CHAPTER SEVEN

World Issues
c
c
c
AS YOU READ
c An Interview with
c
Aboriginal peoples in Canada are not alone
c Rigoberta Menchú Tum
c
in the challenges they face. Indigenous c By Anders Riis-Hansen
peoples around the world face issues such c
c Riis-Hansen: On the twelfth of October, a
as discrimination and land claims. Today, c
indigenous peoples from different countries c great number of countries will celebrate
co-operate to share knowledge and ideas c the 500th anniversary of the discovery of
c
that will further their inherent rights. c America. Do you see this as an insult to
Rigoberta Menchú Tum is a refugee from c the indigenous people?
c
Guatemala’s thirty-six-year-long civil war. She c Menchú Tum: We have seen repeated
became an influential spokesperson for the c
c occupations of our land, long lines of
struggles of indigenous peoples around the
world. Shortly before she received the Nobel
c colonists have arrived, and they remain
c
Peace Prize in 1992, the thirty-three-year-old c today. For me, to celebrate the twelfth
Maya woman spoke with journalist Anders c of October is the absolute expression
c
Riis-Hansen. Riis-Hansen is associated with c of triumphism, occupation, and
the Commission for the Defense of Human c presumptuousness, and I think that
Rights in Central America. c anyone who has mature and responsible
c
Menchú Tum has changed the way many c politics should not celebrate it. History
c will remember those that celebrate it.
people think about indigenous peoples’ rights. c
As you read, notice how she makes her case by c
c
On the other hand, the 500th
providing specific examples and recommending
c anniversary has opened a lot of space in
specific action. Do you think this is an effective c
strategy? What themes connect the examples international forums. With respect to
c
she gives? Make a list of the themes you see c this, I am deeply gladdened that 1993 has
and share it with a partner. Relate these themes
c been declared the International Year of
c
to issues raised by Aboriginal peoples in your c Indigenous Peoples by the United Nations.
area, in Alberta, and across Canada. c It is the first year we have had in 500 years.
c
c This is thanks to the struggle of many
c untitled, unnamed indigenous brothers
FOCUS QUESTIONS c
c
who, without understanding international
As you read this chapter, consider these questions: c law, patiently walked the corridors asking
n What cultural characteristics are shared c for some time. Thanks to them this
c
by indigenous peoples around the world? c international year has been declared.
n What issues do indigenous peoples from c
different countries have in common? c In addition, I think that the current
c situation has generated an understanding
n How have indigenous peoples been affected c
by natural resource development? c of the cultural diversity of America.
n What role does the United Nations play in c We were the first to talk about cultural
c
resolving issues faced by indigenous peoples? c diversity, the need to respect the Maya
n What progress have indigenous peoples made in c and the environment.
human rights, education, and self-determination? c
c nnnnn
n What role do Aboriginal youth play in the future c
of indigenous peoples around the world? c
c
c
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Riis-Hansen: The last country of Rigoberta Menchú Tum
the continent abolished slavery became an activist while
more than 100 years ago. How is still a teenager and has
devoted her life to
repression and racism expressed indigenous people’s
today? rights in her own country
and elsewhere. Prepare a
Menchú Tum: For example, in the report on the causes of
case of my country, Guatemala, the Guatemalan civil war
65 per cent of the inhabitants are or Rigoberta Menchú
indigenous. The constitution Tum’s book I, Rigoberta
speaks of protection for the Menchú: An Indian
Riis-Hansen: Do you believe that Woman in Guatemala.
indigenous. Who authorized a a Nobel Prize can contribute to
minority to protect an immense peace in Guatemala?
majority? It is not only political,
cultural, and economic marginal- Menchú Tum: I believe that it has
ization, it is an attempt against already contributed a lot. We
the dignity of the majority of the have broken the silence around
population. The human being is Guatemala. We have entered into
to be respected and defended, not the governmental tribune and we
protected like a bird or a river. have been able to demand that
there be no more blank checks
nnnnn
for the governments that violate
Riis-Hansen: Do you fear for your human rights.…
life when you visit Guatemala? The gap between rich and
Menchú Tum: Not only in poor must be eliminated, or we
Guatemala, but everywhere. Our will continue to be the example
lives are no longer our own; they of conflict in America.
can take them away any time.
p REFLECTION
The Mayas, our grandparents, 1. Use the Internet to find out more about Rigoberta
always said: every human being Menchú Tum. From what you learn, how do you feel
occupies a small piece of time. about Menchú Tum and her work? How has she
Time itself is much longer, and contributed to her people?
because of this they always said 2. Rigoberta Menchú Tum’s fame has helped her cause,
but has also exposed her to criticism. Some critics
that we must care for this earth
question her account of her life as a member of a
while we are on it because it will peasant family in Guatemala. They say she embroidered
be part of our children and the her story with details that could not be true, or that if
children of our grandchildren. they were true, they were true of other people’s lives
They know that life is short, that and not her own. Would your feelings about her
it can end so soon, and that if contributions change if you found she had embellished
her own life story with events that happened to other
one gets lost on the way, others people? Discuss this issue in small groups or as a class.
will come to take their place.

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Common Cultures, Common Issues
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AS YOU READ
Pages 210–219 discuss some of the similarities in the
cultures of indigenous peoples around the world and how
colonization has led to common issues among indigenous
peoples today. As you read, note the challenges that
indigenous peoples have faced — and continue to face.
With your class, discuss why the struggles of indigenous
peoples are important. What gains have been made?
What challenges remain to be resolved?

A
t least 5000 indigenous cultures exist today, with
In all indigenous cultures, day-to-day activities
about 300 million indigenous people spread are imbued with educational, social, and spiritual
across the world in seventy countries. Despite ways of life. Here Barbara Joe and her grand-
daughter Ravenlyn Wilson pick medicinal tea at
enormous diversity, many indigenous people’s cultures Burns Bog in Tsawwassen traditional territory.

have characteristics in common.

c
indigenous people he met included
c C O M M O N C U LT U R E S the concepts of the four sacred
c “We share the same vision and the directions and the circle in their
c
c same experiences, and we are alike in cultural ceremonies.
c our traditional ways,” says Grand The word indigenous refers to
c
c Chief George Manuel, of the things that originate in a particular
c Secwepemc First Nation and the region or environment and live, grow,
c
c first president of the World Council are produced, or occur naturally
c of Indigenous Peoples. He travelled there. Most indigenous peoples gain
c their cultural identity from the place
c to many countries in the 1970s,
c including Argentina, Sweden, Chile, where they originate. The world’s
c Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Peru, to indigenous peoples descend from
c
c meet with other indigenous people. the original inhabitants of their
c He discovered that nearly all the lands. The names of many — Ainu,
c

We recognize that we must all live together in this land, Indigenous peoples are
that we must share, and that in the end our interests the environment and the
are much the same. We want peace, health, and environment is indigenous
well-being for our children. We strive for clean water peoples — we are one and
and air, happiness and freedom. We insist on mutual the same with the air, water,
recognition and respect for dignity, fundamental rights, and the soil of our Mother
and the principle of equality of peoples. Earth. We are connected to
— Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come, Cree (Canada) every living species and every
living species is spiritually and
culturally connected to us.
Our first relationship is to nature. You are part of nature, — Tom Goldtooth, National
not the master of nature. Coordinator, Indigenous
— Mari Boine, Sámi (Norway) Environmental Network

