.8 stby

CDI needle = 344º

If FMS onboard, source LOC
DME = N1

Minimum = 4425 ft (200 ft)

COM 1 Active 125.7 standby 119.05

COM 2 active 121.5 standby 123.0

NAV1 113.85 active 113.85 stby

NAV2 113.85 active 113.85 stby

CDI needle = 208º (for reversal)

If FMS onboard, source VOR

APPROACH

Minimum = 5300 ft (556 ft)

COM 1 Active 118.5 standby 121.7

COM 2 active 121.5 standby 123.0

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NAV1 108.8 active 113.85 stby

NAV2 108.8 active 113.85 stby
ADF = 220

DME = N1

Minimum = 8040 ft (2720 ft)

COM 1 Active 125.6 standby 121.7

COM 2 active 121.5 standby 123.0

NAV1 = 116.8 active 109.5 stby

NAV2 = 115.7 active 116.8 stby
ADF =

OBS = 344º
HSI source GPS
DME = N1

Minimum = 4422 ft (200 ft) If flying LPV

4735 ft (513 ft) if flying LNAV/VNAV
APPROACH

Channel = CH49230 checked

If flying LNAV/VNAV: RAIM checked

COM 1 Active 125.7 standby 119.05

COM 2 active 121.5 standby 123.0

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Briefing
Conduct a briefing that covers the essential elements:
procedure, radio aids, courses, altitudes, configuration,
target speeds, missed approach procedures, runway exit,
and taxi plan.

For a standard flight, this briefing should be conducted

during the en route phase and include details on the full
arrival, approach, and taxi procedures. If training with
repeated approaches and go-arounds, focus solely on the
approach specifics: review the chart, set the frequencies,
confirm the route, and establish the minimums.

Make the briefing clear and engaging by connecting each

point to its purpose. This ensures everyone understands
the importance of each step and avoids a monotonous
delivery. A well-structured briefing reinforces awareness and
readiness for each phase of the approach.

ILS 34R Approach Brief:

We’ll fly the ILS/LOC 34R into KSLC. Looking at chart 11-5 effective 11 Aug. ATIS we
have received and we are talking to Salt Lake City Approach on 125.7. Well expect
tower on 119.05 and Ground frequency will be 123.775. Nav 1 is tuned with the
Localizer frequency of 109.5 and we’ve set the final approach course of 344° in the
Nav Preview. We’ll configure the aircraft to be at flaps 30° with the gear down and at
a speed of approximately 115 kts when passing the FAF of CHEVL at 6,100 ft. From
there we will ride the glideslope down to our DA of 4425’. When the glideslope is
captured you can set the missed approach altitude of 9000 ft. If the field is not in sight
when reaching the DA we will execute the missed approach procedure by pressing
the TOGA button on the PCL, selecting NAV mode and following the command bars
to 9000 ft direct to TCH VOR and outbound on the TCH VOR R-331 to OGD VOR to
hold. MSA for the area is 8600 ft to the North West, 11000 to the North and 12700
all other quadrants. We’ve got Nav 2 tuned with 115.7 for the hold on the missed if
needed. Looks like a tear drop entry. If at any point we break out of the clouds or
if the field is in sight prior to the DA we can call the field insight and continue as a
visual approach. I’ll expect standard calls on altitude and speeds. If either one of
us or if tower prompts a missed approach/go around we will perform the maneuver
APPROACH

immediately. We will plan on crossing the runway numbers at 95 kts and we’ll make
the first available turn off point as speed permits without over using the brakes or
rapidly transitioning the PCL to reverse.

Any questions?

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HANDS ON APPROACH

3. HANDS ON APPROACH
Now that we have discussed what an approach is, the different types available, and the
techniques for flying them, it’s time to put this knowledge into practice. We will explore
the practical aspects of executing approaches, breaking down step-by-step procedures
and best practices.

First and foremost, at any given time, each airport will have an active runway and a
designated direction for landing (sometimes there may be more than one active runway).
All arriving aircraft will be directed to land on this designated runway. With multiple
aircraft arriving simultaneously, air traffic controllers coordinate to sequence everyone in
line, ensuring all aircraft follow the same final route to the runway.

Approaches typically begin at the Initial Approach Fix (IAF). The initial objective is to
transition smoothly from the first point of the approach down to the minimums, setting up
for either a landing or a missed approach.

At large international hubs with multiple active runways, traffic may be directed to
different runways based on factors such as aircraft size or parking assignments. However,
from the pilot’s perspective, this does not alter the approach process. Regardless of the
assigned runway, you will follow the route and approach as instructed by ATC.

Holding
Before starting the approach, there are designated holding points—either at the Initial
Approach Fix (IAF) or along the arrival route—where we can wait if necessary. If there’s
a delay or ATC instructs us to hold, we will perform the published holding patterns at
these points.

APPROACH

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Flying with an Analog Cockpit:

In an analog cockpit, holding is performed manually. We must adjust turns and timing to
account for wind and maintain the correct pattern.

Flying with an FMS-Equipped Cockpit:

With an FMS, holding patterns can be programmed. To do this, select the waypoint
where you need to hold, open the menu, choose “Hold at Waypoint,” and input the
outbound leg and timing. This automates the hold, ensuring consistency and precision.

Pre approach start checks

Right before starting the approach, there are a few considerations, actions and
conditions that must be met:

TRAFFIC CONSIDERATIONS
Be mindful of traffic ahead, around, and behind you in the
approach sequence. Consider the types of aircraft and their
likely approach speeds. Assess whether their proximity
might impact your approach or if your operation could
affect theirs. Adjust your speed if necessary to maintain
safe separation. If this becomes a concern, ATC will likely
provide a speed assignment to ensure proper spacing.

ALTITUDE MANAGEMENT
Ensure you are at an altitude that allows for a controlled
descent to the final approach altitude. You must reach
the required minimum altitude by the missed approach
point (MAP) or be at the glide path capture altitude before
intercepting the glide slope. If a safe descent is not possible,
inform ATC by stating, “Unable to comply with the descent,”
and either follow their instructions or provide an alternative
solution, such as entering a holding pattern or performing a
reversal procedure.

METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
You may commence an instrument approach even if current
weather reports indicate conditions below the published
approach minimums. However, you must ensure that you
APPROACH

can meet the required visibility and establish the necessary

visual references before descending below the decision
altitude or minimum descent altitude.

APPROACH COURSE
When initiating an instrument approach, ensure your
intercept angle to the outbound course or final approach
course does not exceed 30 degrees.

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CLEARANCE
As we approach KSLC, we’ll need a clearance from ATC
specifying the approach type and runway. For our flight,
we’re expecting to hear: “Cleared for the ILS 34R.” Until
we receive this specific clearance, we are not authorized
to begin the approach. Along the way, ATC may provide
additional instructions—such as vectors to intercept the
localizer or altitude adjustments—to guide us in real-time
toward the approach. These instructions, often issued due
to traffic or other situational needs, are not the clearance
to begin the approach. The key confirmation is hearing,
“HTF28A, Cleared for the ILS 34R.” Once we receive the
clearance, we’ll respond: “Cleared for the ILS 34R, HTF28A”
along with any accompanying vector or altitude commands.
This ensures ATC knows we are ready and cleared to
proceed as instructed.

ACTIVATING THE APPROACH

In an FMS-equipped aircraft, the approach is typically
loaded during the FMS setup but not activated until
clearance to start the approach is received. Once cleared,
activate the approach phase in the FMS.

APPROACH

Before activating, ensure the next waypoint in the route is

the actual beginning of the approach—typically the Initial

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Approach Fix (IAF). Activating the approach will delete

all waypoints before the IAF from the route, so this step is
crucial to avoid unintended changes to the flight plan.

FLIGHT MODES
If flying an autopilot-equipped aircraft, the approach can
be flown in a variety of modes, ranging from semi-manual
(using HDG mode and vertical speeds) to fully automated
(NAV, VNAV, or APP modes). The recommended practice is
to use as much automation as possible. To achieve this, we
will activate the APP mode.

The APP mode allows the autopilot to follow both glide

path and final lateral navigation, offering greater precision
than the NAV mode. As a general rule, select the APP mode
when you are about to capture, or upon capturing, the final
approach course.

It is important to distinguish activating the APP mode on the

autopilot panel from activating the approach phase in the
FMS. These are separate actions with distinct purposes.

COMMUNICATIONS
Air Traffic Control (ATC) will typically clear us for the
procedure by saying: “Cleared for the ILS runway 34R.”

They might also provide altitude instructions, requesting

that we maintain certain altitudes to properly intercept the
glide slope: “Cleared to descend and maintain 9,000 ft until
established. Cleared for the ILS 34R.” (Note: We must still
comply with published minimum altitudes for the procedure.)

ATC may ask us to report once we are established on the

localizer: “Report established on the localizer.”

Alternatively, they might request confirmation once

established on both the localizer and the glide slope:
“Report established on the ILS.”
APPROACH

They could also ask us to report specific distances or

waypoints: “Report over FFU.” “Report 8 NM on final.”

Additionally, ATC might request that we inform them once

descending below a specified altitude: “Report leaving
9,000 ft.”

Finally, to ensure proper separation from other traffic, they may

issue speed restrictions: “Maintain 120 kt until 4 NM on final.”

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A. INITIAL AND INTERMEDIATE SEGMENT

This section outlines the procedures from the Initial Approach Segment through the
Intermediate Segment, leading to the Final Approach Segment.

The approach begins at the Initial Approach Fix (IAF). Once over the IAF, ATC typically
stops providing instructions, allowing us to follow the approach chart and manage
altitude independently.

Initial Approach Segment:

This segment starts at the IAF and ends at the Intermediate Fix (IF). Its purpose is to
transition the aircraft from the arrival phase to alignment with the final approach.

Intermediate Segment:
Beginning at the IF and ending at the Final Approach Fix (FAF) or Final Approach Point
(FAP), this segment focuses on fine-tuning alignment, speed, and the descent profile. It
also prepares the aircraft for the final descent, including configuring flaps and landing gear.

Regardless of the type of approach being performed, all approaches include the Initial
and Intermediate Segments. This applies to conventional approaches such as VOR,
NDB, ILS, or LOC, as well as to RNAV approaches like LPV, LP, LNAV/VNAV, and LNAV.

HORIZONTAL PROFILE
During the approach, there are two main scenarios for aligning with the final
APPROACH

approach course:
a. Straight-In Approach: the approach begins already aligned with the final course.
b. Maneuvering Approach: the approach begins from an opposite direction or at a
significant angle to the final approach course. The procedure guides the aircraft through
a series of turns and maneuvers to gradually align with the final course.

Straight-In Approach
The simplest approach option is a straight-in approach, where we maintain a constant
heading directly aligned with the final approach course. This method requires no

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heading adjustments or additional course changes, providing a direct flight path toward
the runway. Straight-in approaches are available for both RNAV and conventional
procedures, whether they are 2D or 3D approaches.

As soon as we pass the Initial Approach Fix (IAF), we will follow a straight path to the
runway, setting the CDI needle to the final approach course and keeping it centered
throughout the approach to ensure proper alignment.

If flying an NDB approach, monitor the ADF arrow and ensure it remains aligned with
the final approach course throughout the approach.

CONVENTIONAL PROCEDURE
Set up
Analog Cockpit
1. Ensure the frequencies are correctly set in the
corresponding equipment, and the final approach course is
set in the CDI:
– ILS, LOC, and VOR procedures: Select the frequency in
the NAV equipment.
– NDB procedures: Select the frequency in the ADF
equipment.
2. Confirm the DME is in the correct position (likely NAV1).
3. Set the final approach course on the CDI.

Analog Cockpit with FMS

1. Ensure the frequencies are correctly set.
APPROACH

2. Load the approach procedure and activate the approach

phase in the FMS.
3. Set the HSI instrument to VLOC mode with the final
approach course correctly entered.

Glass Cockpit with Autopilot

1. Verify that the frequencies are correctly set.
2. Load the approach procedure and activate the approach
phase in the FMS.

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3. Set the HSI instrument to VLOC mode.

4. Set the flight mode to APP (Approach) either just before
intercepting or upon intercepting the final approach course.
Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) Displays:
– LOC: Green (Localizer active).
– ALT: Green (if leveled).
– GS: Armed (Glideslope).

