CHAPTER-1

Introduction

1.1 Solar energy and praboloidal solar concentrator

One of the ways of using solar radiant energies is in thermal form as

distinguished from photovoltaic electricity form. Solar thermal energy
collectors can be of different designs ranging from flat plate type as in hot
water systems which use plate and fin type heat exchangers or vacuum
tube collectors for heat deliveries at temperatures less than 100 0C to dish
type concentrators with single curved reflector for thermal energy
deliveries above 1000 0C as found with solar furnaces.

Concentrated solar thermal energy collection has very small

absorber area as compared to flat plate collectors and hence has less heat
conduction losses which are proportional to difference between receiver
and ambient temperatures. The receiver’s heat losses occur through
receiver’s bottom and side areas. However concentrating collectors have
more radiative heat losses.
While many large size R & D prototype and commercial
concentrating solar thermal energy collectors are operating worldwide for
heat and power applications, smaller and cheaper high temperature heat
delivery systems suitable for domestic and cottage industries are almost
non-existent.

1
 INTRODUCTION

The problems with lower temperature collectors are that the

collected heat can’t be stored over extended periods effectively and they
can’t meet certain domestic or small industrial needs for pressure cooking,
baking, frying etc. High temperature heat delivery requires concentrating
reflectors and an efficient heat receiver-transmitter at the focal zone.

The five challenges to be overcome to have marketable and widely

deployable small scale high temperature solar collector systems are
perceived to be as follows:

(i) A built-in sun tracking system whose cost would be a small fraction of
the user’s cost of overall heat collection and delivery device.
(ii) Single or segmented reflectors which can be mass produced or easily
fabricated, or assembled and are durable.
(iii) An efficient radiant heat receiver-exchanger.
(iv) Heat transport from receiver-exchanger to the point of end use
(v) An affordable high temperature thermal energy storage system for
delivering heat at nearly constant temperature for extended usage
beyond sunshine period, and which can be aptly termed as
uninterrupted thermal supply (UTS) similar to uninterrupted power
supply (UPS).

Almost all of the domestic scale paraboloidal solar concentrator

systems available in the market have segmented reflector surface of glass
mirrors or polished and anodized aluminum sheets and can broadly belong
to any of the following categories:

A. Scheffler designed sun tracking concentrators

Scheffler type of concentrator-tracking system has segments of flat

mirrors fixed on simple curved steel wire frame which forms a segment of
paraboloidal as shown in figure 1.1.
 INTRODUCTION

A slowly dropping weight or wound spring such as to be found in

clock towers or in mechanical spring wound clocks enable sun tracking of
Scheffler systems. The draw backs of Scheffler systems are

(i) Unsuitability
nsuitability for mass production
(ii) Inefficient
nefficient flat shaped
shaped heat receiver operating in the open
atmosphere resulting in larger loss of high temperature heat
energy.

Figure
ure 1.1 Scheffler designed sun tracking concentrators [63]

B. Non-tracking
tracking paraboloidal solar cookers with wire frame
supported reflective surface

Another popular concentrating system available for domestic

applications like cooking has anodized and polished aluminum reflector
sheets fixed
xed on steel frame as shown in figure1.2.
figure1.2. Its components are
manufactured in factories and assembled manually. However
Howe almost all
such types are made for intermittent
intermittent and manual altitude–azimuthal
altitude
adjustments of the dish frame
frame to orient it towards the sun.
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.2 Non-tracking paraboloidal solar cookers with wire frame

supported reflective surface

C. Non-tracking paraboloidal solar cookers with continuous

substrate supported reflective surface

Yet another type of dish type of concentrators have anodized and

polished aluminum reflector sheets fixed on fiber reinforced plastics (FRP)
dish with a provision for an altitude–azimuthal focusing on the sun
manually and intermittently as shown in figure 1.3. The present work
focuses on improvements to such concentrators.

Figure 1.3 Non-tracking paraboloidal solar cookers with continuous

substrate supported reflective surface
 INTRODUCTION

1.2 Motivation

One of the most negative environmental impacts of the consumption

of fossil fuels is CO2 production, which is the major greenhouse gas. This
greenhouse gas is the cause for global warming and climate change. For
atmosphericCO2the amount is measured by particles per million (ppm).
The critical value forCO2 is 350 ppm, above which unpredictable climate
changes may be caused. The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has been
exceeding of 350 ppm since [Link] 1.4and 1.5 shows emissions by
year in terms of gigatonnes (Gt) [1].