210 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Dene, Dogon, Huaorani, Inuit, Métis, and Inuit cultures include
Maori, Naga, Yup’ik — simply mean mutual support systems that centre
“the people” in their language. on the extended family. These sup-
port systems helped to care for
Spirituality and the Land
individuals in times of need.
Though indigenous cultures differ
one from another, distinct similarities Respect for Diversity
exist. For example, all have a spiritual Sometimes indigenous peoples with-
connection to the land and the in one country are painted with a
natural world. Many indigenous single brushstroke — a stereotype
cultures respect and care for the land that does not account for their true
and its resources as a part of their diversity. Prior to European contact
community. Most have practices that and colonization, each indigenous
express spirituality in daily inter- people lived in a traditional territory,
actions with the natural world, such sometimes overlapping with other
as during hunting, fishing, or gath- groups. Most cultures respected
ering plants, as well as ceremonies other peoples’ differences, allowing
tied to natural cycles, such as seasonal diversity to thrive. The diverse
change or phases of the moon. cultures and their territories do not
O r a l Tr a d i t i o n s necessarily conform to the boun-
Most indigenous peoples pass on daries of countries.
cultural beliefs and values through For example, Australia’s indige-
oral traditions that can be traced nous peoples include the Torres
back to their ancestors. Indigenous Strait Islanders as well as the
oral traditions, including poetry, Awabagal, Darkinung, Eora, Darug,
song, story, and dance, explain Gundungurra, Yuin, and others —
spiritual beliefs and pass knowledge each people with its own culture,
on from generation to generation. beliefs, and language. At the time of
For thousands of years, for example, European contact, approximately
the indigenous peoples of Australia 700 indigenous languages existed
have told stories that trace the path in Australia.
that a spirit ancestor travelled across Community
the land. This path is connected to a Indigenous people’s cultures usually
mapping system that divides tradi- emphasize the welfare of the
tional lands using natural boundaries, community over the individual. In
such as rivers, lakes, and mountains. Scandinavia, Sámi society is organ-
Children learn these “story maps” of ized around the siida, a community
their homeland and how places of about a dozen families living
relate to each other and to people. together, usually along a river, lake,
Extended Family or fjord. The siida council decides
The extended family unit provides how the territory’s resources should
the basis for social organization be used throughout the year, much
among many indigenous peoples. like a First Nations band council
Like many other indigenous cultures that makes decisions for the benefit
around the world, First Nations, of the community as a whole.

WORLD ISSUES 211

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c COLONIAL HISTORY
ETHNOCENTRISM
c Indigenous cultures share cultural
c
c Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s features, but also share a common
c own culture is superior to other history of colonization. In most
c cases, contact with colonizing
c cultures. Ethnocentric people have a
c cultural bias — they use their own countries led to a drastic decline in
c standards to measure all other indigenous populations through
c
c cultures, and they view differences as armed conflict or disease. Indigenous
c signs of inferiority. peoples were in some cases destroyed.
c
c Anyone can be ethnocentric, During the Spanish conquest of
c regardless of their cultural heritage. In South and Central America in the
c a multicultural country, if some groups
c sixteenth century, twenty-five million
c believe themselves to be inherently indigenous people died or were
c superior to others, this can lead to killed. By the end of the 1890s, the
c tensions or even conflict.
c Caribbean peoples were almost
c Ethnocentrism can be complicated entirely eliminated. Indigenous
c when one group holds more political
c populations in Australia plummeted
c or economic power than other from at least 500 000 (some estimates
c groups. The powerful group then has
c say as many as one million) to 60 000
some ability to impose their way of
c after colonization, and the Maori
c life on other groups.
c population in New Zealand plunged
c Colonizing cultures tended to be from 200 000 to 42 000.
c ethnocentric. Explorers and settlers
c
Despite the atrocities committed
often failed to realize that other
c against indigenous peoples in the
c cultures had valid social and
colonial period, many survived with
c
c p REFLECTION their cultures intact. Indigenous
c peoples around the world share a
c In small groups, think of
c contemporary examples of
strong will to preserve their lands,
c languages, customs, and beliefs for
c
c future generations.
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c Edmonton’s Rossdale Flats served as a burial
c site and gathering place for First Nations for
c thousands of years. Here Duane Goodstriker
c
c sets up commemorative crosses to honour
c Aboriginal people buried in the river valley.
c Controversy arose when proposals to expand a
c power plant in the area threatened to destroy
c the site. Such controversies are familiar to
c
c indigenous peoples throughout the world.
Research this issue and the stakeholders
involved. What is going to happen to the site?

212 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

COMMON ISSUES the Indonesian island of Java, home
Indigenous peoples share histories to 120 million people. In an attempt
that include cultural suppression, to ease overcrowding, the Indonesian
economic hardship, discrimination, government began a relocation
and racism. They now face common program in 1969. Over the next three
issues as a result of their histories. decades, the government moved up
Some of the challenges faced to ten million people onto other
by indigenous peoples have a Indonesian islands, many of which
geopolitical aspect: a combination are traditional territories of the
of geographic and political factors country’s indigenous peoples. This
that relate to or influence a nation massive intrusion led to simmering
or region. For example, in many resentment and many violent flare-
areas, national borders drawn across ups. Hundreds of people have been
ancestral lands have physically killed, and many others have been
divided populations of indigenous forced to leave the areas they settled
peoples. The Blackfoot and Mohawk in. More than 400 000 people now
nations now exist on both sides of live in camps awaiting resettlement.
the United States–Canada border. owledge
Inuit people live in four countries: Kn
enous

Canada, Greenland, Russia, and the

Melina Laboucan-Massimo’s
United States.
experience as the Latin American
di g

Issues shared by indigenous Regional Co-ordinator for

In
peoples can be grouped into nine TakingITGlobal (a worldwide youth
general areas: land and resources, action organization) made her all the
the environment, war, language more passionate about what it is to be
and culture, education, self- indigenous and who she is as a Cree
determination, health, human rights, person. She hopes that completing
and intellectual property rights. a Master’s Degree in Indigenous Melina Laboucan-Massimo
Governance will help her in her work
Land and Resources addressing issues facing indigenous peoples.
Regaining ancestral lands and sacred
sites is a struggle shared by almost Like in North America, indigenous peoples in Latin
all indigenous peoples. Some want America have faced harsh conditions and many
to protect certain sacred or burial injustices – some are prepared to do combat to
sites from development. Some seek protect their land. In Canada, we were forced to give
a fair share of the wealth generated up our languages, cultures, and land and this has
been devastating to our communities. In many cases,
from their land’s resources.
our cultures have been appropriated and turned into
National governments are mor- a commodity for tourists. We need to keep our culture
ally and sometimes legally obliged intact and make it an integral part of our lives. I feel
to respect and protect the rights of distinct from mainstream society and a resistance to
indigenous peoples, but often they do ethnocentric assimilation policies. I feel frustrated at
not. Even when governments have the lack of understanding that mainstream society
designated land for indigenous has towards marginalized First Nations people.
peoples, they sometimes find ways
How is Laboucan-Massimo using her frustration in
to re-acquire it.
a positive way? What frustrations could you turn to
For example, one of the most positive action?
densely populated places on Earth is
WORLD ISSUES 213
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PROFILE

CHERITH MARK
Nakoda First Nation
As the fast drumming and low Mark cherishes her experiences
chanting begin, the spotlights come studying performance art with
up on a shimmering, golden spirit- international teachers and dancers.
being floating across the stage. “The Maori people from New
Cherith Mark, performing in Zealand are especially honourable.
Miinigooweziwin…the Gift at The When they enter their homes, they
Banff Centre, is moving her body chant their genealogy — that’s how
to the music and exalting in the grounded they are in their nationality.
physicality of her eagle dance. Singing and dancing is a part of who
The twenty-eight-year-old Nakoda they are as Maori people.
(Stoney) woman from Morley, Alberta, “And Alejandro, who is from
Cherith Mark offers an energetic mix of traditional Columbia, is an amazing teacher.
and modern forms of movement. He shares what he’s been given
She is destined to become one in many cultural exchanges and
of Canada’s most sought-after always explains the origin of where
Aboriginal contemporary dancers. it comes from.”
“When I dance, I feel grounded,” Once she has gone further in
Mark says. She first powwow danced her studies, Mark plans to be a
when she was five years old, and choreographer and hopes to
then performed in a junior high teach dance in her community.
school troupe in her teens. In 1997,
she travelled to the United States “A lot of Aboriginal youth know
with Calgary’s Red Thunder Native about powwow dance, but they
Dance Theatre to dance in Arizona’s don’t know there is such a thing as
Spirits in the Sun festival. There, she contemporary dance. I would like
witnessed contemporary dances led to teach and inform them that
by choreographer Alejandro Ronceria. contemporary dance has many
possibilities. The sky’s the limit.
“I wanted to elaborate on my It’s another way of storytelling that
dancing. Alejandro referred me to the many people don’t know about.”
Aboriginal Arts Program at The Banff
Centre. A year later, in 1999, I was
performing in the centre’s Chinook p REFLECTION
Winds dance production and I’ve Have you ever participated
been back to Banff every summer in an exchange with students
since,” says Mark. This multi- from other cultures or seen a
disciplined performer has studied at performance of dance or singing
the Aboriginal Arts Program in Banff, from an indigenous culture from
and The Centre for Indigenous outside North America? If you
Theatre in Toronto. She has also have, what did you learn about
earned her dance diploma from Grant the similarities and differences
MacEwan College in Edmonton and between their culture and
plans to major in dance at Burnaby’s your own?
Simon Fraser University.