Flying the approach

Manual ILS Straight-In Procedure
At the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) PLAGE, our altitude should
be 11,000 ft. All systems must be properly set up:
– The procedure is loaded in the FMS (if FMS-equipped).
– The approach phase is activated.
– The frequency 109.5 is set in NAV1.
– The HSI course is set to 344º.
– The CDI is centered, with the source set to VLOC.

As we approach PLAGE, indicated by a DME distance of

20.2 to ISLC (the ILS), we will begin the descent at 655 ft/
min at 120 kt or slightly less. We maintain a heading of
344º. The goal is to reach CHEVL at 6,100 ft slightly ahead
of the FAF.

We monitor our progress over the following waypoints:

– ALGIE (DME 17.8 ISLC) at or above 10,000 ft.
– HAKKR (DME 14.7 ISLC) at or above 9,000 ft.

Maintain the CDI centered and continue with the approach

until nearing CHEVL, which marks the start of the final
approach segment.

Automated ILS Straight-In Procedure

At the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) PLAGE, the altitude should
be 11,000 ft, and all systems must be properly set up:
– The procedure is loaded in the FMS.
– The approach phase is activated in the FMS.
– The frequency 109.5 is set in NAV1.
APPROACH

– The HSI course is set to 344º.

– The CDI is centered, with the source set to VLOC.

Once over PLAGE—or just before it—activate APP mode on

the autopilot panel. This will allow the autopilot to follow
the localizer and maintain the CDI centered. The Flight
Mode Annunciator (FMA) will then display:
– A green LOC (Localizer).
– A green ALT (Altitude Hold).
– A white GS (Glideslope Armed).

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As we approach PLAGE, indicated by a DME distance of 20.2

to ISLC (the ILS), begin the descent at 655 ft/min at 120 kt (or
slightly less), aiming to reach CHEVL at 6,100 ft slightly ahead
of the FAF. Monitor your progress over the following waypoints:
– ALGIE (DME 17.8 ISLC) at or above 10,000 ft.
– HAKKR (DME 14.7 ISLC) at or above 9,000 ft.

Vertical Management:
At PLAGE, the altitude selector should be set to 11,000 ft,
and ALT mode will appear green on the FMA. To perform a
descent using Vertical Speed (VS):
1. Set the altitude selector to the next altitude (10,000 ft at
ALGIE).
2. Select a VS of 655 ft/min, which will cause the FMA to
display a green VS and initiate the descent at 655 ft/min.

Alternatively, you can use FLC mode to manage the descent,

or take advantage of VNAV mode with GPS capabilities,
waiting until just before the final approach segment to
activate ILS mode. However, the recommended method is to
use either VS mode or FLC mode for this descent.
RNAV
Set up
Analog Cockpit
RNAV procedures in a fully analog cockpit are not possible.

Analog Cockpit with FMS

1. Ensure the procedure is loaded in the FMS.
2. Activate the approach phase in the FMS.
3. Set the HSI instrument to GPS mode.

Glass Cockpit with Autopilot

1. Load the approach procedure in the FMS.
2. Activate the approach phase in the FMS.
3. Set the HSI instrument to GPS mode.
4. Set the autopilot mode to APP (Approach) either just
before intercepting or upon intercepting the final approach
APPROACH

course. Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) Displays:

– FMS: Green (FMS active).
– ALT: Green (if leveled).
– GP: Armed (Glidepath).

Flying the approach

Manual RNAV Straight-In Procedure
At the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) PLAGE, the altitude should
be 11,000 ft, and all systems must be properly set up:
– The procedure is loaded in the FMS.

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– The approach phase is activated in the FMS.

– The HSI course is set to 344º.
– The CDI is centered, with the source set to GPS.
As we approach PLAGE, based on our calculations, we will
begin the descent at 655 ft/min, at 120 kt (or slightly less). The
goal is to reach CHEVL at 6,100 ft, slightly ahead of the FAF.

Monitor your progress over the following waypoints:

– ALGIE at or above 10,000 ft.
– HAKKR at or above 9,000 ft.

The waypoint you are currently flying over will be displayed

in the FMS. Maintain the CDI centered and continue with
the approach until nearing CHEVL, which marks the start of
the final approach segment.

Automated RNAV Straight-In Procedure

At the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) PLAGE, the altitude should
be 11,000 ft, and all systems must be properly set up:
– The procedure is loaded in the FMS.
– The approach phase is activated in the FMS.
– The HSI course is set to 344º.
– The CDI is centered, with the source set to GPS.

Once over PLAGE—or just before it—activate APP mode on

the autopilot panel. This will allow the autopilot to follow
the lateral guidance and maintain the CDI centered. The
Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) will then display:
– A green FMS (or NAV or GPS, depending on the
manufacturer).
– A green ALT (Altitude Hold).
– A white GP (Glidepath Armed).

Vertical Management:
At PLAGE, the altitude selector should be set to 11,000 ft,
and ALT mode will appear green on the FMA. To perform a
descent using Vertical Navigation (VNAV):
1. Set the altitude selector to the lowest altitude (6,100 ft).
APPROACH

2. Select VNAV, which will cause the FMA to display a green

VNAV and initiate a 3º descent maintaining the minimum
altitudes along the approach.
Alternatively, you can use FLC mode or VS mode to manage
the descent. The recommended method is to use VNAV
mode, which fully utilizes the GPS capabilities of the system.

Monitor your descent over the following waypoints:

– ALGIE at or above 10,000 ft.
– HAKKR at or above 9,000 ft.

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Maneuvering Approach
In certain situations, aircraft may approach from an opposite direction or at an angle
that significantly deviates from the designated final approach course. In these cases,
the approach procedure guides us through a series of turns and maneuvers to gradually
align with the final course. This method ensures that when we enter the Final Approach
Segment, we are properly aligned with the runway, at the correct altitude, and ready to
proceed with the descent for landing.

Such scenarios increase the complexity of the approach process, not only due to the
required maneuvers but also because of the differences between traditional procedures
and RNAV approaches. While RNAV provides a streamlined method for navigation, the
procedures differ considerably from conventional approaches. Pilots must be proficient
in executing both types of approaches to ensure safe and reliable operations.

CONVENTIONAL
The maneuvering or reversal procedure in conventional
approaches, such as ILS, LOC, VOR, or NDB, offers various
options. Procedure designers for each airport select the
option that best suits the airport’s layout, terrain, and
operational conditions, adjusting distances as needed to
accommodate these factors.

In many cases, the approach will include a maximum

allowable outbound distance. This means that aircraft must not
fly beyond the defined distance during the maneuvering phase.

Approach set up
APPROACH

Analog Cockpit
1. Ensure the frequencies are correctly set in the corresponding
equipment, and the outbound course is set in the CDI needle:
– ILS, LOC, and VOR procedures: Select the frequency in
the NAV equipment.
– NDB procedures: Select the frequency in the ADF
equipment.
2. Set the DME to the correct position (likely NAV1).

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Analog Cockpit with FMS

1. Ensure the frequencies are correctly set in the
corresponding equipment, and the outbound course is set in
the CDI needle:
2. Load the approach procedure into the FMS.
3. Activate the approach phase in the FMS.
4. Set the EHSI instrument source to either VLOC or GPS mode.

Glass Cockpit with Autopilot

1. Ensure the frequencies are correctly set in the
corresponding equipment, and the outbound course is set in
the CDI needle:
2. Load the approach procedure into the FMS.
3. Activate the approach phase in the FMS.
4. Depending on the guidance for the reversal maneuver:
– Set the EHSI instrument source to either VLOC or GPS
mode.
– Set the flight mode to HDG mode or NAV (FMS).

Flying the reversal

The reversal procedure begins over a ground-based
navigation aid, which serves as the Initial Approach Fix
(IAF). We will fly directly toward this ground aid, with
the instruments pointing to it. Once we pass directly over
the ground aid, the instruments will show that the ground
station, previously ahead of us, is now behind us. This is
the clear indication that we have flown over the station and
officially started the approach procedure.

Base turn
1. Initial Turn:
After reaching the Initial Approach Fix (IAF), select the
outbound course on the course selector. This course will
typically involve a turn of 10º to 30º away from the final
approach course. If using an arrow instrument, set the arrow
to the desired course.
2. Teardrop Segment:
Fly the outbound path for the designated distance or time:
APPROACH

– If limited by time, follow these guidelines:

– A 30º turn is flown for 1 minute.
– A 20º turn is flown for 2 minutes.
– A 10º turn is flown for 3 minutes.
– If limited by DME distance, fly until reaching the
defined distance.
3. Inbound Turn:
After completing the outbound segment, turn back toward
the final approach course.

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During the turn:

– Select the inbound course on the course selector.
– Monitor the CDI and wait for it to start moving. Perform
the callout: “CDI alive” when movement begins and “CDI
captured” when the CDI centers.
– Align yourself with the final approach segment.

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45º-135º
Initial Outbound Flight:
1. After reaching the Initial Approach Fix (IAF), select the
outbound course on the course selector.
2. If using an arrow instrument, set the arrow to the
desired course.
3. Fly on a heading directly opposite to the final approach
course, as indicated by the procedure.
4. Maintain this outbound heading for the specified time
or distance, as detailed on the approach chart. This is
typically between 1 to 3 minutes or until reaching a defined
DME distance.

First Turn (45 Degrees):

1. After completing the outbound leg, make a 45-degree
turn to the right or left, as specified on the approach chart.
2. Unless otherwise indicated:
– Fly on this course for 1 minute for Category A and B
aircraft.
– Fly for 1:15 minutes for Category C, D, and E aircraft.
3. Apply wind correction angles or adjust timing based on
APPROACH

the day’s weather conditions.

Second Turn (180 Degrees):

1. After finishing the first segment, execute a 135-degree
turn to intercept the final approach course.
2. During this turn:
– Select the inbound course on the course selector.
– Monitor the CDI and wait for it to begin moving.
Perform the callout:
– “CDI alive” when movement begins.

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– “CDI captured” when the CDI centers.

3. Align the aircraft with the final approach segment.
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36

81

1 to3 3minutes
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80º-260º
Initial Outbound Flight:
1. After reaching the Initial Approach Fix (IAF), select the
outbound course on the course selector.
– If flying with an arrow instrument, place the arrow at the
desired course.
2. Start by flying on a heading directly opposite to the final
approach course, as specified in the procedure.
3. Maintain this outbound heading for the designated time
or distance, as indicated on the approach chart. This is
typically between 1 to 3 minutes or until reaching the
specified distance.

First Turn (90 Degrees):

1. After completing the outbound segment, make an
80-degree turn in the direction indicated on the chart.
Second Turn (260 Degrees):
1. Immediately after the 80-degree turn, make a 260-degree
turn to the opposite side to intercept and align with the final
approach course.
2. During the turn:
– Select the inbound course on the course selector.
– Monitor the CDI and wait for it to begin moving.
Perform the callout:
– “CDI alive” when movement begins.
APPROACH

1 to 3 minutes or DME distance

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– “CDI captured” when the CDI centers.

3. Align the aircraft with the final approach segment.

Racetrack
The racetrack is a type of reversal procedure used to align
the aircraft with the final approach course. When entering
the racetrack pattern, if you’re not arriving from the direct
entry sector, you must first perform the appropriate entry,
similar to entering a holding pattern.
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APPROACH

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t eardro p entry
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ra ce tra c k

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This involves executing a teardrop or parallel entry, depending

on your position relative to the inbound track. Once the entry
is complete, proceed with the racetrack pattern.
Initial 180° Turn:
– Starting from the inbound track—typically over a
navigation aid or fix—you perform a 180° turn to
transition onto the outbound leg.
– Fly the outbound leg straight for a specified time (usually
1, 2, or 3 minutes) or until reaching a designated outbound
distance, as defined by the procedure.
Second 180° Turn:
– After completing the outbound leg, perform another
180° turn in the same direction as the first.
– This turn brings the aircraft back toward the inbound
track and re-intercepts the inbound course, aligning the
aircraft with the final approach path.

Starting the Reversal Procedure

To directly start the reversal procedure, the aircraft
must be arriving on a course that is within ±30º of the
outbound course.

If the aircraft is not arriving from within this sector, it will

be necessary to perform an entry into the holding pattern.
This holding entry will position the aircraft within the ±30º
sector, allowing the reversal procedure to begin correctly.