It is observed that the amount of emitted CO2 increased significantly

after the 1950s. So while the three main primary energy sources used now
viz., oil, natural gas and coal, brings significant comfort to people, they are
also resulting in global problems such as climate change and global
warming.

Figure 1.4Emissions by Year up to 2007[1]

 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.5Predicted emissions by year up to 2035 [27]

The fatal characteristic of these three main primary energy sources

prompted search for alternative ways to generate electricity. The common
alternative methods to generate electricity are nuclear, wind, geothermal,
hydroelectric energy and solar energy.

Figure 1.6 Main Sources of carbon emissions in 2008 [1]

 INTRODUCTION

1.3 Status
tatus of solar energy in India

India is one of the few countries which

w gets plenty of solar energy,
especially in the thar desert
d region. On an average, the country enjoys 300
days of sunny and able to receive200 MW/ km2an average hourly
radiation. Around
round 12.5% of India’s land mass of the consisting energy
potential. In India 413,000 km2is available for harnessing solar energy
[2,28].

This zone, with abundant solar energy is suitable for harnessing

solar energy for multiple applications. Currently solar
olar thermal energy is
used in India for industrial and domestic water heating.
heating A 140 MW
integrated solar power plant is to being
be set up in Jodhpur but the initial
expense to be incurred is still very high. India receives solar energy
equivalent to5000+
to5000 trillion kWh/year, which far exceeds the total national
energy consumption.
consumption In India the energy problem is very acute. Figure 1.7
to 1.8 shows renewable and non-renewable
n energy utilization in India.
I

Enery Share in India

33%

Renewable
67% Non Renewable
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.7 Renewable and Non-renewable

enewable share in India[64]
India

Despite discoveries of oil and gas off the west coast, import of crude
oil is continuously
ously increasing and the cost of it now dominates all other
expenditure. The installed capacity of renewable energy has touched
32,269.6 MW or 12.95% of the total potential available in the country,
countr as
on 31st March,, 2014. With this, the renewable energy, including large
hydroelectricity, constitutes 28.8% of the overall
overall installed capacity in India
[3].

According to the India renewable Energy Status Report

2014 released at green summit 2014 in Bangalore, the total renewable
energy potential from sources in India is 249188 MW.. The available market
potential for overall renewable energy in India is shows huge growth
potentiall for renewable energy in India [3].

The Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of

India has set a target of achieving overall renewable energy installed
capacity of 41400 MW by the year 2017 [3]. Table 1.1 shows types and
extent of fuels used in Indian households.

Renewable Energy for Cooking in

India

12% 1%

13%
Firewood
Crop residue

74% Cowdung cake

Biogas

Figure 1.8Renewable
Renewable energy for cooking
c in India[64]
 Fuels used in Indian Households
60

50

40
% Percentage

30

20

10

0
Firewood Crop residueCowdungCoal,
cake Lignite, Charcoal
Kerosene LPG Electricity Biogas Any other No cooking
INDIA 49 8.9 8 1.5 2.9 28.6 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.3
GUJARAT 44 5.7 2.6 0.5 7.6 38.3 0 0.9 0.1 0.4

Table 1.1 Fuels used in Indian Households [64]

 INTRODUCTION

1.4 Applications of solar energy

The application areas of solar energy are generally classified as

solar thermal, solar photovoltaic and solar photosynthesis, the last one
shown which is occurring in organic rule [4].

1. Architecture and urban planning.

2. Agriculture and horticulture.
3. Solar thermal energy can be used forcooking/heating, drying/Timber
seasoning, distillation, electricity/power generation, cooling and
refrigeration, process heating.

Solar photovoltaic energy is used to achieve our electricity needs

through Solar Photovoltaic cells, solar radiant energy is converted into
Direct Current electricity [4]. This electricity is used as it is or via a
storage battery. Solar Photovoltaic has many applicationssuch as for the
purification of water using reverse osmosis or electro dialysis processes,
powering of remote telecommunication repeater stations, rail or road
traffic signals, lighting in the domestic level, lighting in the street, village
electrification, pumping of Water

1.5Solar energy

1.5.1 Sun and Earth relationship

A concentrating collector is utilized as a reflective parabolic

shaped surface toreflect and concentrate the sun’s energy to a focal
region or focal line where location of absorber is provided[2, 6].