214 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

The Environment
Environmental damage can harm
indigenous cultures, because they
are closely connected to the natural
environment. The Yanomamo, for
example, who live deep in the
jungles of southern Venezuela and
northern Brazil, depend on their This Maori girl in traditional dress is cooking maize in a hot
environment for survival. Miners, pool in New Zealand. Why is preserving ancient cultures
difficult in the contemporary world? Do you think school
loggers, and road builders have
education programs are an effective technique to ensure
intruded into their territories, bring- cultural preservation? Explain your answer.
ing physical attacks and disease, as
well as damage to Yanomamo homes
The cultures associated with them
and food supply. So far, neither
are also in peril. Unless drastic
country’s government has adequately
changes occur soon, half of them
defended the Yanomamo by pro-
may disappear within your lifetime,
tecting their environment.
and 90 per cent of them within the
War lifetime of the next generation.
Some indigenous peoples have been For many years in Norway,
subjected to direct efforts to destroy Canada, Australia, and elsewhere, it
them. For example, in Guatemala, was often forbidden to speak
an estimated 200 000 people were indigenous languages in schools.
killed in the country’s civil war. Today, indigenous nations in these
Most who died were indigenous countries and others are lobbying
people. Hundreds of thousands of for indigenous language programs
Mayans fled their homelands, and in schools.
440 ancient Mayan villages were
completely destroyed. G L O B A L S TAT I S T I C S
Language and Culture • Guatemala is one of the few countries where
Since 1492, more than 2000 indigenous peoples form the majority of the
indigenous languages and cultures population, yet only 150 of 25 000 students enrolled
in the western hemisphere alone in higher education are indigenous people.
have been wiped off the face of the • Indigenous Australians are imprisoned at a rate
Earth. From North America, these sixteen times higher than non-indigenous Australians.
extinct cultures include the Wappo, In some regions, the rate is twenty times higher.
Beothuk, Takelma, Natchez, and • In Canada, 45 per cent of Aboriginal adults living
Massachuset, among many others. off-reserve reported one or more chronic health
Many indigenous peoples today conditions, including arthritis, diabetes, rheumatism,
struggle to maintain their beliefs, and high blood pressure. Rates of arthritis or
values, languages, spirituality, and rheumatism among Aboriginal populations are
traditions. almost twice that of the non-Aboriginal population.
Language and culture are inter- • Almost three-quarters of the 120 armed conflicts
twined. About 6000 indigenous in the world today are battles between central
languages are spoken in the world governments and indigenous peoples living within
today, but many are nearly extinct. their borders.

WORLD ISSUES 215

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PROTECTING INDIGENOUS RIGHTS

Many mechanisms to protect the rights of indigenous
peoples exist, but they are not consistently implemented.
Education is essential for the many indigenous peoples
who remain unaware of the laws and agreements
protecting their rights.
Realizing that they have similar struggles, indigenous
peoples around the world have joined forces. They share
information on how to use legal means to assert land
claims, to force governments to recognize existing treaties,
and to claim the right to live the way they choose.
Nigerian poet Ken Saro-Wiwa was the
The Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) was established inspirational spokesperson of the Ogoni
in the 1980s to represent Inuit concerns in the United people in Nigeria until he was executed by
States, Canada, Greenland, and Russia and Sámi people’s the Nigerian government in 1995, along with
concerns in Norway. Each country has its own national eight other activists. The activists fought
office. ICC members came together to fight pollution ecological damage to Ogoni land by Shell,
and global warming, and to preserve Inuit culture and one of the world’s largest oil companies.
traditions. The ICC is vocal about environmental change Worldwide protests against the executions
prompted Shell to incorporate a human rights
and its impact on the Arctic regions of the world.
policy into its business plan. How effective
Other regional, national, and international groups do you think public pressure is as a tool for
working to improve the lives of indigenous peoples indigenous populations to effect change?
include the Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact, Four
Directions Council, the Indian Council of South America,
the Indian Law Resource Center, the Indigenous World Education
Association, the International Indian Treaty Council, Many indigenous peoples have
the International Organization of Indigenous Resources suffered from both substandard
Development, the National Indian Youth Council, and education and education designed to
the World Council of Indigenous Peoples. In this chapter,
extinguish traditional cultures. For
you will also read about the United Nations’ efforts in
example, almost half of indigenous
this area.
Mexicans cannot read or write, and
p REFLECTION 58 per cent of their five year olds do
not go to school. Many indigenous
Choose one international organization of peoples have found that their
indigenous peoples mentioned on this page
ancestral cultures have been eroded,
or elsewhere in the book and prepare a brief
and that they have not been edu-
oral report to your class on the organization’s
mission, history, and accomplishments.
cated well enough to take a strong
role in the mainstream culture.
Self-Determination
c Many indigenous peoples share the
c desire to pursue economic, social,
c
c and cultural development under
c their own authority. Some national
c
c governments have responded flexibly
c to this issue. In 1979, for example,
c
Greenland’s Home Rule Act granted

216 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Inuit people autonomy for domestic were denied the right to vote until
issues, without disintegrating the 1960, and they were banned from
territorial unity of Denmark. owning land unless they gave up
their inherent rights. Indigenous
Health
populations in other parts of the
Levels of health and standards of
world have had similar experiences,
health care for indigenous peoples
and continue to face such human
often lag behind mainstream cul-
rights violations.
tures. In indigenous communities
from central Australia, for example, Intellectual Property Rights
40 per cent of children under the Mainstream cultures have often taken
age of three have been hospitalized an interest in — and profited from —
for respiratory illnesses, and three indigenous cultures and traditional
times more babies die than the knowledge. Cultural knowledge or
national average. artifacts are sometimes appropriated,
Aboriginal and Torres Strait or made the property of non-
Islander people in Australia die, on indigenous people or corporations.
average, twenty years earlier than Furthermore, indigenous peoples
other Australians. About 53 per cent often receive no share of the wealth
die before age fifty, compared to created when traditional knowledge
13 per cent of the general population. is used by others.
Some of the world’s indigenous
peoples are better off than others. In Climate change has real and serious implications on
general, indigenous peoples in devel- Inuit life because much of the traditional knowledge
oped countries tend to live longer, is based on the times of seasons and not traditionally
healthier lives than non-indigenous on temperatures. For example, caching caribou is
peoples in developing nations. done in the fall after flies stop flying, not only to
prevent maggots but because meat shouldn’t be too
Human Rights fermented or too fresh. Now with climate change and
Laws in many parts of the world warmer temperatures, much meat is going to waste
have infringed on the basic rights of because of over-fermentation and botulism is
indigenous peoples. Between the becoming a real hazard.…
1870s and 1969, for example, about Inuit have been careful caretakers of the Arctic for
100 000 indigenous children in a long time.… Our customs and laws were designed
Australia were taken from their to ensure our survival.
families and placed in government- What it all came down to was respect for the earth
run institutions, or adopted into and to do your part to keep the world in its original
non-indigenous families. This policy state. Inuit see themselves as part of the ecosystem
was intended to erase the existence and want to be included, not as victims, but as a
of indigenous peoples as a dis- people who can help.
tinct group. I believe Inuit can provide the rest of society with
In one example from Canadian useful and timely information because we are at the
history, First Nations people needed forefront where the impacts and effects of climate
written passes to leave reserves until change are felt first and may be the most severe.
the 1950s. They were once forbid- — Jose A. Kusugak, President, Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami,
den to sell products or livestock Above & Beyond: Canada’s Arctic Journal
without written permission. They