Reversal procedures often include a holding pattern constructed

at the Initial Approach Fix (IAF). This holding pattern facilitates
proper entry and redirection to ensure alignment with the
outbound course before starting the approach.

APPROACH

Reversal followed by ILS

ILS indications are usable only on the final approach
course and cannot be used for reversal procedures. In
some scenarios, you may need to perform a course reversal
using a VOR before transitioning to the ILS indications.
When this occurs, there are two options for managing your
navigation instruments:

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Option 1:
1. Set the VOR frequency in NAV2 and the ILS frequency
in NAV1.
2. Use the instrument linked to NAV2 to fly the reversal.
3. Once aligned with the final approach, switch your
attention to the instrument linked to NAV1, and continue
the approach using the ILS indications displayed on the
NAV1-linked instrument.
Option 2:
1. Use NAV1 for the VOR during the arrival phase.
2. As you transition to the final approach, retune NAV1 to
the ILS frequency and follow the ILS indications.
3. In this setup, NAV2 remains tuned to the VOR throughout
the entire approach.
Once on the final approach course:
– The localizer will move to the center, indicating
alignment with the runway centerline.
– Continue flying the final approach course and monitor
the glide slope (GS).
– When the GS begins descending, capture it and initiate
the final descent.
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Flight Modes
When flying the procedure with the FMS, we follow the
same route, but the autopilot and the route programmed
in the FMS assist us in the process. There are two primary
methods for performing this:
APPROACH

Method 1: Using HDG Mode

1. Set the CDI to VLOC mode:
– This uses the autopilot to follow conventional navigation
aids without GPS assistance.
– Treat the CDI as a normal VOR instrument.
2. Select the outbound course:
– Use the HDG selector to manually set the heading
required to maintain the desired course.
3. Monitor navigation:
– Use DME or timing to manually manage the procedure.

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– Observe the map to ensure you are flying along the

expected path.
This method relies on conventional radio aids rather than
GPS capabilities.

Method 2: Using NAV Mode

1. Program the procedure in the FMS: introduce the full
procedure, including the turns and waypoints.
2. Set CDI to GPS mode:
– Select NAV mode on the autopilot.
– The flight directors or autopilot will guide the aircraft
through the procedure, initiating turns at the appropriate
points as indicated by the FMS.
3. Monitor progress:
– Ensure the autopilot is executing the procedure correctly
and confirm alignment with the final approach course.

Final Transition:
Once aligned with the final approach course:
1. Switch the CDI source from GPS to VLOC.
2. Activate APP mode on the autopilot:
This allows the autopilot to capture the ILS localizer and
glide slope.

Note: Activating APP mode as the flight mode is not the

same as activating the approach phase on the FMS.

Avoiding the Reversal

In some cases, it is not necessary to fly the reversal
procedure or racetrack pattern to initiate the approach.
A straight-in approach can be performed if the aircraft is
arriving on a course within 30° of the final approach course,
allowing for a more direct path to the runway. However, if
the approach chart specifies that the racetrack or reversal is
mandatory, it must be flown as indicated.

In many situations, even if arriving from outside the 30°

sector, ATC may vector you into the 30° sector, enabling you
APPROACH

to perform a straight-in approach.

Important considerations: Altitude Management.

– Reversal procedures are often used as altitude loss
procedures.
– In such cases, completing the racetrack is required to
ensure the aircraft is at the correct altitude for the final
approach segment.

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Communications
In these types of approaches, ATC will typically communicate
by saying: “Cleared for the VOR runway…” A common
part of the communication involves determining whether to
perform the full procedure or a straight-in approach.
ATC may ask: “Do you request the full procedure?” In
response, you can state your preference, either confirming
the full procedure or requesting a straight-in approach.

Once the approach begins, ATC may request: “Report

established on the localizer.” This report serves to confirm the
exact moment you are flying inbound, ensures that you are
performing the procedure correctly, and provides ATC with
an accurate estimate of your time of arrival for landing. ATC
may also ask for additional information, such as your current
distance or request that you report when reaching a specific
distance or waypoint from the runway threshold. Additionally,
it is common for ATC to ask you to “Report on final.”

RNAV
RNAV maneuvering approaches differ significantly from
conventional approaches due to their flexibility in positioning
waypoints, making them generally more straightforward.
These approaches, known as Terminal Arrival Areas (TAA),
often allow us to initiate the approach without performing a
procedure turn. The TAA is designed to align the aircraft with
the extended centerline of the intended landing runway.

This procedure is typically constructed in the shape of a T,

APPROACH

Y, L, or I and includes the same key fixes as other types of

approaches: the Initial Approach Fix (IAF), Intermediate Fix
(IF), and Final Approach Fix (FAF).

Since RNAV approaches rely on waypoints defined by

precise coordinates, the procedure is executed using a Flight
Management System (FMS) rather than conventional radio
navigation equipment. The FMS is configured to load the
approach and guide the aircraft along the prescribed route.

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I AF IA F

I AF IA F
36

36
81

81
FAF/P IF FAF/P IF

I AF IA F

Approach set up
The FMS creates a course along the sequence of waypoints
within the Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). To fly these
procedures, the HSI must be set to GPS mode, allowing the
FMS to drive the HSI and display the lateral deviation to the
FMS-defined course.
First, load the procedure into the FMS and activate the
approach phase. When selecting the transition point, choose
the IAF corresponding to your arrival direction, as multiple
IAFs may be available to initiate the approach.

Flying the TAA

Analog Cockpit
In an analog cockpit, RNAV procedures without an FMS are
not possible.

Analog Cockpit mith FMS

The FMS creates a route by joining the chosen waypoints
and provides lateral deviation guidance for the procedure.
As you fly over each waypoint, the HSI shifts to show the
lateral deviation to the next leg of the procedure. Adjust
your heading and course accordingly to stay aligned with
the route.
APPROACH

Analog Cockpit with autopilot

The FMS will create a route connecting the selected
waypoints, provide lateral deviation information, and
display the aircraft’s position on the moving map for better
situational awareness.

For the autopilot to follow the route, activate NAV mode in

the flight mode selector. The autopilot and flight directors

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will automatically navigate the procedure, transitioning from

one waypoint to the next. While you can fly the procedure
in HDG or TRK mode by manually selecting the heading
or track, it’s wiser to use the NAV mode if the system is
functioning correctly and the procedure is loaded in the FMS.

As you fly over each waypoint, the EHSI updates

automatically to show the lateral deviation for the next leg.
It will also adjust the CDI course needle to indicate the new
course and your lateral distance to it.

Communications
In these types of approaches, ATC will typically communicate
by saying: “Cleared for the RNAV approach runway 34R….”
However, they will not specify whether to fly an LPV or
LNAV/VNAV approach. The procedure to be flown will
depend on the aircraft’s capabilities and the available systems.

Once the approach begins, it is common for ATC to request:

“Report established on final.” This report confirms the exact
moment the aircraft is inbound, ensuring that the procedure
is being flown correctly. It also provides ATC with an
accurate estimate of the time of arrival for landing.

ATC may also ask for:

– Distance Reports: Requesting the aircraft’s current
distance from the threshold or a specific waypoint.
– Waypoint Reports: Instructing the pilot to report when
reaching certain waypoints along the approach.
– Altitude Reports: Requesting a report when leaving
specific altitudes.
– Final Approach Report: Asking the pilot to report once
on the final approach course.

Radar vectored to FAF

In some cases, ATC will bypass the initial and intermediate segments of an approach
and vector the aircraft directly to intercept the Final Approach Course for a straight-in
APPROACH

landing. This practice is intended to expedite operations, reduce air traffic congestion,
and save fuel and flight time.

Interception Angle:
When being vectored to the final approach, the maximum interception angle should not
exceed 90º. This ensures a safe and manageable turn onto the final approach course,
allowing the aircraft to align properly with the runway.

Altitude Management:
1. For 3D approaches, ATC will typically clear the aircraft to descend to the platform

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altitude—the altitude at which the final approach segment begins.

2. In some cases, ATC may permit the aircraft to capture the glide slope from a higher
altitude, depending on traffic and airspace considerations.

This vectoring simplifies the approach process while maintaining safety and efficiency.
Pilots should remain vigilant and ensure compliance with ATC instructions during this
phase of flight. During the final turn toward the inbound leg, it is essential to monitor
the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) closely.

As soon as the CDI starts moving—indicating that you are approaching the final
approach course—you should make the callout:
– “CDI alive”: This confirms that the navigation instruments are actively detecting
the course.
– For ILS procedures, the equivalent callout is “LOC alive”, indicating that the
localizer signal has been captured.
As you continue to align with the final approach course, the CDI will gradually move
toward the center. Once it is fully centered—signifying that the aircraft is properly
aligned with the final approach course—you should then make the callout:
– “CDI captured”: Used for RNAV or VOR approaches.
– “LOC captured”: Used for ILS approaches.
These callouts are critical for ensuring situational awareness, confirming proper
alignment, and communicating to your colleague or crew that the correct course has
been intercepted.

APPROACH

Communications
If we are to be vectored to final, ATC will typically
communicate this during the arrival phase with the instruction:
“Expect vectors to final.” By the end of the arrival, ATC will
provide headings to intercept the final approach course. An
example of such communication might be: “Fly heading XXX
to intercept the localizer. Report established on the localizer.”

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ATC may also provide altitude instructions to ensure proper

glide slope interception: “Cleared to descend to XXXX ft
to capture the glide slope.” Once established, ATC might
ask for additional reports, such as: “Report established on
the glide slope.” or “Report established on the ILS.” (This
confirms the aircraft is aligned with both the glide slope
and the localizer.) These communications ensure proper
alignment with the final approach path and maintain
situational awareness between ATC and the pilot.

Flight Modes
When cleared to fly vectors to final, ATC will provide
heading instructions to guide us to intercept the final
approach course. We will set the CDI course needle to the
final approach course. As we follow the directed heading
from ATC, we monitor the CDI scale. Once the CDI starts
to move, we make the callout “CDI alive” to indicate that
the instrument is detecting the course. At this point, we will
perform the necessary turns to center the CDI, making the
callout “CDI captured” once it is aligned. From there, we
keep the CDI centered to maintain alignment with the final
approach course.

For FMS-equipped aircraft, when vectored to final, we

use the “Vectors to Final” function, typically found on the
procedures page of the FMS. Once cleared to intercept the
final approach course, we activate this feature by pressing
the corresponding button. This action removes all approach
waypoints prior to the FAF (or FAF/P) and displays a direct
line representing the final approach course. This allows us to
capture the course directly.

If the approach is conventional (e.g., ILS or VOR), we source

the CDI to VLOC. For RNAV approaches, we source the
CDI to GPS.

Initially, we will likely be flying using HDG mode, following

ATC’s heading instructions. When ATC provides the final
APPROACH

course to intercept, we select NAV or APP mode, allowing

the flight directors or autopilot to capture and follow the
final approach course automatically.

VERTICAL PROFILE
Once ATC clears us for the approach, we assume full responsibility for managing
the aircraft’s altitude. This clearance means that ATC will no longer provide specific
altitude instructions, and it becomes our task to ensure a descent that aligns with the
prescribed approach path. Our primary goal by the end of the vertical profile for the

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initial and intermediate segments is to descend to the final approach fix (FAF). At this
point, we will either capture the glideslope in a 3D approach or maintain a continuous
descent down to the minimums in a 2D approach.

The vertical profile of an approach requires strict adherence to the minimum altitudes
specified on the approach charts. These minimum altitudes are designed to ensure obstacle
clearance and safe terrain avoidance throughout the approach. While it is mandatory to
avoid descending below these minimums, it is permissible to fly above them if necessary.

2D Approaches - Continuous Descent Approach

In a 2D approach, we should perform a Continuous Descent
Approach (CDA). This method involves starting the descent
along the approach and maintaining a constant rate of
descent all the way to the minimums.

In the absence of vertical guidance, the descent must be

manually calculated and executed. This process involves
determining the distance to be covered during the descent
and initiating the descent at a calculated point.

FAF
FAF
APPROACH

Final esegment
Final segm nt Intermediate
Inte rme di asegment
te s e g me nt

3D Approaches - Step-Down Approach

3D approaches include a final segment where instruments
provide guidance to follow a predefined vertical profile.