A R 1
C= = =
A r sin2 θs

(1.1)
Where,
C – Ratio of concentration;
Aa – Collecting aperture area [m2]
Ar – Absorber area, [m2]

10
 INTRODUCTION

R – The sun to the concentrator distance [m]

r – The sun radius, [m]
θs – The sun half angle subtended [º]

This ratio has ahigher limit which is depending on whether the

concentration is a three dimensional (circular) concentrator say
paraboloid or two dimensional (linear) concentrator such as a cylindrical
parabolic concentrator. So, It can be used to provide the maximum
promising concentration ratio [6].

Figure 1.9Schematic of the sun at a distance R from a concentrator [2, 6]

Where,

R – The sun to the concentrator distance [m]

r – The sun radius, [m]
θs – The sun half angle subtended [º]
Ar – Absorber area, [m2]
Aa – Collecting aperture area [m2]

1.5.2The Earth in Space

The earth is revolving around the sun every 365.25 days, with a
mean earth sun distance of 1.496 x 108 kilometer distinct as one
astronomical unit (1 AU). This plane of this orbit is also known as the
ecliptic plane. It is noted that when the earth's orbit reaches a maximum
distance from the sun, 1.52 x 105 kilometer on about the third day of July.
The minimum earth and sun distance, the perihelion, occurs on about 2nd
January, when the earth is 1.47 x 108 kilometer from the sun. The
eccentricity of the orbit is as small as 0.0168.
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.10 Basic earth – sun angles [8]

Figure 1.11 Season Climate [7].

12
 INTRODUCTION

So, earth is 103.4 percentages further with the sun at aphelion

than at perihelion [7].

1.5.3Sun
Sun and Earth angles:
a

The following can be referred as important sun-earth

earth angles:

a) Zenith angle (θ): Angle

ngle between sun’s ray and perpendicular line
to the horizontalplane
horizontal as shown in figure 1.12.

b) Altitude angle (α):

( Angle
ngle between sun rays and a horizontal
horizonta plane
as shown in figure 1.12.
1.12

Figure 1.12 Sun and earth angles [9]

13
 INTRODUCTION

c) Surface Azimuth angle (γ): It is shown in figure 1.12 that the

angle in a horizontal plane, between the line due south and the
projection of normal to the surface on the horizontal plane.

d) Latitude( ):The latitude of a location is the angle made by the

radial line joining the given location to the centre of the earth with
its projection on the equatorial plane.

e) Declination (δ): The angle between the line joining the centres of
the sun and earth and its projection on the equatorial plane.

f) Hour angle (ω): The angle through which the earth must be
rotated to bring the meridian of the plane directly under the sun

g) Angle of incidence (θi): It is the angle between beam radiation

on a surface and the normal to that surface. It can be calculated
with the following formula.

The formula for the incidence angle for a surface of any orientation
looks formidable, but is not that bad. [2].

cosθ = (sin φ cos β + cos φ sin β cos γ ) sin δ

+ (cos φ cos β − sin φ sin β cos γ ) cos δ cos ω
+ cos φ sin β sin γ sin ω
(1.2)
Where,

Cosθ = The incident angle cosine

= The latitude
β = From the horizontal slope of surface
µ = From north the aspect of the surface measured clockwise
δ = The declination

ω = Hour angle, solar noon zero, and morning positive [2].

14
 INTRODUCTION

1.5.4Spectral distribution of solar radiation

The wavelength of the spectral distribution of solar radiation

beyond the atmosphere ranges between 0.2 - 50 µm. This range is
reduced to 0.3– 3µm, when reaching the earth surface because of two
phenomena. The first, scattering of the radiation as it passes through the
atmosphere which caused by interaction of the radiation with air
molecules, water (vapor and droplets) and dust as shown in figure 1.13.

The degree of the scattering which occurs is a function of number

of particles through which is the radiation should pass, and with the size
of the particles comparative to the wavelength of the solar radiation, and
scattering is happens in accordance with the theory of Rayleigh (i.e.,
Rayleigh scattering depends on wavelength to the negative fourth power
λ-4) [12].

Figure 1.13Sun and Earth relationship [11].

15
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.14Rayleigh scattering is significant only

at short wavelengths [12]

1.6 Technological processes with solar energy

Solar energy used by three technological processes. 1.

[Link] 3. [Link] process carried out with
the help of photosynthesis, maintains life on earth by producing food
and converting carbon dioxide to oxygen[2], [14].