WORLD ISSUES 217

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T H E A I N U I N J A PA N
Europeans were not the only colonists. population to over one million people.
The Ainu people are descendants of the The Ainu continued to be an oppressed
original inhabitants of the Japanese minority, their land gone and their
islands. They lived mainly on Hokkaido, customs and language still prohibited,
off Japan’s north coast, making a living though the government eventually
by fishing, hunting, and gathering plants abolished unfair trade practices.
from the nearby forests. About 1000 years The Hokkaido Kyu-Dojin Protection Act
ago, the Japanese Wajin people migrated (Kyu-Dojin meaning “former Aboriginals”),
northward, beginning a period of conflict a Japanese law passed in 1899, provided
that lasted for about 600 years. the Ainu with small parcels of land to be
In 1669, an Ainu rebellion under the used only for agricultural purposes.
leader Shakushine ended when Japan, However, the best farmland had been
fearing defeat, proposed a peace treaty. handed out years before to settlers from
At the meeting, the Wajin the south, and what was left was usually
poisoned Shakushine and unworkable. Though the Ainu had never
forced the leaderless Ainu to been farmers, they were forbidden from
sign two agreements: one having any other occupation. Anyone
promising submission to the caught fishing in rivers or cutting wood in
Wajin for three generations and forests was arrested. Any land not fully
the other establishing a land- cultivated within fifteen years was taken
lease system. The lease away. Many people lost their land and
system provided the Wajin died of starvation.
settlers with fishing, hunting, Over the next hundred years, attitudes
and timber rights, along with in Japan towards indigenous peoples
free reign to exploit the Ainu. changed. In 1997, a new Japanese
The land-lease system law was passed to provide funding to
lasted until the nineteenth research and promote Ainu culture.
This Ainu giliak (spiritual century. Deprived of their Approximately 24 000 Ainu people now
leader) lived in the traditional means of sustenance live in Hokkaido. Many are working to
village of Agnevo in the and subjected to unfair trade preserve their language, oral tradition,
late nineteenth century.
policies, the Ainu people were traditional dances, and other elements
forced into debt. Some were of their culture.
placed in labour camps to repay their
debts, where they were treated cruelly. p REFLECTION
Many Ainu died there, killed by their
jailors or disease, such as smallpox, Research current efforts by the
cholera, and syphilis. Ainu people to preserve their
culture. What challenges do they
In 1873, the Japanese government face? How do these challenges
decreed that Hokkaido was unowned compare to issues faced by
land and would henceforth be state Aboriginal peoples in Canada? What
property. Colonists were offered role does ethnocentrism play in the
homesteads, swelling the island’s issues faced in both countries?

218 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

 u es for
Iss I

nv
estigatio
D E S C R I B I N G T H E E F F E C T S O F C O L O N I Z AT I O N

What are the effects of colonization on indigenous peoples? n

W H AT T O D O
1. Working in groups of three or four, select Marina Murdilnga and
an indigenous population from outside Billy Nalakandi with their
North America that has experienced children at Kubumi, in
colonization. Examples include Aboriginal Arnhem Land, Australia.
peoples in Australia, the San of Southern Arnhem Land is a vast
Africa, and the Sámi of Norway, Sweden, Aboriginal reserve in the
Finland, and Russia. far north-western tip of
2. Using your textbook, the library, and Australia’s Northern
Internet, research the main events of Territory. The Aboriginal
the colonial period and their effects on people in the area won
the indigenous people you are studying. their land claim in 1976
Focus on the questions that follow: with the Aboriginal Land Rights Act (Northern Territory),
• What did the actions of the the first time the Australian government acknowledged
inherent Aboriginal rights to land. Many people in the
colonizing country reveal about its
region want to be left alone to live their lives as their
values and worldview? people have for over 40 000 years. Visitors may enter
• How did the colonizing country’s the territory only with permission.
values and worldview compare to
those of the indigenous peoples?
Provide specific examples. 4. As a class, display your research around
• How has the colonial experience the class or other display space in the
school. If possible, invite another class to
affected the indigenous culture today?
see your displays, or host an evening for
• What general statements can you your parents to experience your work.
make about the effects of colonization
on indigenous cultures? Include
examples from Canada that show
similar effects. LOOKING BACK
3. Using your research, create a museum What cultural characteristics are
display that focuses on the effects of common to many indigenous peoples
colonization on indigenous peoples. Your around the world? For each character-
display should incorporate at least three istic, offer one example from outside
different ways of presenting the story, North America and one from Canada.
such as What issues are shared by indigenous
• an information pamphlet peoples around the world? For each
• an automated PowerPoint™ issue, give one Canadian and one
presentation international example. What is
• artifacts ethnocentrism and how did it affect
• maps colonized indigenous peoples in Canada
• quotations from those who and around the world? In what ways do
experienced the events indigenous peoples co-operate with
• a timeline each other to achieve their goals today?
• newspaper clippings

WORLD ISSUES 219

 c
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Natural Resources and Conflict
c
c
would become yellow and poisoned,
AS YOU READ and what looked like a metal bird
The demand for natural resources, such as timber, oil, gas, would take the rock to a faraway
and minerals, has had many effects on indigenous peoples land and use it to harm the people
around the world. As the opening story for this section living there, who look much like the
shows, resource development has sometimes had tragic Dene. Ayah warned his people to
consequences. How do you think the companies involved stay away from this area.
in resource development and extraction explain or justify Ayah’s vision came true. In 1930,
their actions? uranium was discovered at Great
An important term used in this section is sustainable Bear Lake. The area was mined for
development. Development that is sustainable meets almost thirty years, first under private
present needs without compromising the needs of future ownership and then, from 1942–60,
generations. As you read further in the chapter, think under the Crown corporation
about why sustainable development is significant for Eldorado Mining and Refining.
indigenous peoples.
Eldorado’s primary customer was
the United States Army. At 8:15 a.m.
on August 6, 1945, a B-29 bomber
G
reat Bear Lake, in the Northwest Territories, is
dropped a bomb containing the
Canada’s second largest lake and one of the
“dangerous rock” on Hiroshima,
deepest in North America. Its blue waters are frozen Japan. Up to 200 000 people died as
a result. World War II ended soon
for all but four months of the year. For thousands of afterwards.
c While it operated, Eldorado
c years, the Sahtú Dene people have
c lived along its shores, following a hired Dene men for $3 a day to carry
c traditional lifestyle of fishing and 45-kilogram gunnysacks of radio-
c
c hunting caribou. active ore from the mine and
c About 150 years ago, Louis transport it downriver. The men
c
c Ayah, a respected spiritual leader, worked twelve hours a day, six days
c had a vision. Terrible things would a week during the four months that
c
c happen, he said, when the white Great Bear Lake was ice-free. While
c man started taking “dangerous working and travelling, the men ate
c and slept on the huge sacks, and
c rock” out of the ground. The water
swept the dust from the docks and
barges. Sacks were sometimes used
Teach your children what we have taught our children,
that the earth is our mother. Whatever befalls the earth,
later for tents and clothing. Dene
befalls the sons of the earth. Elders remember the men coming
home covered from head to toe in
— Chief Seattle, Suquamish
dust, the same dust that settled onto
the lake, causing the ice and snow to
melt faster.
Uranium mining in Canada has left over 120 million tons
Before the uranium supply ran
of radioactive waste. This amount represents enough
material to cover the TransCanada Highway 2 metres
out, more than 1.7 million tonnes of
deep across the country. radioactive waste from Eldorado’s
operations were dumped into and
— Winona LaDuke, Co-Chair, Indigenous Women’s Network
around Great Bear Lake.

220 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

 In 1953, the first Port Radium
miner died of cancer. The first Dene
ore carrier died of cancer in 1960.
Since then, cancer has killed at least
50 people in Déline, a Dene com-
munity of 650. After learning about
scientific evidence linking health
problems and uranium, as well as
evidence that the Canadian govern-
ment knew of these dangers as early
as 1932, the Dene began in the 1970s
to seek restitution. For decades, Ore carriers, many of whom were Sahtú Dene men, worked long hard
while caribou herds migrated across days at the Eldorado uranium mine during the brief Arctic summer.
radioactive wastelands, the Canadian Many later got ill or died because of exposure to radiation.
government denied any problems.
In 1998, widows of the Déline
mine workers were horrified to learn
of the connection between their lands Demands for new consumer
and the atomic bombs detonated goods and technological advances,
during World War II. One wrote an along with rising expectations and
apology to the people of Hiroshima, increased populations, place a huge
and six community members trav- strain on the natural world. In the
elled to Japan to express their sorrow. search for more resources and new
Finally, in 1999, the Déline Dene supplies, industries look in even the
and the government of Canada most inaccessible areas, often the
initiated a joint investigative pro- homelands of indigenous peoples.
gram, the Canada-Déline Uranium This global search creates oppor-
Table. These talks will look for ways tunities for developing countries to
to deal with community concerns bring in income and pay off debt.
over the old mine site. However, decisions to exploit natural
resources, typically with the involve-
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ment of foreign companies and
AND THE DEMAND FOR international financing, frequently
RESOURCES displace indigenous peoples from
Almost everything produced today ancestral lands.
depends on natural resources. Petro- Recognizing this, the 1992 Rio
leum products supply plastic, wax, Declaration on Environment and
cosmetics, food preservatives, inks, Development acknowledged that,
detergents, film, bandages, fertilizers, although countries have the right to
synthetic fabrics, carpets, certain exploit their natural resources, this
medicines, non-leather shoes, tires, right does not override the rights of
and CDs. Homes and other buildings indigenous peoples: “Human beings
are heated by wood, coal, oil, or are at the centre of concerns for
natural gas. Electricity often comes sustainable development. They are
from burning fossil fuels, such as coal, entitled to a healthy and productive
or from hydroelectric generation. life in harmony with nature.”