To capture this guidance, we begin the descent along the

approach and descend to the platform altitude, where
we level off. At this point, we wait for the glide slope

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indication to center on the instruments before continuing

the descent.

Platform
Pl a tformaltitude
a l ti tude

FAF
FAF

Final segm
Final esegment
nt Inte rme di asegment
Intermediate te s e g me nt

Hands on descent
STRAIGHT IN
If performing a straight-in approach or a procedure without a
course reversal, the vertical profile will typically indicate the
minimum altitudes based on the distance from the runway
threshold. These altitudes are crucial and must be strictly
adhered to in order to ensure a safe descent. Depending
on the approach, there might be a single step or multiple
altitude steps along the way.

In 2D approaches, the goal is to maintain a continuous

descent without leveling off at any point. For 3D approaches,
the goal is to level off at the platform altitude—typically
around around 2 to 4 nautical miles before the Final
Approach Fix (FAF)—to prepare for capturing the glide slope.
This leveling off allows for a precise glide slope capture.
APPROACH

REVERSAL
When performing a reversal maneuver, the vertical profile
plays a role in guiding us through the outbound and inbound
legs of the approach. During the outbound leg, the profile
generally maintains higher altitudes to ensure obstacle
clearance and proper positioning. Once we turn inbound,
we are typically allowed to descend further, preparing for
the final approach.

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We are considered established on the inbound course

once we are within a half-scale deflection on CDI-based
instruments or within ±5º of the final approach course on
arrow-based instruments. At this point, we are cleared to
descend from one altitude step to the next, as indicated on
the approach chart.

RNAV
When performing an RNAV maneuver, we treat the vertical
profile as if flying a straight-in approach. We calculate the
approach distance and begin the descent at the appropriate
point. If minimum altitudes are specified along the
approach, we strictly adhere to them, ensuring compliance
with published restrictions.

Vertical flight modes

When it comes to managing the vertical path during the final descent, there are several
flight modes available in the autopilot, depending on the procedure and approach type.
Below are the key modes and how they are utilized:

VS MODE (VERTICAL SPEED)

1. Select the desired descent altitude using the altitude selector.
2. Press the VS button and then set the desired vertical speed.
APPROACH

3. Key Considerations:
– Monitor horizontal speed closely, as the system will pitch
the aircraft to achieve the selected vertical speed without
accounting for horizontal speed changes.
– The mode annunciator will display VS (green).
– As the aircraft approaches the selected altitude, the
annunciator will change to something resembling ALTS
(altitude capture), indicating proximity to the target altitude.
– Finally, ALT (green) will indicate that the aircraft has
leveled off.

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FLIGHT LEVEL CHANGE (FLC)

1. Select the desired altitude using the altitude selector.
2. Press the FLC button and set the desired horizontal speed.
3. Key Considerations:
– The aircraft will maintain the selected horizontal speed.
– You can reduce power to pitch the aircraft down or select
a speed faster than the current horizontal speed.
– The mode annunciator will display FLC (green).
– As the selected altitude is approached, the annunciator
will show ALTS, followed by ALT (green) to indicate the
aircraft has leveled off.

VPATH OR VNAV MODE

1. Each waypoint in the approach includes a vertical altitude.
2. Select the desired crossing altitude for each waypoint.
3. Select the lowest altitude into the altitude selector, then
press the VPATH or VNAV button.
4. Key Considerations:
– The system will create a default 3º descent path.
– Once the aircraft reaches the Top of Descent (TOD)
calculated by the system, it will begin descending along the
predefined path.
– Adjust power as necessary to maintain the desired
horizontal speed.
APPROACH

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B. FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT

This section covers the procedures from the Final Approach Segment to the Missed
Approach Point.

The Final Approach Segment begins at the Final Approach Fix (FAF) or Final Approach
Point (FAP), often marked by the Maltese cross symbol on charts. This is where the final
descent begins. As we descend down to the minimums, we configure the landing gear
and flaps for landing, obtain the landing clearance and perform the last checklist before
landing. When we reach the minimum altitude, we look outside the window in search
of visual contact with the runway ahead.

HORIZONTAL PROFILE
The horizontal profile in the final approach is straightforward/no turns, just a direct path
toward the runway on the final approach course. Our focus here is on maintaining the
CDI centered, or keeping the ADF arrow aligned with the final approach course.

While staying precisely on track, we will also be managing all other tasks to ensure
we reach the runway threshold in a stable, controlled descent, fully prepared for a
safe landing.

Many times, we won’t see the (FAF) indicator in the horizontal profile, so we will head
to the vertical profile in search for the Maltese cross, that will indicate the (FAF). In our
case, CHEVL will be the FAF.
APPROACH

VERTICAL PROFILE
Vertically, we follow a predetermined descent path that guides us down to the runway.

The descent is typically set at 3 degrees, and they typically are recommended to be between
2.75 to 3.5 degrees, but specific descent angles beyond this range can be authorized.

Be aware that steeper glide angles will cause the aircraft to accelerate more, in these
cases, depending on the aircraft, it will be very important to configure or slow down the
aircraft before reaching the FAF.

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The main difference between the final types of approaches are 2D and 3D approaches.
In 2D approaches we will manually fly the final descent and follow our calculated
descent, descending to certain altitudes along the approach and comparing it with the
distance to the threshold.

In 3D approaches, we will have a visual indication that lets us know where that descent
path is, and we will correct our descent to follow it down to the decision altitude.

3D Approach
In 3D approaches, once the approach instruments are properly configured, the glide
slope provides real-time feedback on our position relative to the ideal glide path,
guiding us down a precise descent to the runway. However, the specific actions
required to achieve this alignment can vary significantly depending on the type of
approach and the cockpit setup. For instance, in analog cockpits, manually tuning
frequencies and selecting approach modes is enough, while in glass cockpits with
advanced automation, the process may involve selecting modes and managing flight
systems via the FMS and autopilot.

Platform altitude
To properly capture the final descent path, we must first reach
a specific altitude known as the platform altitude. At this
altitude, we level off to intercept the glide slope from below.
This is particularly important in ILS approaches, as false glide
slopes, which can lead to incorrect descent paths, exist above
the correct one. Ideally, we should be at the platform altitude
a few miles before the glide slope intercept point.
Once we are leveled at the platform altitude, the arrow on
APPROACH

the glide slope indicator will begin to move downwards,

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showing that we are approaching the correct descent path.

When the arrow centers on the scale, it’s time to begin
our descent, following the glide slope and descending, to
maintain the glide slope indicator in the center of the scale,
as we fly down to the runway.

The platform altitude will be displayed in the charts, but ATC

can ask us to capture the glide slope from a higher altitude
for traffic management purposes.

Types of 3D Approaches
3D approaches can be categorized into conventional and
RNP approaches.

Conventional Approaches:
1. ILS (Instrument Landing System): ILS is a precision
approach system, offering both horizontal (localizer) and
vertical (glide slope) guidance through ground-based
signals. It allows highly accurate descents in a wide range
of weather conditions, making it the primary choice for
precision landings.

RNP Approaches:
1. LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance): LPV
approaches provide vertical guidance similar to ILS but are
based on GPS signals enhanced by augmentation systems
like WAAS or EGNOS. Even though they are not classified as
a precision approach, this system allows for highly accurate
descents similar to ILS installations.
2. LNAV/VNAV (Lateral Navigation/Vertical Navigation):
This type of approach offers both lateral and vertical
guidance, with vertical guidance typically based on GPS
and barometric altitude rather than a glide slope signal.
LNAV/VNAV approaches are considered non precision
approaches, and are less precise than ILS or LPV, but still
provide essential descent guidance.

CONVENTIONAL 3D
APPROACH

The principal system we will be using in a conventional 3D

approach is the ILS. This is a precision approach system,
providing both horizontal (localizer) and vertical (glide
slope) guidance via ground-based signals. The localizer
aligns us with the runway centerline, while the glide slope
helps us maintain a stable descent angle.

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) or marker beacons

indicate key points on the approach, helping to find our

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distance from the runway. This system allows for highly

accurate approaches in various weather conditions, making
it the preferred choice for precision landings.

Displaying the Glide Slope

APPROACH

As we reach platform altitude, we need to ensure the system

is properly configured to display the Glide Slope. The setup
process will vary depending on the type of cockpit.

Analog Cockpit:
After configuring the ILS frequency on the NAV1 equipment,
and once within the ILS range, the Glide Slope (GS) indicator
will appear on the primary instrument linked to NAV1, such
as an HSI or a CDI with GS capability. The localizer will
display on the CDI needle. You should have the Course

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needle matching the final approach course. For instance, on

ILS 34R at KSLC, the correct course is 344º.

Analog Cockpit with FMS:

If the cockpit is equipped with an FMS, the flight plan should
be loaded with the approach waypoints, and the approach
phase must be activated in the FMS. However, it’s still
essential to ensure that the correct ILS frequency is tuned
into the NAV1 frequency selector.

Since, in this case, the primary instrument (HSI) can receive

information from both the NAV equipment (VLOC) and the
FMS (GPS), you must set the HSI source to VLOC mode.
To set the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) source to
VLOC (VOR/Localizer) mode, follow these steps:
1. Locate the NAV/GPS or CDI button on your navigation
equipment.
2. Switch to VLOC Mode: Press the NAV/GPS or CDI button
to toggle between GPS and VLOC modes.
This configuration allows the HSI to display ILS indications.
Finally, make sure the course needle is selected to the correct
final approach course—344º for ILS runway 34R at KSLC.

APPROACH

Glass Cockpit:
In a glass cockpit, ensure the following steps are completed
for an ILS approach:
1. Load the FMS Flight Plan: The flight plan should be loaded
with the approach waypoints, and the approach phase
activated in the FMS.

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2. Tune the ILS Frequency: Verify that the correct ILS

frequency is set in the NAV1 frequency selector.

Since the EHSI can receive input from both the NAV
equipment (VLOC) and the FMS (GPS), set the EHSI source
to VLOC mode to display ILS indications. Follow these steps
to set the EHSI source to VLOC mode:
1. Locate the NAV/GPS or CDI button on your navigation
equipment.
2. Switch to VLOC Mode: Press the NAV/GPS or CDI button
to toggle to VLOC mode. This enables the EHSI to receive
data from the NAV radio for ILS guidance.
3. Once in VLOC mode, ensure that the CDI appears green,
not magenta, as magenta indicates the EHSI is displaying
GPS information instead of ILS.
4. Finally, make sure the course needle is selected to the correct
final approach course—344º for ILS runway 34R at KSLC.

With this configuration, the glide slope and localizer

indications will also appear on the Primary Flight Display
(PFD) for quick visual reference.
APPROACH

Flying the ILS

Manual ILS Procedure:
At the platform altitude of 6100 ft, just before reaching
CHEVL, all systems are set up: the ILS frequency (109.5) is
active on NAV1, the HSI course is set to 344º, and the CDI is
centered. As we approach CHEVL, the glide slope will begin
moving down on the scale. Just before it centers, we reduce
power and start lowering the nose, preparing to follow the
glide slope once centered.

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When both the Localizer and Glide Slope are captured, we

consider ourselves established on the ILS.
During the final descent, we will continuously manage
our descent. The goal is to set a steady power level that
allows for a consistent horizontal and vertical speed. With
experience, you’ll learn the approximate power setting
needed for final approaches on your aircraft, and make fine
adjustments as you descend.

A good reference is to use the power lever in response

to the glide slope indicator. If the glide slope indicator
moves up, increase power. If the glide slope moves down,
decrease power.

As we get closer to the ground, ILS indications become more

precise, so corrections should be smaller.

If the glide slope or localizer shows a deflection of more

than half-scale, the approach should be aborted. This can
happen to even the most experienced pilots, and good
judgment is essential. If deflection occurs at a high altitude
and you can promptly re-intercept the glide slope and
maintain it, consider noting and acknowledging it, but
continue the approach. However, if this occurs close to the
ground and the approach has been unstable, it may be wiser
to execute a go-around.

Automated ILS Procedure

Approaching CHEVL at the platform altitude of 6100 ft, all
systems are set up: the procedure is selected in the FMS,
the ILS frequency (109.5) is active on NAV1, the FMS and
main instrument (HSI) are set to VLOC mode, the HSI course
selector is set to 344º, and the CDI is centered.