1.6.1Classification of solar collector

1. Tank-type collector
The hot water storage tank is the working as solar absorber. The
tank/tanks are provided in an insulating box with glazing on one side. It is
provided with selective surface like painted black or coated [15].

16
 INTRODUCTION

2. Pool collector
Utilization of solar heating in swimming pools is known as
single largest system. Pool collectors are unglazed withprovision of a
special copolymer plastic. It is are not able to withstand freezing
conditions[16].

3. Flat-plate
plate collector
Solar
olar water heating and solar
solar space heating applications in
domestic levelflat
lat plate collectors are popular [15]. Flat plate collectors
can be used for temperature requirements up to 75 ºC
C although higher
temperatures can be obtained from high efficiency [Link]
collectors. basic
types: heat transfer
nsfer fluid
flu liquid and air type[17]. Type of flat plat collectors
are shown in figure 1.15

Figure 1.15Classification of flat-plate solar collectors [2]

[2

17
 INTRODUCTION

4. Evacuated tube collector

It is constructed with the help of a number of glass tubes.

Annealed glass are used in the construction of tube
bes[16]. In the
manufacturing process difference losses are considered: conduction,
convection[2]. Evacuated Solar Collector classification
classification have been
shown in figure
igure 1.16 is shown. Selective coating is used for absorber
as it is providing advantages to resist losses. The absence of air in the
tube creates outstanding insulation, allowing higher temperatures to be
achieved at the absorber plate. In direction to increaser an efficiency of
evacuated tube collector there are many types of concentrators
depending on its concave radius developed[16].
developed

Figure 1.16Classification
1.16Classification of evacuated solar collectors [67]

18
 INTRODUCTION

The most exclusive and leading component of an active solar

energy system can be known as collector field [18].

Concentrator Image Tracking Concentration Temperature

type type axis ratio range (°C)

Linear Line 1 axis 10-40 60-250

Fresnel

Parabolic Line 1 axis 10-85 60-400

Trough

Parabolic Point 2 axis 600-2000 100-1500

Dish

Solar Tower Point 2 axis 300-1500 150-2000

Table 1.2 Features of various types of solar concentrators [18]

Linear Fresnel concentrators have parallel reflector strips arranged

along a straight line at different angles in such a way that their overall
optical effects approximate the results of a parabolic trough concentrator
to form a linear image of the sun. Parabolic trough concentrator has a
parabolic ally curved long mirror with a Dewar tube running along its focal
line.

Paraboloidal dish concentrator has a single mirror if it is of small

size or a composite mosaic of mirror segments arranged along a
paraboloidal envelope whose overall optical effect results in the formation
of a disc image of the sun. Central Tower type concentrator has
numerous flat mirrors (heliostats) which individually track the sun so as to
form its image on a central tower at a definite height [19].

19
 INTRODUCTION

A. Parabolic trough B. Liner Fresnel

C. Dish/Engine D. Central receiver

20
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.17 Solar Thermal Collectors [19]

1.7 Principles of concentrating solar power technologies

For the defining the principles of Concentrating Solar Power

technology, it is needed to understand the difference between beam
radiation and diffuse radiation. The sun have capabilities to
generateamassive
massive amount of energy roughly 1.1 x 1020 kilowatt-
kilowatt
hours every [Link]
[Link] the earth’s atmosphere, solar radiation is
received direct radiation and by diffusion with the water, air, dust etc.
etc
available in the atmosphere (diffuse radiation)[20].
r Global
lobal radiation
radiat is
showed below in figure
f 1.18.

The area where the solar radiation is incident on is known as

the aperture area of a parabolic trough collector, and the total area of
the absorber or receiver is known as the receiver area as shown in
figure 1.18.

Figure 1.18Depiction
Depiction of beam and diffuse components of solar insolation
[20]

21
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.19Area
1.19 of aperture and receiver [21]
21]

Beam radiation is utilized in the concentrating

concentrating solar power
technology for generating solar
s power. It is require to track the sun
asshown in figure 1.20.
1.20

Figure 1.20 Tacking in a CSP collector.

22
 INTRODUCTION

Line focusing concentrating solar power technologies have one

axis tracking systems and point focusing concentrating solar power
technologies have two axis tracking systems [29].

1.7.1 Concentrators for thermal power

In the concentrated solar thermal

thermaland concentrating solar
powerproduce solar power with the used of mirrors or lenses for the
concentrationin
in larger area of sunlightonto a smaller
er area[22] [23]
[24].