WORLD ISSUES 221

 Mining
Mining extracts valuable metals and
minerals from the earth, including
diamonds and other jewels, the
copper essential for electrical wiring,
the iron needed to make steel, and
the silicon necessary for computer
chips. The mining industry provides
raw materials for almost everything
used in our daily lives. It feeds
the industrial world and provides
thousands of jobs.
The Oldman Dam in southern Alberta was built to support farmers’ needs for
water, but it is capable of generating power. The dam, built on the traditional But the process of mining
lands of the Piikani First Nation, destroyed First Nations cultural artifacts. disfigures the Earth and pollutes
Research reasons for the dam and reasons why many people opposed it. land and water. Its environmental
Which reasons do you think are most compelling? impact spreads beyond the mine site
itself, stretching along access roads,
rivers, lakes, airstrips, and power
c To u r i s m
c lines. Mining often displaces
Tourism is sometimes an excellent
c indigenous people and sometimes
c way for indigenous peoples to use
destroys their sacred places. When
c their natural resources sustainably.
c mines close, they often leave a legacy
c For example, the Calgary Zoo has
of scars, danger, and contamination.
c established a partnership with
c For example, mining develop-
Wechiau communities in Ghana to
c ment on Spirit Mountain, once a
c preserve and promote a hippo-
c sacred site to Assiniboine and
potamus sanctuary in the northern
c A’aninin (Gros Ventre) nations
c part of the country. The zoo helps
c living in what is now Montana, has
fund the park and promotes it to
c left serious surface and ground water
c tourists. The project gives local
pollution. In 1994, the first lawsuit
c people a way to make a living from
c over the poor clean-up resulted in a
c the animals, and helps preserve
$37 million settlement for local
c endangered species at the same time.
c communities.
c With less consultation and care,
c however, tourism can encroach on Hydroelectricity
c the rights of indigenous peoples. For Hydroelectric power supplies
c
c example, tourism in the Cordillera 19 per cent of the world’s electricity.
c region of the Philippines has resulted In some countries, it supplies
c
c in hotels on ancestral lands, and the 90 per cent. Hydroelectricity is pro-
c commercialization of indigenous moted as economical, reliable, and
c
c cultures and traditions. Elsewhere as respectful of the environment. Some
c well, governments and corporations hydroelectric stations harness the
c power of waterfalls, but most require
c investing in tourism routinely fail to
c consult with indigenous peoples and dams, which are costly to build and
c to ensure that they benefit from often create large bodies of water
c
c such ventures. close to populated areas.
c

222 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

 The larger the dam, the wider
the area of flooding, which damages
valley and river ecosystems. The
World Commission on Dams states
that dams have displaced forty to
eighty million people, a dispropor-
tionate number of them indigenous.
The Itaipu Dam on the Parana
River, between Paraguay and Brazil,
is now the world’s largest hydro-
electric complex. Its eighteen
turbines produce 12 600 megawatts At Long Galoh, a Penan village on the island of Borneo, Chief Pada No
fires a blow pipe armed with poison darts at wild birds. His people
of electricity, enough to illuminate
have hunted with blow pipes for centuries, but the logging industry has
120 million 100-watt lightbulbs at destroyed much of his people’s traditional hunting grounds. Most Penan
once. About 1500 indigenous families have been relocated by the government. Research the background of
were forcibly relocated in the 1970s this situation and find reasons for and against the logging development.
to make room for the dam. Forced If you were in charge of the Borneo government, what decision would
to move onto distant reservations — you make about the Penan people and their land?
where they suffered economically,
Western scientists are still learning
socially, and spiritually — these
about the potential uses of many
people have never been compensated.
plants that indigenous healers have
Forestry used for centuries.
Fifty million indigenous people live Half of the world’s forests have
in rainforests. The world’s forests disappeared through logging, agri-
are also home to diverse species of culture, and urban development.
animals, birds, plants, and other Tropical rainforests are destroyed at
organisms, which interact in com- a rate of over 130 000 square kilo-
plex ways. A shared belief among metres per year, and 9 per cent of
indigenous peoples is that every the world’s tree species are at risk of
form of life on the planet has a extinction. An estimated 137 species
reason for being. Science increas- of plants and animals disappear
ingly agrees. from the world every day.
Forests are essential to the The forestry industry is slowly
quality of life for all humans and improving its practices, though
animals on the planet. They moder- clear-cutting and slash-and-burn
ate climates, absorb carbon dioxide, techniques remain common. In
produce oxygen, and filter air and Malaysia, the world’s largest exporter
water, acting much like global lungs. of tropical timber and a country
From a resource perspective, widely criticized for its forestry
forests provide lumber, the raw practices, 2.7 million hectares were
material for building products, paper, logged during the 1990s. A recently
and fuel. They also provide other established certification process was
useful plants. Seventy-five per cent supposed to improve forestry prac-
of prescription drugs in the western tices, but the basic rights of indige-
world are derived from native plants. nous peoples are still often ignored.

WORLD ISSUES 223

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c
c
c Petroleum
c Oil is the world’s largest source of environment, public pressure has
c energy, supplying nearly half of the lead to more progressive policies.
c
c total energy demand. In 1995, the For example, Syncrude Canada, our
c world used more than three billion country’s largest single oil producer,
c
c tonnes of oil in a single year — has established an environmental
c about the weight of three billion policy that respects the needs of
c
c small cars. Every day, Canada alone surrounding communities.
c consumes nearly two million barrels As part of this policy, the
c
c of oil. One barrel is enough to fill the company is committed to improving
c gas tanks of four cars; two million environmental performance. In
c barrels could fill a football stadium. partnership with the Fort McKay
c
c The petroleum industry includes First Nation, Syncrude developed
c some of the world’s most profitable land reclaimed from mining opera-
c
c corporations, a few of which have tions into habitats for more than
c larger economies than three-quarters 300 wood bison. Syncrude is also
c
c of the world’s countries. Canada’s largest industrial employer
c Though this industry includes of Aboriginal people — more than
c
c some of the worst offenders 700 work for the company, many at
c against indigenous peoples and the highly skilled, high-paying jobs.
c
c
c
c TRADITIONAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
c
c
c Indigenous peoples have traditional ways life that are inherently sustainable.
c These practices enabled them to live efficiently in even the world’s most
c extreme environments, such as deserts and the Arctic.
c
c At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the United Nations
c officially recognized the position of indigenous peoples in conflicts
c
c surrounding resource development. The Rio Declaration on Environment
c and Development states “Indigenous people and their communities …
c have a vital role in environment management and development because
c
c of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and
c duly support their identity, culture, and interests, and enable their effective
c participation in the achievement of sustainable development. This
c
c development should improve the quality of life for all the world’s people.”
c
c p REFLECTION
c
c As you learned in Chapter Two, Aboriginal peoples in Canada have
c
c traditional political, economic, social, and spiritual ways of life that
c ensured people lived harmoniously with the environment. Find and learn
c a story from a local Aboriginal group’s oral tradition that communicates
c
c a sustainable practice.
c
c

224 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

 ues for I
Iss

nv
estigatio
R E S O LV I N G R E S O U R C E M A N A G E M E N T C O N F L I C T S
n
How have conflicts over natural resources emerged and been
resolved?