Right before, or upon capturing the localizer or final

approach course, we select APP mode in the flight mode
selector (not to be confused with activating the approach
phase in the FMS). This arms the LOC and GS modes,
APPROACH

displaying them in white in the Flight Mode Annunciator,

indicating that once captured, the system will automatically
center them and adjust roll and pitch to keep them aligned.

Laterally, since we are on the final approach course with the

localizer captured, the LOC indication will immediately turn
green after activating the APP mode, showing it’s captured.
Vertically, since we’re leveled at the platform altitude,
the mode will display green ALT with a white (armed)
GS. As we approach the Glide Slope, it will move on the

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vertical scale until captured, as it turns green, allowing the

system to follow it. Before reaching the FAF/P (Glide Slope
capture point), ensure that APP mode is selected so the
flight directors will follow the Glide Slope. Once both the
Localizer and Glide Slope are captured, we are considered
established on the ILS. At this point, the autopilot or flight
directors will make any necessary pitch and roll adjustments
to maintain the Localizer and Glide Slope centered. Our
task is to manage power to maintain a safe horizontal speed
throughout the descent.

As we start the descent, turn the altitude selector to the

altitude of the missed approach procedure, this way, in case
of missed approach, we won’t need to select that altitude
during the missed approach procedure.

Call out
As the localizer starts moving, you should make the callout
“LOC alive.” This confirms that the localizer signal is being
received and that the aircraft is nearing the final approach
course. As the localizer centers on the scale, make the
call out ‘’LOC captured’’, (‘’LOC green’’ if Flight Mode
Annunciator equipped) and turn to maintain it centered.

As you approach the point where you expect to intercept

the glide slope, keep a close eye on the GS indicator. The
moment the glide slope indicator begins to move, signaling
that you are approaching the glide path, you should make
the callout “GS alive.” This confirms that the glide slope
signal is being received and that the aircraft is nearing the
correct descent path.

As you continue on the approach and the glide slope

indicator moves toward the center, it indicates that you are
now perfectly aligned with the glide path. At this point,
you should make the callout “GS captured”, (‘’GS green’’
if Flight Mode Annunciator equipped) to acknowledge
that the aircraft has intercepted the glide slope and is now
APPROACH

descending along the correct vertical path.

RNAV 3D
There are two main types of RNAV approaches offering
vertical guidance—LPV (Localizer Performance with
Vertical Guidance) and LNAV/VNAV (Lateral Navigation/
Vertical Navigation). When planning an approach, we aim to
select the most precise option available, based on what our
training and aircraft capabilities allow us.

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LPV approaches provide ILS-like vertical guidance using

GPS signals enhanced by systems like WAAS or EGNOS.
Although not officially classified as precision approaches,
LPV approaches allow for highly accurate descents,
comparable to those of ILS systems. LNAV/VNAV approaches
also provide lateral and vertical guidance, but they rely on
GPS and barometric altitude for vertical indications. While
LNAV/VNAV is less precise than ILS or LPV, it still offers
valuable descent guidance, supporting a safe, controlled
approach. Together, these options allow for RNAV 3D
approaches, helping us safely fly down the runway.

APPROACH

LPV Approach
Vertical guidance for LPV approaches is provided by GPS
with an augmentation system, such as WAAS or EGNOS.
This guidance makes both lateral and vertical indications

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more sensitive as the aircraft nears the fix, similar to an ILS

approach. The increased precision allows for lower approach
minimums, enhancing approach capability and safety.

With WAAS or EGNOS, a RAIM check is not required, as it

is for LNAV/VNAV procedures.

The illustration shows the deviation for the LPV approach;

the outer lines represent the maximum deflection distance of
the CDI needle on our instrument.

LNAV/VNAV Approach
For LNAV/VNAV approaches, vertical guidance is typically
based on a non-GPS source, such as the barometric
altimeter. The lateral and vertical indications remain
constant throughout the approach, meaning they do not
increase in sensitivity as the aircraft nears the end, unlike an
ILS approach.

Before performing these approaches, it is essential to ensure

sufficient GPS satellite coverage at the time of approach by
performing a RAIM check on the FMS.

The illustration shows the deviation for the LNAV/VNAV

approach; the outer lines indicate the maximum deflection
distance of the CDI needle on our instrument.
APPROACH

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Displaying the Glide Path:

Upon reaching platform altitude, ensure the system is
configured correctly to display the Glide Path. The setup
required to display the Glide Path is the same for both LPV
and LNAV/VNAV approaches, though the process may vary
depending on the cockpit type.

Analog Cockpit:
RNAV approaches are not possible with fully analog
cockpits, as an FMS is required to fly RNAV procedures.

Analog Cockpit with FMS:

If the cockpit is equipped with an FMS, load the flight plan
with the approach procedure and activate the approach
phase in the FMS.
Since the primary instrument (HSI) can receive information
from both the NAV equipment (VLOC) and the FMS (GPS),
set the HSI source to GPS mode by following these steps:
1. Locate the NAV/GPS or CDI button on your navigation
equipment.
2. Press the NAV/GPS or CDI button to toggle between GPS
and VLOC modes, switching to GPS mode.

This configuration enables the HSI to display the

waypoints and vertical paths loaded in the FMS as CDI/
GP indications. The system connects the waypoints, and
it indicates if we are to the left or to the right form the line
connecting the waypoints.

3. Finally, ensure the course needle is set to the correct final

approach course—344º for RNAV Runway 34R at KSLC. The
system defaults to the most precise navigation system, LPV. If
WAAS/EGNOS or its receiver is unavailable, the system will
downgrade to LNAV/VNAV.
APPROACH

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Glass Cockpit
For an RNAV approach in a glass cockpit, ensure the
following steps are completed:
1. Load the FMS Flight Plan: Load the approach waypoints into
the flight plan and activate the approach phase in the FMS.
2. Since the EHSI can receive input from both NAV
equipment (VLOC) and the FMS (GPS), set the EHSI source
to GPS mode to display the waypoints and vertical paths
loaded in the FMS as CDI/GS indications. To set the EHSI to
GPS mode:
Locate the NAV/GPS or CDI button on your navigation
equipment.
Press the NAV/GPS or CDI button to toggle to GPS mode.
3. Verify that the CDI of the EHSI appears magenta. A
green CDI indicates that the EHSI is displaying VOR or LOC
information instead of GPS.
4. Finally, ensure the course needle is set to the correct final
approach course—344º for ILS Runway 34R at KSLC.

With this configuration, lateral and vertical indications will

also appear on the Primary Flight Display (PFD) for quick
visual reference.

The system defaults to the most precise navigation mode,

LPV. If WAAS/EGNOS or its receiver is unavailable, the
system will downgrade to LNAV/VNAV.
APPROACH

Flying the RNAV

Manual RNAV Procedure
At the platform altitude of 6,100 ft, just before reaching
CHEVL, all systems should be set up: the procedure loaded
in the FMS, the HSI course set to 344º, and the CDI centered
with the source set to GPS. As we approach CHEVL, the
glide path will begin descending on the scale. Just before

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it centers, reduce power and lower the nose to prepare to

follow the glide slope when it centers.

Once both the CDI needle and Glide Path are captured,
consider yourself established on the LPV or LNAV/VNAV.

During the final descent, manage your descent rate by

setting a steady power level to achieve consistent horizontal
and vertical speeds. With experience, you’ll know the
approximate power setting needed for final approaches on
your aircraft and can make fine adjustments as you descend.

Use the power lever and control column to respond to the

glide slope indicator: if the glide slope indicator moves up,
increase power and pitch up; if it moves down, decrease
power and pitch down.

As you approach the ground, LPV indications become more

precise, requiring smaller corrections. For LNAV/VNAV,
indications maintain the same precision at lower altitudes,
so be mindful that even a slight deflection on the instrument
could indicate a more significant deviation.

If the glide slope or localizer deflects more than half-scale,

the approach should be aborted. This can happen to even
the most experienced pilots, so good judgment is essential. If
deflection occurs at a higher altitude and you can promptly
re-intercept and maintain the glide slope, acknowledge it and
continue. However, if it occurs closer to the ground or if the
approach is unstable, a go-around may be the safer option.

Automated RNAV Procedure

Approaching CHEVL at the platform altitude of 6,100 ft,
ensure all systems are set up: the procedure is loaded in
the FMS, and both the FMS and EHSI are set to GPS mode,
providing lateral guidance based on the FMS route. The EHSI
course selector is set to 344º, with the CDI centered.
APPROACH

Just before or upon capturing the CDI needle or final

approach course, select APP mode on the flight mode
selector (distinct from activating the approach phase in
the FMS). This arms the lateral and GP (Glide Path) modes,
displaying them in white on the Flight Mode Annunciator,
indicating that once captured, the system will automatically
center and adjust roll and pitch to keep them aligned.

Laterally, since we’re on the final approach course and it’s

captured, the FMS indication will stay green after activating

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APP mode, confirming capture. Vertically, as we level at the

platform altitude, the annunciator will show green ALT with
white (armed) GP. As we approach the Glide Path, it will
move on the vertical scale until captured, turning green and
enabling the system to follow it.

Before reaching the FAF/P (Glide Path capture point), verify

that APP mode is selected so the flight directors can follow
the Glide Path.

Once both the CDI and Glide Path are captured, we’re
considered established on the LPV or LNAV/VNAV. At this
point, the autopilot or flight directors will handle pitch and
roll adjustments to keep the CDI and Glide Path centered.
Your task is to manage power to maintain a safe, steady
descent speed.

As the descent begins, set the altitude selector to the missed

approach altitude so, in the event of a missed approach, the
correct altitude is already selected.

GLIDE SLOPE CHECKPOINT

In 3D approaches, there is a critical checkpoint during
the final approach segment to verify that the aircraft has
captured the correct glide slope. This checkpoint, defined
by a specific distance from the threshold, includes an
associated altitude to ensure proper alignment with the
vertical path.

At this checkpoint, cross-check the actual altitude against

the expected altitude for that distance. If the two match,
it confirms correct alignment with the glide slope. At this
moment, make the standard callout “GS CHECK” to verify
and acknowledge accurate glide slope tracking.

2D Approach
A 2D approach provides us with only lateral guidance, which helps maintain the
correct horizontal path during the final descent. However, unlike 3D approaches,
APPROACH

2D approaches do not offer vertical guidance, meaning that we must calculate and
manually manage the descent profile to ensure that the aircraft reaches the minimums at
the Missed Approach Point (MAP).

Vertical Approaches: In a 2D approach, the vertical profile requires careful

management. We must fly a Continuous Descent Final Approach (CDFA), which
means starting the descent at the calculated point during the approach and maintaining
a consistent rate of descent all the way down to the minimums at the MAP. This
continuous descent helps ensure a smooth and stable approach, reducing the need for
leveling off and reconfiguring the aircraft during the final approach segment.

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Types of 2D Approaches:
There are five main types of 2D approaches, divided into
two categories: conventional and RNP.

Conventional Approaches:
– VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range): Uses VOR stations to
provide lateral guidance, requiring the pilot to track radials.
– NDB (Non-Directional Beacon): This approach relies on
NDB ground-based beacons.
– LOC (Localizer): This approach uses only the lateral
component of an ILS, guiding the aircraft along the extended
runway centerline but without vertical glide slope information.

RNP Approaches:
– LNAV (Lateral Navigation): Provides lateral guidance using
GPS and onboard systems but without vertical guidance.
– LP (Localizer Performance): Similar to LNAV but with more
precise lateral guidance, resembling a LOC approach.

In summary, while 2D approaches require more manual

control and calculation for descent, they remain a vital part
of instrument flying, especially in scenarios where vertical
guidance is unavailable.

Managing the Final Descent in a 2D Approach:

There are two essential methods for managing your final
descent, and both should be performed to ensure accuracy:

Calculate the Final Descent Rate:

As explained in the Initial Approach part, determine the rate
of descent needed to reach the Minimum Descent Altitude
(MDA) at the Missed Approach Point (MAP). This involves
knowing your ground speed and using a simple formula or
reference chart to calculate the required feet-per-minute
descent rate. You must have calculated this before starting
the approach.
APPROACH

Reference the Approach Chart:

Approach charts will provide specific altitude references
based on the distance to the runway threshold. These
altitudes are critical checkpoints that help you verify if you
are on the correct descent path. For example, at a certain
distance from the threshold, the chart might indicate that
you should be at a particular altitude. Cross-referencing your
altitude with these points ensures that your descent is on
track. If your actual altitude differs from the charted altitude,
you may need to adjust your descent rate accordingly.

