5. Describe the structure of a seminiferous tubule.
Solution:
The structure of seminiferous tubules is listed below:
Seminiferous tubules are found in the testicular lobules and are highly coiled structures. It
is here that the production of sperm in the testes occurs
Each of the seminiferous tubules has a lining of germinal epithelium
On the inner side, it is lined by two types of cells – Sertoli cells and spermatogonia
Spermatogonia – they are the male germ cells that produce the primary spermatocytes
through the process of meiotic divisions. Further, the primary spermatocytes undergo
meiotic divisions for the formation of secondary spermatocytes and, ultimately,
spermatids. Later on, spermatids metamorphosise into the male gametes, termed as
spermatozoa
Sertoli cells are referred to as nurse cells of the testes. It is because they nourish the
germ cells.
Just adjacent to the seminiferous tubules, there are large polygonal cells referred to as
leydig cells or interstitial cells, which secrete testosterone – the male hormone.
6. What is spermatogenesis? Briefly describe the process of spermatogenesis.
Solution:
The phenomena of sperm production from the immature germ cell in males is termed
as spermatogenesis. The process occurs in the seminiferous tubules located inside
the testes. In this process, a diploid male germ cell or spermatogonium enlarges (in
size) to form a diploid primary spermatocyte, which in turn goes through the first
meiotic division or meiosis I. This division is a reductional division for the formation of
two equal haploid secondary spermatocytes, each of which further undergoes a
second meiotic division or meiosis II for the formation of two equal haploid
spermatids.
Subsequently, four haploid spermatids are formed from a diploid spermatogonium.
The spermatids, hence produced, alter to form spermatozoa (sperm) through the
process of spermiogenesis.
7. Name the hormones involved in the regulation of spermatogenesis.
Solution:
Some hormones involved in the regulation of spermatogenesis are as listed below:
Luteinising hormone (LH) – It serves as Leydig cells triggering synthesis & secretion of
androgens
Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) – It is a hypothalamic hormone that is
secreted at the age of puberty, acting at the anterior pituitary gland and stimulating the
secretion of LH & FSH
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – It acts on Sertoli cells, stimulating the secretion of
factors which aid in the spermiogenesis process
Androgens – It triggers inhibin production regulating the spermatogenesis process
8. Define spermiogenesis and spermiation.
Solution:
Spermiogenesis – It is the phenomenon of the transformation of non-motile
spermatids to mature, motile spermatozoa.
Spermiation – It is the phenomenon where mature spermatozoa are released from
the Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
9. Draw a labelled diagram of sperm.
Solution:
The diagram of sperm is as below:
10. What are the major components of seminal plasma?
Solution:
The major components of seminal plasma are as follows:
Secretions of the accessory sex glands of males – prostate gland, seminal vesicles,
bulbourethral glands.
Mainly composed of – calcium, fructose, and other enzymes.
11. What are the major functions of male accessory ducts and glands?
Solution:
The major functions of the male accessory ducts and glands are as follows:
Male accessory Vasa Conducts sperms from the rete testis to the epididymis
ducts efferentia
Rete testis Stores sperms that are produced by seminiferous tubules
Vasa Conducts sperms from epididymis to the urethra
deferentia
Epididymis Physiological maturation of sperms, storage & nourishment
Male accessory Seminal Activates and provides energy to facilitate sperm motility after ejaculation
gland vesicles
Prostate Nourishes and activates sperms, enhances sperm motility, provides alkalinity
gland to the ejaculate, neutralises urine acidity
Cowper’s Enhances mobility & survival potentiality of sperms in the genital tract of the
gland female reproductive system, neutralises the activity of acidic female vaginal
secretions
12. What is oogenesis? Give a brief account of oogenesis.
Solution:
Oogenesis is the phenomenon of the formation of haploid female gametes known as
ova from diploid oogonia in the ovary, Graffian follicles, to be precise. This process is
discontinuous, which is initiated during the period of foetal development that is
terminated only after puberty sets in.
The process of oogenesis takes place in three phases, and they are listed below:
Multiplicative phase – Follicle cells are differentiated from the germinal epithelium of the
ovary due to repeated mitosis division. Few follicle cells enlarge and are termed as egg
mother cells and undergo mitosis to multiply, which is referred to as oogonia.
Growth phase – One of the oogonia of the egg nest differentiates while the rest change
into surrounding nutritive follicular epithelium. There is an increase in the size of the
differentiated isolated oogonium as it gets nourished from the girdling follicle cells,
thereby transforming into a diploid primary oocyte.
Maturation phase – The diploid primary oocyte in this phase passes through two
maturation divisions. Meiosis I – the first meiotic division splits the diploid primary oocyte
into two haploid cells, wherein the larger one is the secondary oocyte, and the minor one
is the polar body (polocyte). In meiosis II, or the second meiotic division, the secondary
oocyte splits to form one large ootid and a tiny second polar body. Furthermore, the first
polar body splits through mitosis to form two polar bodies. The ootid matures into a
functional haploid ovum. Therefore, one primary oocyte produces one large ovum and
three polar bodies, which in turn degenerate. They degenerate as they do not participate
in reproduction, thus leaving behind one functional ovum.
13. Draw a labelled diagram of a section through the ovary.
Solution:
The diagram of a section of an ovary is as follows:
14. Draw a labelled diagram of a Graafian follicle.
Solution:
The diagram of a Graafian follicle is as follows:
15. Mention the functions of the following:
(a) Corpus luteum (b) Endometrium
(c) Acrosome (d) Sperm tail
(e) Fimbriae
Solution:
The functions are as follows:
(a) Corpus luteum – It is formed when the Graafian follicle ruptures. The corpus
luteum secretes the hormone progesterone during the luteal phase of the menstrual
cycle. When progesterone is secreted at high levels, the secretion of LH and FSH is
inhibited, which further prevents ovulation. The corpus luteum facilitates the
endometrium of the uterus to proliferate and prepare for the process of implantation.