W H AT T O D O
1. Working in groups of three, select a case 3. What does the conflict reveal about
study about conflict between indigenous attitudes towards natural resources
peoples and natural resource develop- and indigenous peoples?
ment. Suggestions include the 4. Write a final report that includes
• Boruca Hydroelectric Project • a cover page and title
(Costa Rica) • a table of contents
• El Desquite Mine Project (Argentina) • a map
• Upper Baram Timber Project • the cause of the conflict and
(Malaysia) different perspectives on it
• Central Kalahari Game Reserve • a timeline of major events
(Botswana) • how the conflict was resolved or
• Texaco/Petroecuador (Ecuador) why the conflict was not resolved
2. Using the Internet and the library, read • the impact of the conflict or
about the nature of the conflict, its cause, resolution
how it was resolved (or not resolved), • an analysis of the outcome, and
and strategies, if any, that have been your group’s recommendation, if
developed to avoid future problems. possible, for an improved process
for resolution
• at least one connection to a
Canadian example of natural
resource management conflicts
5. Use a computer to prepare your
final report.

LOOKING BACK
This bulldozer is in the Wichi community of Hoktek T’oi, How does sustainable development
Salta Province, Argentina. It has invaded the village fit within traditional indigenous peoples’
cemetery, just one incident of damage in the region worldviews? How is it a significant goal
caused by careless clear-cutting in the rainforest. How for natural resource development? Name
is a bulldozer symbolic of the approach often taken by
and describe at least three examples of
governments and companies towards indigenous
natural resource development and how
peoples’ rights? What symbol would you suggest to
demonstrate a better approach? Use this symbol on the it affects indigenous peoples.
cover page of your report.

WORLD ISSUES 225

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c
The United Nations
c
c
In 1985, the year Phase I of the
AS YOU READ James Bay Project was completed,
The United Nations is an independent international body. the Cree presented a submission to
It sets standards for relationships among nations and the UN Working Group on Indige-
between governments and their people. As you read, nous Populations. The submission
consider how the United Nations has supported described their experiences — how
indigenous peoples’ struggles for human rights, economic the altered environment had dam-
development, cultural preservation, and self-determination. aged their traditional lifestyle — as a
Why would indigenous groups, such as the Quebec Cree, caution to others.
turn to the United Nations for help? What values does the Cree people from Quebec
United Nations try to balance? How successful do you
returned to the UN again in 1991,
think the United Nations has been at ending injustices?
when Quebec’s separation from
Canada appeared likely. In their

T
he first time the James Bay Cree asked the brief to the UN, the Grand Council
of the Crees (of Quebec) argued
United Nations (UN) for assistance was in 1981.
forcefully that they had a right
Nine children had died the previous year from diseases to self-determination under inter-
national law. If Quebec has a right
related to a contaminated water supply, primarily to separate from Canada, they
c because Canada and Quebec had argued, then the Cree have the same
c
c failed to provide medical and right to keep their territory in
c sanitation services as required by the Canada. The Cree asserted that
c they are citizens of Canada and are
c James Bay and Northern Quebec
c Agreement. Canada began to uphold bound to the country by terms of
c its treaty responsibilities soon the James Bay and Northern
c
c afterwards, but Quebec did not. Quebec Agreement.
c In 1998, after assessing Canada’s
c
record, the UN Committee on
Economic, Social, and Cultural
Every paragraph of the Declaration
Rights found Canada to be in
on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
violation of its international obliga-
is based on an abuse of human
rights that the indigenous peoples
tions regarding the rights of First
have experienced. The Declaration Nations. In 1999, the UN Human
proposes remedies in the form Rights Committee separately made
of human-rights standards. These a similar finding. Canada responded
are not theoretical. We knew from with a commitment to end its
bitter experience what needed to Ted Moses “practice of extinguishment,” mean-
be in the draft. ing policies that freeze Aboriginal
— Chief Ted Moses, ambassador to the United Nations for the rights, deny future recognition of
Grand Council of the Crees (of Quebec) those rights, and deny Aboriginal
access to courts to assert those rights.

226 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

THE ORIGINS AND
POWERS OF THE UN Education is an essential human right, a force for social
The United Nations (UN) was change — and the single most vital element in combating
established in 1945 to solve inter- poverty, empowering women, safeguarding children from
exploitative and hazardous labour and sexual exploitation,
national disputes that threaten world
promoting human rights and democracy, protecting the
peace and security. Today, it often
environment and controlling population growth. Education
plays a global peacekeeping role. In is a path towards international peace and security.
2003, UN peacekeepers, with their
— United Nations, The State of the World’s Children (1999)
distinctive blue headgear, had a
presence in ninety-four countries.
As well helping to maintain and process to resolve conflicts and
peace and security, the United make policies on matters that affect
Nations works to protect human the world’s people. While UN
rights, to protect the environment, committees cannot force a member
to help the advancement of women country to change its laws, they can
and the rights of children, and to exert considerable pressure on
fight epidemics, famine, and poverty. governments.
It assists refugees, delivers food aid, Public condemnation voiced in
combats disease, helps expand UN decisions is an embarrassment
food production, makes loans to to a country such as Canada, which
developing countries, and helps has long prided itself on being a
stabilize financial markets. champion of international human
Almost all of the countries in the rights. In addition to the cases
world today — 191 out of 193 or involving the Cree in Quebec,
194, depending on the criteria used Canada has been found in violation
to count — belong to the United of Aboriginal peoples’ rights several
Nations. When a country becomes a other times. For example, in 1990,
member, it agrees to accept the the UN Human Rights Committee
obligations of the UN Charter, an concluded that Alberta’s expropri-
international treaty that sets out basic ation of Lubicon Lake Cree lands
principles of international relations. for private oil and gas company
The charter lists the four main leases violated the International
purposes of the United Nations: Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights, a UN agreement regarding
• to maintain international
human rights.
peace and security
• to develop friendly relations owledge
among nations Kn
enous

• to co-operate in solving
international problems and The year 1977 was pivotal for Aboriginal rights in Canada.
di g

Sandra Lovelace’s appeal to the United Nations Human

promote human rights In Rights Committee helped prompt an amendment to the
• to be a centre for harmon- Indian Act in 1985 (Bill C-31). Article 27 of the International
izing the actions of all nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights was pivotal to her
The United Nations is not a case. What does this article state? Research and evaluate
world government and it does not the United Nations’s role in this case.
make laws. It does provide a forum

WORLD ISSUES 227

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PROFILE

LEROY LITTLE BEAR

Kainai First Nation
“If you think provincial “At face value, Western concepts of
government moves slowly, physics, for example, differ greatly from
you should try working at the those of our culture. But enter into the
international level,” says subject at the level of quantum mechanics,
Leroy Little Bear of his and you notice more and more similarities,”
involvement with indigenous Little Bear explains. He explores Blackfoot
groups working for human knowledge through its oral tradition.
rights through the United Blackfoot stories and songs referring to
Leroy Little Bear
Nations. the “magical” manipulation of time, space,
But the wait is worth it, according to the and matter become more practical and
Native American Studies professor. He is less mystical the deeper you go, he says.
gratified to see years of meetings, conven- “As we connect with these ways of
tions, and resolution-making paying off. knowing, which our ancestors used for
“Twenty years ago, there would have centuries, we move towards sustainable
been no talk of protecting indigenous existence and away from the illusion that
peoples’ rights and knowledge at the so much of modern society is based on,”
global level, but there is now,” Little Bear Little Bear concludes.
explains. “Within the United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity, for p REFLECTION
example, there is a section that specifically
speaks to protection of indigenous 1. Aboriginal people’s traditional
knowledge related to the environment.” knowledge is considered a
collective right. The knowledge
A graduate of the University of is owned by no individual, but
Lethbridge, Little Bear has held Professor is property of an entire nation,
Emeritus status there since his official including past, present, and
retirement in 1997. This status means future members of that nation.
he keeps his title of professor in honour The right to manage the uses to
of his contributions to the institution. He which this knowledge is put is
continues to teach and mentor university an intellectual property right.
students and to act as an advisor to Many world indigenous peoples
government. The accomplished academic are working together to ensure
has co-authored three books and taught at that the intellectual property of
Harvard University. their people is protected as
Little Bear is now interested in carefully as their traditional lands.
connections between North American Visit the United Nations Web site
Aboriginal peoples’ science and Western at [Link] and visit the
physics. He became fascinated with the Cyberschoolbus site to learn
subject after working with a group of more about this topic.
Aboriginal traditionalists and senior 2. What is quantum mechanics?
scientists, who compared similarities and Research how this field of physics
differences between Western science and is related to traditional First Nations
indigenous cultures and worldviews. worldviews and oral traditions.