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By combining these two methods—calculating the descent

rate and cross-referencing with the altitudes on the approach
chart—you can manage your descent effectively. This
dual approach helps ensure that you maintain the proper
descent profile, reach the MDA at the MAP, and are well-
prepared for either landing or executing a missed approach
if necessary.

CONVENTIONAL 2D
There are several types of conventional 2D approaches that
provide lateral guidance—NDB, VOR, and LOC.

– LOC approaches provide highly accurate lateral guidance

similar to an ILS, though without vertical guidance. Using a
ground-based localizer signal, these approaches allow for
precise alignment with the runway centerline. In many cases,
distance information is provided by a DME station, which
helps us monitor distance from the runway and supports
situational awareness during the descent.
– VOR approaches, while slightly less precise than LOC, still
offer reliable lateral guidance by tracking VOR radials and
often include DME distance information.
– NDB approaches, the most basic of these, rely on
signals from a non-directional beacon, requiring careful
interpretation of the aircraft’s position relative to the beacon
for course alignment. In some cases, NDB approaches may
also be paired with DME for distance reference.

All conventional approaches will be flown the same way in

the final approach section:
– VOR indications willl be in the VOR/HSI
– NDB indicaitons will be in the ADF or RMI instrument
– LOC indications will be in the VOR/HSI
The course selector or needle will already be set to the final
approach course. We must maintain it centered, ensuring that
the aircraft stays precisely on the final approach course.

Displaying the indications

APPROACH

Analog Cockpit
1. Ensure the frequencies are correctly set in the
corresponding equipment, and the final approach course is
set in the CDI:
– ILS, LOC, and VOR procedures: Select the frequency in
the NAV equipment.
– NDB procedures: Select the frequency in the ADF
equipment.
2. Confirm the DME is in the correct position (likely NAV1).
3. Set the final approach course on the CDI.

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Analog Cockpit with FMS

1. Ensure the frequencies are correctly set.
2. Load the approach procedure and activate the approach
phase in the FMS.
3. Set the HSI instrument to VLOC mode with the final
approach course correctly entered.

Manual LOC and VOR Procedure

Just before reaching CHEVL, we will be descending with all
systems set up: the ILS frequency (109.5) is active on NAV1,
the HSI course is set to 344º, and the CDI is centered.
When the localizer shows less than half-scale deflection, we
consider ourselves established on it.

APPROACH

During the final descent, we continuously manage our

descent. The goal is to set a steady power level that
allows for consistent horizontal and vertical speeds. With
experience, you will learn the approximate power setting
needed for final approaches on your aircraft and make fine
adjustments as you descend.

If the localizer shows a deflection of more than half-scale,

the approach should be aborted. This can happen to even

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the most experienced pilots, and good judgment is essential.

If deflection occurs at a high altitude and you can promptly
re-intercept the glide slope and maintain it, note and
acknowledge it, but continue the approach. However, if this
occurs close to the ground and the approach is unstable, it is
wiser to execute a go-around.

It is good practice to calculate the altitude you should

maintain for every 1 or 2 nm along the approach and
cross-check it as you fly over each reference point. You
may also have a chart with distances included in the
approach chart for reference. As we get closer to the
ground, instrument indications become more precise, so
corrections should be smaller.

Manual VOR Procedure

Just before reaching the final approach segment, we are
descending with all systems set up: the VOR frequency
(113.85) is active on NAV1, the HSI course is set to 028º, and
the CDI is centered.

When the CDI shows less than half-scale deflection, we

consider ourselves established on the final course.
APPROACH

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During the final descent, we continuously manage our

descent. The goal is to set a steady power level that
allows for consistent horizontal and vertical speeds. With
experience, you will learn the approximate power setting
needed for final approaches on your aircraft and make fine
adjustments as you descend.

It is good practice to calculate the altitude you should

maintain for every 1 or 2 nm along the approach and cross-
check it as you fly over each reference point. You may also
have a chart with distances included in the approach chart
for reference.

As we get closer to the ground, instrument indications

become more precise, so corrections should be smaller.

If the CDI shows a deflection of more than half-scale, the

approach should be aborted. This can happen to even the
most experienced pilots, and good judgment is essential. If
deflection occurs at a high altitude and you can promptly
re-intercept the glide slope and maintain it, note and
acknowledge it, but continue the approach. However, if this
occurs close to the ground and the approach is unstable, it is
wiser to execute a go-around.

Manual NDB Procedure

Just before reaching the final approach segment, PUWIR, we
are descending with all systems set up: the NDB frequency
(220) is active on the ADF, and the RMI needle is aligned
with the final approach course of 335º.

When the RMI needle is within ±5º of the final approach

course, we consider ourselves established on the final
approach course.

During the final descent, we continuously manage our

descent. The goal is to set a steady power level that
allows for consistent horizontal and vertical speeds. With
APPROACH

experience, you will learn the approximate power setting

needed for final approaches on your aircraft and make fine
adjustments as you descend.

It is good practice to calculate the altitude you should

maintain for every 1 or 2 nm along the approach and cross-
check it as you fly over each reference point. You may also
have a chart with distances included in the approach chart
for reference.

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As we get closer to the ground, instrument indications

become more precise, so corrections should be smaller.
If the NDB needle shows a deflection of more than ±5º, the
approach should be aborted. This can happen to even the
most experienced pilots, and good judgment is essential. If
deflection occurs at a high altitude and you can promptly
re-intercept the glide slope and maintain it, note and
acknowledge it, but continue the approach. However, if this
occurs close to the ground and the approach is unstable, it is
wiser to execute a go-around.

Automated LOC Procedure

Approaching CHEVL, we descend with all systems set up:
APPROACH

the procedure is loaded in the FMS, the ILS frequency

(109.5) is active on NAV1, the FMS and main instrument
(HSI) are set to VLOC mode, the HSI course selector is set to
344º, and the CDI is centered.
Just before or upon capturing the localizer or final approach
course, we select APP mode on the flight mode selector (not
to be confused with activating the approach phase in the
FMS). This arms the LOC mode, which is displayed in white
on the Flight Mode Annunciator, indicating that once the

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localizer is captured, the system will automatically center it

and adjust roll to keep it aligned.
As we enter the final approach course and the localizer is
captured, the LOC indication will turn green after activating
APP mode, confirming it is engaged. Vertically, we will
maintain the calculated vertical speed, by using either the
VS, FLC or VNAV modes.

It is good practice to calculate the altitude you should

maintain for every 1 or 2 nm along the approach and
cross-check it as you fly over each reference point. You
may also reference a chart with distances provided in the
approach chart.

Automated VOR Procedure

Approaching the final approach segment, we descend with
all systems set up: the procedure is loaded in the FMS, the
VOR frequency (113.85) is active on NAV1, the FMS and
main instrument (HSI) are set to VLOC mode, the HSI course
selector is set to 028º, and the CDI is centered.

Just before or upon capturing the VOR or final approach

course, we select APP mode on the flight mode selector
(not to be confused with activating the approach phase in
the FMS). This arms the VOR mode, which is displayed in
white on the Flight Mode Annunciator, indicating that once
the VOR signal is captured, the system will automatically
center it and adjust roll to keep it aligned. As we proceed
on the final approach course and the CDI is captured, the
VOR indication will turn green after activating APP mode,
confirming it is engaged. Vertically, we will maintain the
calculated vertical speed by using either the VS, FLC, or
VNAV modes. It is good practice to calculate the altitude
you should maintain for every 1 or 2 nm along the approach
and cross-check it as you pass each reference point. You
may also reference a chart with distances provided in the
approach chart.
APPROACH

Automated NDB Procedure

Approaching the final approach segment, PUWIR, we
descend with all systems set up: the procedure is loaded in
the FMS, the NDB frequency (220) is active on the ADF, and
the ADF arrow is displayed on the EHSI, aligned with the
final approach course of 335º.

This procedure is executed using either HDG or TRK

mode. The HDG bug is set to the appropriate heading
to correct for wind, or TRK mode is selected to maintain

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the final approach course, with the system automatically

compensating for wind drift.

Vertically, we will maintain the calculated vertical speed

using either the VS, FLC, or VNAV modes. It is good practice
to calculate the altitude you should maintain for every 1
or 2 nm along the approach and review it as you fly over
each reference point. You may also reference a chart with
distances provided in the approach chart.

RNAV 2D
All RNAV 2D approaches, such as LP (Localizer
Performance) and LNAV (Lateral Navigation), follow a
similar procedure during the final approach segment. The
GPS-based lateral guidance is displayed on the PFD or HSI,
and it is essential to keep the Course Deviation Indicator
(CDI) centered to ensure the aircraft remains precisely on
the final approach course. The course selector or needle
will already be set to the final approach course, and it must
remain centered to ensure the aircraft stays aligned with the
intended path to the runway.

Vertically, the descent is managed according to the

calculated continuous descent profile initiated earlier in the
approach. It is critical to double-check both the altitude
and the rate of descent at key reference points along the
approach to confirm the aircraft reaches the Minimum
Descent Altitude (MDA) at the correct point.

RNAV Approach Procedures

There are two primary 2D RNAV approaches: LP (Localizer
Performance) and LNAV (Lateral Navigation). Both
approaches provide essential horizontal guidance.

LP Approach
Lateral guidance for LP approaches is provided by GPS with
an augmentation system, such as WAAS or EGNOS. This
guidance increases the sensitivity of lateral indications as
APPROACH

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the aircraft nears the fix, similar to a LOC approach. For LP

approaches utilizing WAAS or EGNOS, a RAIM check is not
required, unlike LNAV/VNAV procedures.

The illustration shows the lateral deviation for the LP

approach. The outer lines represent the maximum deflection
distance of the CDI needle on the instrument, providing
clear visual cues for maintaining alignment.

LNAV Approach
For LNAV approaches, lateral guidance is provided by
direct, unaugmented GPS signals. Unlike an ILS or LP
approach, the lateral indications remain constant throughout
the approach and do not increase in sensitivity as the aircraft
nears the runway. Before performing an LNAV approach, it is
essential to ensure sufficient GPS satellite coverage at the time
of the approach by conducting a RAIM check on the FMS.

The illustration shows the lateral deviation for the LNAV

approach. The outer lines represent the maximum deflection
distance of the CDI needle on the instrument, providing a
clear reference for maintaining course alignment.

Displaying the lateral indications

Upon reaching the final segment, ensure the system is
configured correctly to display the indications. The setup
required to display the lateral indications is the same for
both LPV and LNAV/VNAV approaches, though the process
APPROACH

may vary depending on the cockpit type.

Analog Cockpit
RNAV approaches are not possible with fully analog
cockpits, as an FMS is required to fly RNAV procedures.

Analog Cockpit with FMS

If the cockpit is equipped with an FMS, load the flight plan
with the approach procedure and activate the approach
phase in the FMS.

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Since the primary instrument (HSI) can receive information

from both the NAV equipment (VLOC) and the FMS (GPS),
set the HSI source to GPS mode by following these steps:
1. Locate the NAV/GPS or CDI button on your navigation
equipment.
2. Press the NAV/GPS or CDI button to toggle between GPS
and VLOC modes, switching to GPS mode.

Once in GPS mode, ensure that the CDI appears magenta,

not green, as green indicates the EHSI is displaying VLOC
information instead of GPS.

This configuration enables the HSI to display the waypoints

loaded in the FMS as CDI/GS indications. The system
connects the waypoints, and it indicates if we are to the left
or to the right form the line connecting the waypoints.

Finally, ensure the course needle is set to the correct final

approach course—344º for RNAV Runway 34R at KSLC.

The system defaults to the most precise navigation system,

LP. If WAAS/EGNOS or its receiver is unavailable, the system
will downgrade to LNAV.

Flying the RNAV

Manual RNAV 2D Procedure
At the platform altitude of 6,100 ft, just before reaching
CHEVL, all systems should be set up: the procedure loaded
in the FMS, the HSI course set to 344º, and the CDI centered
with the source set to GPS.

Once the CDI needle is captured, consider yourself

established on the LP or LNAV.