(b) Endometrium – As the name suggests, the endometrium is the innermost lining of
the uterus comprising glands that undergo cyclic changes during different stages of
the menstrual cycle in order to prepare themselves for the embryo-implantation
process.
(c) Acrosome – The acrosome is located in the anterior section of the head of the
sperm, resembling a cap-like structure. It consists of the hyaluronidase enzyme that
hydrolyses the outer membrane of the egg, which facilitates the sperm to perforate
through the egg during fertilisation.
(d) Sperm tail – the sperm tail makes up for the longest part of the sperm, enabling
the movement of the sperm once it has entered the female reproductive tract.
(e) Fimbriae – Towards the ovarian end of the fallopian tube, finger-like projections
emerge. These are the Fimbriae which assist in gathering the ovum after the
ovulation process. This is facilitated by the beating of the cilia.
16. Identify True/False statements. Correct each false statement to make it
true.
(a) Androgens are produced by Sertoli cells. (True/False)
(b) Spermatozoa get nutrition from Sertoli cells. (True/False)
(c) Leydig cells are found in the ovary. (True/False)
(d) Leydig cells synthesise androgens. (True/False)
(e) Oogenesis takes place in the corpus luteum. (True/False)
(f) Menstrual cycle ceases during pregnancy. (True/False)
(g) Presence or absence of a hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity or
sexual experience. (True/False)
Solution:
a. False.
Androgens are produced by the Leydig cells that are present in the seminiferous tubules
b. True
c. False
Leydig cells are present in the seminiferous tubules of the testis in males.
d. True
e. False
Oogenesis occurs in the ovary.
f. True
g. True
17. What is the menstrual cycle? Which hormones regulate the menstrual
cycle?
Solution:
It is a cycle observed to be taking place in females, lasting around 28 days on average to
complete.
It is a series of cyclic physiological changes occurring in the female reproductive tract in
primates, the end of which is combined with the collapsing of the uterine endothelium that
is liberated in the form of blood and mucus through the vaginal opening, which is termed
menses.
The different hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle are LH – luteinising hormone,
FSH – follicle-stimulating hormone, progesterone and estrogen.
During the follicular phase, the levels of LH and FSH that are secreted from the anterior
pituitary gland increase. The FSH that is secreted under the effect of the releasing
hormone (RH) from the hypothalamus triggers the primary follicle to convert into a
Graafian follicle.
There is a gradual increase in the level of LH, which causes the follicle to grow, also
causing the secretion of estrogen.
Estrogen obstructs the FSH secretion, triggering the secretion of the LH, which also
results in the thickening of the uterine endometrium.
The amplified secretion of LH also results in the Graffian follicle rupturing, thereby
causing the release of the ovum into the fallopian tube.
This ruptured Graafian follicle transforms into corpus luteum, which secretes the
hormone – progesterone during the luteal phase.
The hormone progesterone assists in maintaining and preparing the endometrium for the
process of embryo-implantation
When the progesterone level in the blood is high, the FSH and LH secretion decreases,
which furthermore hinders the process of ovulation.
18. What is parturition? Which hormones are involved in the induction of
parturition?
Solution:
Parturition is the process wherein a fully developed foetus from the mother’s womb is
expelled after the completion of the gestation period.
The two critical hormones that are involved in the induction of parturition are as
follows:
Oxytocin – It directs the full-term foetus towards the birth canal, as it causes the
contraction of the smooth muscles of the myometrium of the uterus, leading the baby to
be expelled out
Relaxin – It relaxes the pelvic ligaments, widening the pelvis to assist in an easier
childbirth
19. In our society, women are often blamed for giving birth to daughters. Can
you explain why this is not correct?
Solution:
We know that human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes, and out of these, 22
pairs are autosomes, and the last pair varies in males and females. Males are
heterogametic – they produce two types of male gametes or sperms, where 50% of
the sperms carry the ‘X’ chromosome, while the rest 50% carry the ‘Y’ chromosome.
On the other hand, females are homogametic – they produce only one type of
gamete, the ova, each of which carries the ‘X’ chromosome only.
Once the male and female gametes have fused to form the zygote, it would carry
either XX chromosome or XY chromosome, depending on whether sperm carrying X
or Y fertilised the ovum. Hence, if the sperm carrying ‘X’ fertilises the ovum (zygote
XX), it will develop into a female baby, and if the sperm carrying ‘Y’ fertilises the
ovum (zygote XY), it will develop into a male baby. Both of these cases are attributed
to the sperm that carries the chromosome fertilising the ovum. Hence, we can say
that the sex of the child is determined by the father and not the mother. This is why it
is incorrect to blame women for the gender of the child.
20. How many eggs are released by a human ovary in a month? How many
eggs do you think would have been released if the mother gave birth to
identical twins? Would your answer change if the twins born were fraternal?
Solution:
Typically in a month, human ovaries release only one egg, rarely two.
In the case of identical twins or monozygotic twins, one egg is released by the ovary,
which splits into two post-fertilisation. This is why identical twins exhibit the same
genetic features. On the other hand, in fraternal twins or dizygotic twins, two eggs
are released, which are fertilised by two different sperms causing the fraternal twins
to exhibit different genetic characteristics.
21. How many eggs do you think were released by the ovary of a female dog
which gave birth to 6 puppies?
Solution:
In order to have given birth to six puppies, the ovary of the female dog released six
eggs. Hence, six zygotes were formed for each to develop into a puppy.