228 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
AND THE UN
Only countries have voting rights at
the United Nations (UN), but the
UN recognizes that other groups
have interests in the issues it deals
with. The UN therefore recognizes
many non-governmental organiza- United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan (centre left)
tions (NGOs). NGOs can attend stands with participants at the third session of the Permanent
meetings and present their views. Forum on Indigenous Issues. Annan’s opening speech said that
Among many other Aboriginal indigenous peoples had made much progress over the last
decade, but continued to suffer discrimination and other
organizations, the Métis National
human rights violations.
Council has NGO status, which can
help the organization influence UN
decisions. rights, both among indigenous
Indigenous peoples have often peoples and the rest of the world’s
turned to the United Nations for citizens, the United Nations declared
legal recognition and political 1993 the International Year of the
support. After initially focusing on World’s Indigenous People. Con-
human rights, indigenous people tinuing this effort, the United
now participate in international Nations then announced the Inter-
conferences concerning the environ- national Decade of the World’s
ment, development, and population. Indigenous Peoples, beginning
Since the 1970s, indigenous December 10, 1994.
issues have formed a larger part of the In 2000, the UN established the
UN agenda. In the 1980s, a working Permanent Forum on Indigenous
group suggested that the protection Issues, which acts as an advisory body
of the rights of indigenous peoples to the Economic and Social Council
be dealt with on a continuing basis regarding indigenous issues related
under a separate, high-level, perma- to economic and social development,
nent UN body. The Working Group culture, the environment, education,
on Indigenous Populations was health, and human rights.
established in 1982, leading to some
of the largest human rights meetings LOOKING BACK
ever held by the United Nations.
In 1985, the Working Group Write down the four main purposes
began drafting a declaration of the of the United Nations. With a
rights of indigenous peoples. In partner, review this section to find
examples of activities that fulfill
1993, it completed a draft document,
these purposes. List United Nations
the most comprehensive statement endeavours that work specifically
of such collective rights ever devel- on behalf of indigenous peoples.
oped. More than 100 indigenous Write a review of the United
peoples’ organizations participated Nations Web site as a source
in the Working Group. of information for indigenous
In an attempt to increase global students around the world.
awareness about indigenous peoples’

WORLD ISSUES 229

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c
Aboriginal Youth and Education
c
c
fence. She made trips to the school
AS YOU READ to try to speak to him in his own
The United Nations pursues many health and education language, only to be shooed away by
programs to ensure the well being of young people around a mission manager.
the world. In most cultures, young people are valued for the Technical school training pre-
future they represent. Societies try to secure that future by pared Perkins to become a machinist,
investing in young people’s knowledge and skills. Education but fate intervened. When he was
provides access to economic, political, and social power. sixteen, he was spotted playing
To be effective, education must be relevant to the needs soccer by the English first-division
and situation of students. It must also be a life-long process. club Everton, which offered him a
As you read this section, think about the importance of place on the team. In England, he
education as a means to achieving self-determination. discovered how much better life
could be outside Australia’s system-

C
harles Nelson Perkins was born at the Alice atic racism. Though he was later
invited to try out for Manchester
Springs Telegraph Station Aboriginal reserve,
United, he chose to return to
Northern Territory, Australia, on June 16, 1936. Of Australia in 1959.
At the age of twenty-three, he
Arrernte and Kalkadoon descent, he was a non-person
became an Aboriginal rights activist.
c according to the Australian govern- The Freedom Rides through rural
c
c ment. Section 127 of the Australian New South Wales in 1966 were
c Constitution (repealed in 1967) among his most famous efforts.
c stated “In reckoning the numbers of Modelled after African American
c
c people of the Commonwealth, or Freedom Rides, this bus tour of
c of a State or other part of the student protestors sparked inter-
c
c Commonwealth, aboriginal natives national awareness of the problems
c shall not be counted.” of Aboriginal people in Australia.
c
c When he was ten, he was taken Like African Americans, Aboriginal
c from his home — as were almost all Australians were banned by law
c
c Aboriginal children over a period of from public places such as wash-
c almost 100 years. He was sent to a rooms, swimming pools, cinemas,
c mission school for Aboriginal boys and shops. The Freedom Rides are
c
c in Adelaide. He remembers his often cited as the most significant
c grandmother as a face behind a wire act in Australia’s race relations
Charles Perkins, c
c during the twentieth century.
pictured here in the c
1960s, became a
Named Aborigine of the Year in
c
leading Aboriginal rights c 1993 and awarded the Order of
leader in Australia. c Australia for his work on behalf of
c
What qualities and c indigenous people, Perkins’s legacy
experiences do you c includes the Aboriginal embassy, a
think drive a person c tent he helped build in 1972 on the
like Perkins to become c
a leader? What would c lawns of Australia’s former parliament
c house. The tent remains there today,
drive you to stand up c
for what you believe in? c protected under heritage laws.

230 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

T H E I M P O R TA N C E than twice as likely as non-indigenous
O F E D U C AT I O N students to leave high school before
Perkins was the first Australian graduating. Fewer than half of
Aboriginal person to graduate from indigenous teenagers were attending
university. In 2000, thirty-five years educational institutions, compared to
after he completed his arts degree, 75 per cent of non-indigenous teen-
the University of Sydney awarded agers. Canada’s picture in this regard
him an honorary doctor of laws. is improving. Of working-age Abor-
In contrast, many of the world’s iginal people, 61 per cent had high
children leave school before grade school diplomas or better in 2001,
five. One hundred and thirty million up from 55 per cent in 1996.
children worldwide — two-thirds of Education has a direct impact
them girls — have no access to edu- on employment. In 1991, 84 per cent
cation. A disproportionate number of Aboriginal Canadians with
of them are indigenous people. university degrees were working,
In 2001, only 17 per cent of compared to 52 per cent of Aborig-
indigenous Australians had a high inal people overall. But education is
school education. They were more more than a path to a good job. The

ABORIGINAL YOUTH WORKING ABROAD

The Native Law Centre at the University of Saskatchewan, in co-operation with the Department of
Foreign Affairs and International Trade, offers international internships for Aboriginal young people
from Canada to work in other countries with institutions that serve the needs of indigenous peoples.
The focus of this program, called Young Professionals International, is giving indigenous peoples the
chance to learn from each other.
Jonathan Breaker was one of these interns. He went from the Siksika First Nation in Alberta
to Paris, France, to work for UNESCO. His project involved work with sustainable development
issues among indigenous peoples — preserving indigenous culture and language, conserving the
environment, and reducing poverty. All these goals were pursued through programs integrating
the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples.
Adrienne Edmunds, an Inuk from Labrador, worked for the New South Wales government in
Australia to research Canadian and Australian indigenous social justice issues, and to compare
contemporary and historical policies of the governments of both countries. Her experiences
abroad increased her empathy, sensitivity, and appreciation for cultural differences.
Bev Lafond is from the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation in the Treaty Six territory in Saskatchewan.
Her placement allowed her to work with the Human Rights Commission of New Zealand. She knew
about issues affecting First Nations
people in Canada, and wanted to see if p REFLECTION
new initiatives or developments in other Write a paragraph describing an international
countries could be adapted for her own internship for yourself. Explain which country you
community. Part of her job was to share would like to visit and what kind of work you would
information on First Nations initiatives like to pursue.
and development in Canada.