During the final descent, manage your descent rate by

setting a steady power level to achieve consistent horizontal
and vertical speeds. With experience, you’ll know the
approximate power setting needed for final approaches on
APPROACH

your aircraft and can make fine adjustments as you descend.

It’s a good practice to calculate the altitude you should be

at for every 1 or 2 nm along the approach, and review the
altitude it as you fly over each reference point. You might
have a chart with distances in the approach chart too.

As we get closer to the ground, indications become more

precise in LP approaches, so corrections should be smaller.

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In LNAV approaches, indications don’t get more precise as

we get closer to the ground. As you approach the ground,
LP indications become more precise, requiring smaller
corrections. For LNAV, indications maintain the same
precision as we get closer to the ground, so be mindful that
even a slight deflection on the instrument could indicate a
more significant deviation.

If the CDI shows a deflection of more than half-scale, the

approach should be aborted. This can happen to even the
most experienced pilots, and good judgment is essential. If
deflection occurs at a high altitude and you can promptly
re-intercept the glide slope and maintain it, consider noting
and acknowledging it, but continue the approach. However,
if this occurs close to the ground and the approach has been
unstable, it may be wiser to execute a go-around.

APPROACH

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Automated RNAV Procedure

Approaching CHEVL at the platform altitude of 6,100 ft,
ensure all systems are set up: the procedure is loaded in
the FMS, and both the FMS and EHSI are set to GPS mode,
providing lateral guidance based on the FMS route. The EHSI
course selector is set to 344º, with the CDI centered.

This time, we will not activate APP mode, since this we only
want lateral navigation, and we will manually manage the
vertical profile. So for the vertical mode, we will manually
chose the minimum descent altitude in the altitude selector,
and with the VS mode, chose the calculated vertical speed.

Once the CDI is captured, we’re considered established on

the LP or LNAV. At this point, the autopilot or flight directors
will handle roll and pitch adjustments to keep the CDI
centered, and the selected vertical speed. Your task is to
manage power to maintain a safe, steady descent speed.

LNAV + V / LP + V
LNAV+V and LP+V are GPS approach procedures that offer
advisory vertical guidance to assist pilots during descent.
This is a practical way of having advisory references during
the 2D RNAV approaches, but the guidance can’t be strictly
followed as if it were a 3D approach.

LNAV+V: This combines LNAV (Lateral Navigation) with

advisory vertical guidance, providing a glide path indication
to aid the pilot in descent, but it does not meet the strict
criteria for vertical guidance like LPV or LNAV/VNAV.
LP+V: This is similar to LNAV+V but applies to LP
(Localizer Performance) approaches, again offering advisory
vertical guidance.

Both approaches enhance situational awareness but do not

qualify as precision approaches.
APPROACH

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C. JUST BEFORE LANDING

CONFIGURATION
The general principle is to configure the aircraft as late as possible to avoid unnecessary
drag and maintain efficiency—remember, a “dirty” aircraft is a “costly” aircraft. While air
traffic control (ATC) does not dictate when to configure, it is the pilot’s responsibility to
manage this. We must be fully configured latest at a distance of 4 nm from the treshold.

Standard Configuration Sequence

– Initial Flap Setting: Start with the initial stage of flaps. This
provides a moderate level of drag and lift while allowing the
aircraft to maintain better speed control.
– Landing Gear: Deploy the landing gear next. The gear
generates significant drag, which is useful for slowing
down but should be deployed when it will have the
maximum benefit.
– Final Flap Setting: Configure the final stage of flaps just
before landing. This configuration provides maximum lift and
drag but also results in a significant change in the aircraft’s
handling characteristics, so it is postponed until necessary.

Criteria for Flap Selection

The choice of flap settings depends on several factors:
– Aircraft and Runway: The type of aircraft and runway
length are primary considerations. Full flaps allow for slower
speeds and shorter landing distances, while less flap setting
enables faster approach speeds but requires a longer runway.
– Runway Exit: If planning to vacate the runway early, use
more flaps to ensure a shorter landing distance. If planning to
exit the runway later, less flaps might be sufficient.
– Pilot Discretion: Ultimately, flap selection is at the
pilot’s discretion, based on current conditions and
operational requirements.

Landing Gear Flaps

APPROACH

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Timing for Configuration

– Initial Flaps: Typically set at around 10 - 8 nautical miles
(nm) from the runway.
– Landing Gear: Lower the gear at approximately 8 - 6 nm
from the runway.
– Final Flaps: Extend the final flap setting around 6 - 4 nm
from the runway threshold.
During training, particularly with a 3D approach, the typical
timing for configurations is as follows:
– Initial Flaps: When the glide slope is approximately 1.5
dots high on the indicator.
– Landing Gear: When the glide slope is at 1 dot.
– Final Flaps: Just before or as you reach the final
approach segment.

Before Each Configuration

– Speed Check: Verify that the aircraft’s speed is within the
acceptable range for the next configuration step. Make the
callout “speed check,” then proceed with setting the flaps or
lowering the gear.
– Multi-Pilot Coordination: In a multi-pilot environment, the
Pilot Flying (PF) should make the callout “speed check—
flaps X/landing gear down” when configuring, and the Pilot
Monitoring (PM) will perform the action.

Lights Configuration
– Landing and Taxi Lights: Typically, landing lights and taxi
lights are turned on when the landing gear is deployed.
However, practices may vary among different airlines and
pilots. It’s a common practice to set the landing lights on
when cleared for the approach, and the taxi lights when
cleared to land.
APPROACH

Final Landing
Flaps
Flaps Gear

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MISSED APPROACH REVIEW

By the end of the approach, it is essential to review and understand the missed
approach procedure. This ensures that if a missed approach is required, we can execute
it promptly and correctly without hesitation. We should familiarize ourselves with the
first steps of the missed approach procedure, including:
– Initial Climb: The initial altitude and heading to fly after the decision to go around.
– Waypoints or Fixes: The first waypoint or fix to navigate to after executing the
missed approach.
– Communication: The frequency to contact ATC for further instructions.

For example:
“In case of a missed approach, we’ll climb to 9,000 ft on a heading of 344º, proceed
direct to THC VOR, and await further instructions from ATC.”

By reviewing these steps in advance, we reduce the workload and avoid potential
confusion during a critical phase of flight. Always prioritize flying the aircraft and adhere
to the published procedure unless directed otherwise by ATC.

CLEARANCE TO LAND
During the approach phase, we are typically communicating with Approach Control.
As we reach the short final segment of the approach, Approach will hand us over to
the Tower frequency.

When we are approximately 4 nautical miles from the runway, the tower controller will
issue our clearance to land with a specific callout. This clearance ensures the runway is
clear and available for our landing.

Occasionally, the tower might provide specific instructions regarding which taxiway to
use upon vacating the runway or may ask where we plan to vacate after landing.

Example Communications
– From Approach to Tower:
“HTF28A, CONTINUE ILS 34R AND CONTACT TOWER 119.030.”
“CONTINUE AND SWITCH TOWER ON 119.030, HTF28A.”
– Initial Contact with Tower:
“SALT LAKE CITY TOWER, HTF28A, ON ILS RWY 34R.”
“HTF28A, CLEARED TO LAND RWY 34R, VACATE VIA TAXIWAY A.”
APPROACH

Communication Flow Summary

1. Approach Control will guide us during the approach and then instruct us to
contact Tower.
2. Tower Control will clear us to land, manage the runway, and provide vacating
instructions if necessary.

Clear and concise communication is essential during this phase to ensure safety and
efficient coordination with ATC.

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AUTOPILOT
During the final approach, we will disconnect the autopilot and take full manual control
of the aircraft. From that point onward, we will manage all lateral and vertical navigation
manually, ensuring precise alignment with the approach path.

LANDING CHECKLIST AND TYPICAL ACTIONS

During the last phase, we perform a landing checklist to ensure the aircraft is
correctly configured and ready for a safe landing. Here are the typical actions
included in the procedure:
1. Landing Gear: Verify the landing gear is down and locked, indicated by three green
lights or equivalent confirmation.
2. Flaps: Set the flaps to the designated landing position, typically full, to ensure optimal
lift and a stable approach.
3. Landing Lights: Turn on all landing lights to enhance visibility and make the aircraft
more noticeable.
4. Autopilot: Disconnect the autopilot at an appropriate point to allow manual control
for precise handling during the final approach.
5. Speed Brakes or Spoilers: Arm the speed brakes or spoilers to ensure automatic
deployment upon touchdown for effective deceleration.
6. Engine Settings: Verify thrust levers or power settings are configured for a stable
descent and landing.
7. Cabin: Ensure the cabin is secured, and passengers are prepared for landing as per
the pre-landing announcement.
8. Final Clearance: Confirm landing clearance from ATC and ensure the runway is clear
visually or using onboard systems.

STABILIZED APPROACH
A stabilized approach begins with proper descent planning and understanding of the
approach. Each crewmember must monitor the aircraft’s altitude, airspeed, descent rate
and configuration during the approach.

Elements of a Stabilized Approach:

Being stabilized by 1,000 feet height above touchdown (HAT) in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) and by 500 feet HAT in visual meteorological
conditions (VMC). An approach is considered stabilized when all of the following
criteria are met:
– On the correct flight path;
APPROACH

– Only small changes in heading and pitch are required to maintain that path;
– Speed is not more than VREF + 20 knots indicated airspeed and not less than VREF;
– The aircraft is in the proper landing configuration;
– Sink rate is maximum 1,000 feet per minute; if an approach requires a sink rate greater
than 1,000 feet per minute, a special briefing should be performed;
– Power setting appropriate for configuration and not below the minimum power for
approach as defined by the aircraft operations manual;
– All briefings and checklists have been performed
we must maintain the parameters within these limits after the stabilization check, and if
any parameter goes off limits, abort the landing and perform a go around

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MINIMUMS: MDA/H VS. DA/H

During an approach, “minimums” refer to the lowest altitude a pilot can descend
to without having the required visual references to continue to the runway. These
minimums are critical for ensuring safety and compliance with regulations. The two
types of minimums commonly used are MDA/H (Minimum Descent Altitude/Height)
and DA/H (Decision Altitude/Height).

1. MDA/H (Minimum Descent Altitude/Height)

– Definition: The lowest altitude or height a pilot can descend to during a non-precision
approach (e.g., LNAV or VOR) without visual references to the runway.
– Usage: Pilots must level off at the MDA and maintain it until reaching the Missed
Approach Point (MAP).
– Action: If the required visual references are not visible at the MAP, the pilot must
execute a missed approach.
– Key Difference: There is no continuous descent to landing; the aircraft must level off
at the MDA until the MAP.

2. DA/H (Decision Altitude/Height)

– Definition: The altitude or height at which a pilot must decide whether to continue the
approach or execute a missed approach. DA/H is used in precision approaches (e.g., ILS
or LPV) or certain non-precision approaches with vertical guidance (e.g., LNAV/VNAV).
– Usage: Pilots descend continuously to the DA, and if the required visual references are
not visible at that point, a missed approach must be initiated immediately.
– Action: There is no “level-off” phase; the decision is made during the descent.

FACILITY MDA/MDH (FT)

LOC with or without DME 250

VOR/DME 250

SRA (terminating at 1/2 NM) 250

VOR 300

NDB/DME 300

SRA (terminating and 1 NM) 300

APPROACH

NDB 350

SRA (terminating aat 2NM or more) 350

VDF 350

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VISUAL REFERENCES TO LAND

To descend below MDA/H or DA/H, you need to have at least one of the following
visual references:
a. The runway
b. Runway threshold
c. Touchdown point markings
d. VASI or PAPI system
e. Approach lighting system
f. Runway lights
g. Threshold lights
h. Touchdown point lights
i. Other references accepted by the authority

LANDING
The landing phase begins as the aircraft transitions from the final approach to
touchdown on the runway. This critical phase requires precision, focus, and adherence
to procedures to ensure a safe and smooth landing. Below are the key steps and
considerations during the landing:

1. Approach to Flare
– As the aircraft approaches the runway, maintain a stable descent path, ensuring
proper alignment with the runway centerline.
– Gradually reduce the rate of descent by initiating the flare (slightly raising the nose)
just before touchdown.
– Aim for a smooth transition from descent to level flight, allowing the main landing
gear to contact the runway first.

2. Power Management
– During the flare, reduce power to idle to ensure the aircraft settles gently onto the runway.
– Avoid cutting power too early, as this can cause a hard landing or stall before touchdown.

3. Touchdown
– The main landing gear should make contact with the runway first, followed by the
nose gear after the aircraft has decelerated.
– Maintain control of the aircraft using rudder pedals to stay aligned with the
runway centerline.
APPROACH

4. Braking and Deceleration

– Deploy speed brakes or spoilers immediately upon touchdown (if not already armed).
– Use reverse thrust (if equipped) to assist in deceleration.
– Apply manual braking as necessary to slow the aircraft to taxi speed, ensuring a
smooth and controlled stop.

5. Vacating the Runway

– Exit the runway at the assigned taxiway or as instructed by ATC.
– Maintain awareness of other traffic and follow taxi instructions carefully.

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6. Post-Landing Checks
– After vacating the runway, perform post-landing checks, such as retracting flaps,
stowing speed brakes, and turning off landing lights if not needed for taxi.
– Confirm with ATC that you have cleared the runway and are ready for taxi
instructions.
Landing is one of the most challenging and rewarding phases of flight. By maintaining
a stabilized approach, precise control during the flare, and proper deceleration
techniques, pilots can ensure a safe and professional touchdown.

CIRCLING
Circling is an IFR maneuver used when the published approach is for one runway, but
you intend to land on another. You fly the approach to the circling minimum, establish
continuous visual contact with the airport, and then maneuver—much like a traffic
pattern—to reposition for landing on your chosen runway. This transition requires
precise aircraft control and constant situational awareness, as you remain low and
within a protected area for obstacle clearance. If visual reference is lost at any point,
you must promptly execute the missed approach procedure.

MISSED APPROACH
A go around or missed approach is a critical maneuver executed when landing cannot
be safely completed. It requires preparation, adherence to procedures, and a calm,
methodical approach to minimize errors in this high-workload situation.

Key Considerations
– ATC Instructions: ATC may direct a specific heading and altitude or instruct “fly the
published missed.” Professional pilots always load the approach, even during visual
APPROACH

approaches, to ensure the published missed approach procedure is available.

– Commitment to Completion: Once initiated, a missed approach must be fully
executed, even if the runway environment becomes visible during the procedure.

Steps for Go Around/Missed Approach

1. Acknowledge the Go Around
– The Pilot Flying (PF) announces and commits to the missed approach, or the Pilot
Monitoring (PM) acknowledges the go-around command.
2. Simultaneous Initial Actions

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– Press the TOGA button: Activates the go-around sequence on the FMS and displays
command bars on the PFD.
– Set PCL to Max Power: Apply full power to ensure a safe climb.
– Begin a climb at 85 knots.
3. Configuration Management
– Flaps to 15°: Retract the flaps to the initial go-around setting.
– Climb at 95 knots until a Positive Rate of Climb is confirmed.
– Gear Up: Retract the landing gear.
– Flaps to 0°: Retract flaps fully once airspeed exceeds 100 knots.
– Yaw Damper On: Engage yaw damper to stabilize the aircraft.
– Select Ice Protection as needed for weather conditions.
4. Re-engaging Automation (if previously [Link] a safe climb is established,
re-engage the automation to reduce pilot workload:
– Select Horizontal Navigation (NAV Mode) to direct the aircraft to the missed approach
fix or follow ATC instructions.
– Select Vertical Navigation (VNAV or FLCH) to manage the climb profile.
– Finally, engage the Autopilot to fully stabilize the aircraft.
5. Navigate the Missed Approach Path
– Follow the published missed approach procedure or ATC instructions for altitude and
heading adjustments.
6. Checklist Verification
– Once established on the missed approach, confirm all actions using the checklist.
7. Communication
– Notify ATC: “Tower, [Aircraft], executing missed approach.”
– Follow any additional instructions provided.

Best Practices
– Always include the missed approach in the pre-landing briefing. This should be
completed as soon as the ATIS is received and the approach is known, or no later than
descending below 10,000 ft MSL or 20 NM from the destination.
– Avoid rushing the procedure; prioritize smooth execution over speed to minimize errors.

Summary
The go-around or missed approach is not a failure but a deliberate, safety-driven action.
Proper preparation, clear communication, and precise execution ensure safety and
compliance with procedures during this high-stress phase of flight. Engaging automation
appropriately after stabilization helps manage workload and maintain efficiency.
APPROACH

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4. THEORETICAL CONCEPTS
This section covers essential theoretical concepts critical for understanding and
executing IFR approaches. While this information focuses on theory rather than
practical application, you will for sure be asked information from this section by your
instructor or examinator.

APPROACH TYPES: TYPE A AND TYPE B

Type A Approaches: Approaches with a minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision
altitude (DA) of 250 feet or more above ground level (AGL).
Type B Approaches: Approaches with a minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision
altitude (DA) lower than 250 feet AGL, often including Category II and III approaches
for low-visibility landings.

2D AND 3D APPROACHES
3D Approaches: Provide both lateral and vertical guidance, allowing pilots to
follow a defined glide path to the runway. Examples include conventional precision
approaches like ILS (Instrument Landing System), as well as RNAV approaches like
LPV or LNAV/VNAV.
2D Approaches: Provide only lateral guidance, requiring pilots to manage their descent
manually. Examples include VOR and NDB approaches, as well as RNAV approaches
like LNAV (Lateral Navigation).

PRECISION AND NON PRECISION

Precision Approaches: These approaches offer both lateral and vertical guidance,
providing a higher level of accuracy during the final approach phase. The most
common example is the ILS (Instrument Landing System), which uses a localizer for
horizontal guidance and a glide slope for vertical guidance.
Non-Precision Approaches: These approaches provide only lateral guidance,
meaning pilots must manage their own descent based on published minimum altitudes
and timing. Examples include VOR, NDB, and RNAV approaches like LNAV.
Note on RNAV Approaches: RNAV approaches are generally classified as non-
precision because they lack inherent vertical guidance. Approaches like LPV (under
SBAS/WAAS) and LNAV/VNAV (using barometric vertical guidance) are referred to
as APV (Approach with Vertical Guidance). Although they provide vertical guidance,
they don’t meet ICAO’s strict definition of a precision approach.
APPROACH

TURNS
Rate One Turns: A standard rate one turn is a turn at a rate of 3 degrees per second,
resulting in a full 360-degree turn in 2 minutes. The bank angle required for a rate one
turn can be calculated using the following formula:

True Airspeed (knots)

Bank Angle (degrees) = +7
10

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AIRCRAFT CATEGORIZATION
Vat (Velocity at Threshold): The indicated CATEGORY VAT (KTS)
airspeed at the threshold is used to determine
A Less than 91
the aircraft category.
This speed is calculated as 1.3 times the B 91 to 120
stall speed (Vso) in the landing configuration
C 121 to 140
at maximum landing weight. Aircraft are
categorized based on their approach speed, D 141 to 165
which influences the applicable minimums
E 166 and above
and operational procedures.

SPEEDS
Key operational speeds include:
Vapp: Approach speed, slightly above Vref for maneuvering
Vso: Stall speed in landing configuration
Vref: Reference landing speed, 1.3 times Vso
Vlo: Maximum landing gear operating speed
Vle: Maximum speed with landing gear extended
V1: Decision speed during takeoff
Vr: Rotation speed for takeoff
Vs1: Stall speed in a specified configuration (clean)
Vfe: Maximum flap extended speed
Vfo: Maximum speed at which flaps can be extended

FIXES
Key approach fixes include:
1. Initial Approach Fix (IAF): The point where the initial approach segment begins,
marking the transition from arrival to approach phase.
2. Intermediate Fix (IF): The point where the intermediate approach segment begins,
leading towards the final approach segment.
3. Final Approach Fix (FAF) / Final Approach Point (FAP): The point where the final
approach segment begins. The FAF is typically used for non-precision approaches,
while the FAP is used for precision approaches. The FAP is usually indicated by a
Maltese Cross symbol. In the absence of that, the best clue that a fix on an ILS is the
FAP is the GS crossing altitude indication.
4. Missed Approach Point (MAPt): The point in a non-precision approach at which
the pilot must decide to land or execute a missed approach if the runway environment
is not in sight.
APPROACH

MINIMUMS
Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA): The lowest altitude to which descent is
authorized on a non-precision approach without visual reference to the runway.
Decision Altitude (DA): The altitude on a precision approach at which the pilot must
decide whether to continue the approach or execute a missed approach based on
whether the runway environment is in sight.

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FINAL TAXI

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1. FINAL TAXI AND LANDING AND ROLLOUT
SHUTDOWN TAXI TO PARKING
SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES
GETTING TO KNOW THE DESTINATION

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1. FINAL TAXI AND SHUTDOWN

The final phase of flight begins after the aircraft touches down and transitions from
landing to taxi. At this point, the focus shifts from managing flight parameters to ground
navigation, taxi to parking, and completing all post-flight procedures. This phase
requires attention to airport layout, ground traffic, and aircraft shutdown procedures
while maintaining situational awareness to prevent any safety hazards.

LANDING AND
ROLLOUT
Once the aircraft is on the ground, maintaining control
and situational awareness is essential, especially when
decelerating and clearing the runway. After touchdown,
brakes should be applied smoothly, and reverse thrust, if
available, should be used according to aircraft limitations
and runway conditions. The aircraft must be decelerated to a
safe taxi speed before reaching the first available high-speed
exit or assigned taxiway.

As soon as the aircraft clears the runway, the after-landing

checklist should be completed. This checklist typically
includes retracting the flaps, adjusting trim settings, engaging
ground idle power, turning off landing and strobe lights, and
switching to the ground control frequency. If required, ATC
may issue hold-short instructions for crossing another runway,
and pilots should confirm clearances before proceeding.

TAXI TO
PARKING
Once ground control assigns a taxi route, it is crucial to
follow it precisely while being vigilant for other ground traffic,
including aircraft, service vehicles, and airport personnel.

Large and complex airports may have Follow-Me Cars

assigned to guide aircraft to their designated parking areas,
particularly if the route includes complex intersections or
unfamiliar taxiways. If a Follow-Me Car is assigned, pilots
should verify instructions and maintain a safe following
distance while continuing to monitor surroundings.
FINAL TAXI

Taxi speed should be appropriate for conditions, typically

not exceeding 20 knots in straight segments and reduced
when approaching turns or congested areas. Clear
communication with ground control ensures smooth

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taxi operations, and progressive taxi instructions can be

requested if needed.

SHUTDOWN
PROCEDURES
Upon reaching the designated parking spot, the aircraft
must be aligned correctly to facilitate passenger or cargo
unloading and refueling if necessary. The aircraft should be
brought to a full stop, the parking brake engaged, and the
after-shutdown checklist should be completed. This checklist
includes shutting down the engine, turning off unnecessary
electrical systems, securing avionics, and ensuring that
external lights are set as required.

If the aircraft is being met by ground personnel, pilots

should wait for ground signals before shutting down the
engine, particularly in ramp areas where precise positioning
is necessary. Pilots should also verify any post-flight
maintenance requirements and ensure that the aircraft
is properly secured if it will remain on the ground for an
extended period.

GETTING TO
KNOW THE
DESTINATION
Now that the flight has been completed, the passengers
have disembarked, and the aircraft is securely parked, it’s
time to step away from flight operations and take a moment
to explore the destination. Arriving in a new city or even
a familiar one presents an opportunity to experience
its atmosphere, culture, and people beyond the airport
environment.

After years of flying, one thing has become clear: handling

agents and ground personnel are an invaluable source of
local knowledge. They know the best places to eat, where
to grab a drink, and the hidden spots. Never understand
the knowledge an experienced colleague might have too. A
simple question about local recommendations can lead to
unbelievable discoveries, from hole-in-the-wall cafés to bars
where you’ll find yourself in conversations with locals who
FINAL TAXI

have stories to share.

But above all, finding a quiet terrace and ordering a cold

beer has always worked wonders for me.

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Every flight ends at a different place, each with its own pace
and character. Some destinations are bustling international
hubs with endless options, while others are quiet airfields
in the mountains. Regardless of the setting, embrace the
opportunity to explore—try the local food, have a walk, or
start a conversation with those who live there.

There will always be another departure, another flight plan

to file, and another set of procedures to follow, but taking the
time to experience where you’ve landed is just as important.
FINAL TAXI

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 Thank you, Aviation.

Ales

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