WORLD ISSUES 231

 c
c
c
c
c
c

The Bigstone Cree Nation is just one of many Alberta communities that makes Young girls in Kabul, Afghanistan, are shown
sure its school programs are relevant and meaningful for Aboriginal students. here in 2003 attending school for the first time
Here Elder Bill Sewepagaham teaches students about drumming and singing. in five years. Why do girls in some countries
have problems accessing education?

of Aboriginal self-government. First

Nations in Canada cite an Austra-
lian case, Mabo v. Queensland, during
court arguments for Aboriginal title.
Education helps people to see
opportunities, to understand how to
turn ideas into reality, and to play a
part in making the world a better
place, both locally and globally. It
enables the world’s indigenous
Canada’s first accredited Aboriginal-run university, First Nations University of peoples to bring their stories onto
Canada, was launched in 2003. Formerly the Saskatchewan Indian Federated the world stage, where others will
College, which opened in 1976, First Nations University has campuses in
Saskatoon, Prince Albert, and Regina. It is “dedicated to promoting and listen, care, and assist.
expanding Aboriginal knowledge in teaching, research, and service.” Many factors contribute to lower
education rates for the world’s indige-
c United Nations Children’s Fund nous peoples, including poverty,
c war, physical distance from facilities,
c (UNICEF) declares that education
c “is the foundation of a free and and disease. What is taught in the
c fulfilled life” — a statement based on classroom — and how — also plays
c
c decades of research and experience. a considerable role. Lessons that are
c Knowledge is power. In an relevant to students’ lives and
c
c increasingly global community, the cultures, and taught in students’ first
c world’s indigenous peoples are languages, help make education
c
c learning from each other and gaining more effective. Recognizing this,
c from one another’s triumphs. education systems around the world
c are slowly evolving to meet the
c Indigenous Australians, for example,
c hold up Nunavut as a shining model needs of indigenous peoples.
c

232 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

 ues for I
Iss

nv
estigatio
E N S U R I N G C U LT U R A L F U T U R E S T H R O U G H E D U C AT I O N
Around the world, a revolution in education is beginning, as governments and educators n
realize the importance of a new approach to teaching and learning — one designed to
make classroom experiences more fulfilling and relevant, while equipping students with
skills they will use throughout their lives. Approaches to learning systems vary around
the world, reflecting local conditions and needs. The intent is to make education more
effective for both children and society as a whole.
For example, the Yurrekaityarindi partnership in Australia involves Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander people in their communities’ education systems. Yurrekaityarindi
are committees of indigenous people who work with local schools and educators to ensure
that indigenous students are encouraged to excel in their studies. They also help students
overcome challenges to learning.
Another Australian initiative is the Intelyape project, which developed Arrernte literacy
materials with indigenous Australians in Alice Springs. The project has become a model
for other countries creating bilingual programs based on local indigenous languages.

How can education best serve

the needs of Aboriginal youth?

W H AT T O D O
1. Research initiatives in education
for indigenous youth in Australia,
New Zealand, Sweden, and Russia.
2. Compare these initiatives to the
educational opportunities provided
for Aboriginal youth in your community These students at New Aiyansh, British Columbia,
or province. are part of a bilingual/bicultural education system
3. What is your ideal vision of education developed by the Nisga’a Tribal Council (since the
for Aboriginal youth in your community? Nisga’a Treaty called the Nisga’a Lisims Government.)
What educational goals do you think Its goal is to have students fully fluent in Nisga’a
are most important for Aboriginal youth language and culture.
today? Is cultural education an important
part of the system you envision? Design
a weekly school timetable that includes LOOKING BACK
a description of each course and any
special features of how it is taught. How Why is education important to Aboriginal
will this education system help prepare youth? How is it important to Aboriginal
Aboriginal youth for the future? cultures? If you could do something to
help your community, what would you
T h i n k i n g A b o u t Yo u r P r o j e c t most like to do? What kind of preparation,
Besides formal education at school, how else education, or experience would you need
can people learn about culture? In your to achieve this goal?
opinion, how is culture best taught?

WORLD ISSUES 233

 c
c
c
c
Chapter Seven Review
c
c
c
c C h e c k Yo u r U n d e r s t a n d i n g 14. How has the United Nations
c 1. Define geopolitical. How have responded to the increasing
c geopolitical boundaries created demand by indigenous peoples
c challenges for indigenous peoples? to have global representation?
c
c 2. Describe at least four cultural
c characteristics often found in Reading and Writing
c indigenous cultures from around 15. Create a chart to organize your
c ideas about the issues facing
c the world.
indigenous peoples around the
c 3. List common issues faced by
c world, and how (or whether) their
indigenous peoples around issues have been addressed. Your
c
c the world. chart could look something like this:
c 4. Define ethnocentrism and explain
c Name Description How Issue Has Been
c how it has affected indigenous
c peoples. of Issue of Issue OR Could Be Resolved
c 5. Describe at least two examples
c
c of how ethnocentrism affected
c Aboriginal peoples in Canadian
c history.
c
c 6. How does the Ainu experience
c in Japan mirror First Nations
c experiences in Canada?
c 16. How does the position of Aboriginal
c 7. Why did colonizers sometimes peoples in Canada compare to
c separate indigenous children indigenous peoples in another
c from their families?
c country? Choose a specific group
c 8. How did the government’s failure of indigenous people to study.
c to address the dangers involved Make your comparison based on
c in mining uranium near Great Bear factors such as education, health,
c
c Lake reflect its attitudes towards language, self-government, and
c the land and Aboriginal peoples? cultural continuity. Write an essay
c giving your opinion with evidence
c 9. In what ways does hydroelectric
to support your ideas.
c generation often conflict with
c Aboriginal views about natural 17. Consider the statement that
c resource management? follows:
c
c 10. How can a natural resource Indigenous youth inherit the
c extraction company demonstrate responsibility to protect and
c environmental responsibility?
c preserve their traditional lands,
c Give a specific example. resources, and sacred sites
c 11. What is meant by sustainable upon which their cultural
c development? Why is it important
c heritage and identity is based.
c for indigenous peoples? — United Nations, 2002
c 12. What are the four main purposes
c Write a paragraph or two about
c of the United Nations? your response to this statement.
c 13. In what disputes was Canada Do you think this responsibility
c found in violation of the
c is fair and reasonable? Is your
c International Covenant on Civil education preparing you to
c and Political Rights? What happens take this role? Include specific
c when a country is found in violation examples in your response.
c of a United Nations agreement?
c

234 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

18. Research human rights issues 23. One forum through which
in your province and prepare a Aboriginal people in North America
case study to present to your class. meet and network with other
19. In a small group, create a Web site Aboriginal people is sporting
educating others about indigenous events. Research the history of
people’s intellectual property and the Arctic Games, North American
their rights regarding this property. Indigenous Games, or Northern
Games. Write a three-page history
of the event and learn how to do
Speaking and Listening
one traditional game or event to
20. Working with a partner, imagine
teach other students in your class.
that you are employed by a
As part of your instruction, give the
television-advertising agency and
history of the sport and mention
you have been asked to create an At the 2004 Arctic Games,
records or achievements held by
environmental commercial that will held in Fort McMurray,
Aboriginal athletes in this event.
target an age group of sixteen to Alberta, Nunavut athlete
eighteen year olds. You have been For example, the one-foot high
Chris Merkosak competed
told to use one of the quotations kick, a traditional Inuit sport,
in the one-foot high kick,
from this textbook somewhere in requires participants to jump off the
a traditional Inuit sport.
your commercial. Create a ground on two feet, kick the target
The junior male record
30-second commercial that will (usually a rolled-up seal skin), and
was set in Fort McMurray
address an environmental issue land on the foot that kicked the seal.
by sixteen-year-old
and reflect Aboriginal peoples’ Traditionally, Inuit sports helped
John Miller III, from Alaska,
views about conservation and hunters build their skills and
who kicked 2 metres,
management of resources. strength, while reinforcing social
87 centimetres.
Videotape your commercial and ideals about fair play and respect
present it to the class. for the land. Explain the benefits to
Aboriginal youth of participating in
21. Find a story from the oral tradition of
such events in the past and today.
an indigenous culture from outside
North America. Learn the story and
present it to your class. Along with LOOKING BACK
your story, provide a brief overview
of the culture and environment of In an activity on page 8, in the
the people who tell it. first chapter of this book, you
read a copy of the United
Going Further Nations Draft Declaration on the
22. Invite an Aboriginal person who has Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
attended international meetings of Look back to that declaration
indigenous peoples to your class now and reflect upon how much
to discuss his or her experiences. you have learned in this course
What did he or she learn that could about the rights of indigenous
benefit local communities?
peoples. For as many of the
clauses as you can, give a
specific example that shows
problems in the world today, or
changes that have improved the
lives of indigenous peoples.

WORLD ISSUES 235