Figure 1.21 Concentrating solar power [30]

30]

CSP is nowadays is developing technology and becoming popular

in china, india,
a, middle east and north africa[25][26].

1.8 Concentrators for industrial process heating

Main utilization up to 200°C for solar thermal concentrator. The

applicability in the field of commercial development with solar flat plate
water heaters. Still, for extensive and technically suitable use is require
to develop such technology [31].

23
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.22Process heat application up to 350 0C [32]

1.9 Concentrators for PV Applications

Concentrator PV systems need less solar cell material than other
PV systems [68]. Concentrator PV systems have advantages in compare
with flat plate systems [33].Figure 1.23 and 1.24 shows PV
systemapplications.

Figure 1.23 Optical design of a linear concentrator for medium

concentration photovoltaics Prof. A. Steinfeld [68]

24
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.24 Concentrate photovoltaic [34]

1.10 Concentrators for community cooking

Community cooking is nowadays becoming popular say 40 to

1000 people at a time. It is developing in the area of public health,
religious organization etc. as shown in figure 1.25.

Figure 1.25Community solar cooking [41]

1.11 Concentrators for domestic cooking

25
 INTRODUCTION

It is device which converts direct heat of sunlight in to heat

[35] and becoming more popular in large scale solar cooking
[36]. Minimal consumption of fuel is require for solar cooking and
provides the health and environmental benefits [37].Figure 1.26 shows
solar cooker and its reflective arrangement.

Figure 1.26 Solar cooker [38]

Solar cooker needs to track the sun automatically to receiver

higher thermal efficiency, which can be achieved by an electrical or
mechanical device [39]. Also, the scheffler reflectors is one of the option
for developing domestic cooker in any size[40].

1.12Solar collector tracking

Sun tracking concentrator systems can be of three types

(i) Solar Furnaces such as the stand alone giant solar furnaces
installed in France (Pyrenees mountains) or in Uzbekistan
(Parkent) which can deliver heat at temperatures above 10000C
for metallurgical or chemical research

26
 INTRODUCTION

(ii) Arrays of parabolic troughs or paraboloidal dish type concentrators

used for heat delivery at high temperature in the range of 2500C to
10000C for process heating or for power generation serving as
centralized systems

(iii) Smaller systems which may deliver heat at temperatures less than
2500C and serve as decentralized or distributed process heat
systems.

Large scale utilization of solar energy can be promoted by

development and deployment of small scale solar thermal systems such
as the ones used for cooking, heating or disinfecting drinking water.
However, small systems such as available today in the market are dumb
devices which need more frequent human intervention for sun orientation
of the device either to improve day long energy collection or to improve
end use efficiency by raising temperature of heat delivery. Whether big or
small, the sun tracking systems use similar logic and control circuitry
except for the size of motors which drive tracker controls whose power
rating is nearly proportional to the size of the solar thermal energy
collection system. Typical sun tracking systems use servo motors or
stepper motors which may involve low speeds and hence low gearing
ratios or FHP motors which run at high speeds and may require large
gearing.

For example, gearing ratios as high as (24 hr x 3600 min/hr x 1440

rpm = 12,4416,000) would be needed if a small DC motor of 1440 rpm is
continuously used.

1.12.1 Principle of existing Non-programmed sun trackers

Current State of the Art of Non-programmed Pneumatic and

Electronic TrackersBoth trackers work on the principle of minimizing the
imbalance resulting from the two opposing impulses resulting from

27
 INTRODUCTION

unequal incidence of solar radiation on two elements. Figure 1.27 and

1.28 shows electronic and pneumatic tracker controller scheme.

The electronic tracker controller makes use of photosensitive

elements such as photovoltaic cells or photosensitive resistors, where the
difference in the opposing PV currents or opposing voltages across
photosensitive resistors is magnified using bridge circuits and used to
drive electric actuators like motors. The motors turn the rotating platform
or panels in such a direction as to minimize the difference and continues
running until null point is reached.

Shadow casting plate or disk; if it is aligned with

sun no shadow; otherwise one photo element is
shaded; resulting net differential current or
voltage moves the frame through motor until
difference is zero.

PV cells or photo resistors

Figure 1.27The electronic tracker controller scheme

Solar PV panel; if sun is aligned

perpendicular to PV panel, either no
shadow or equal shadowing on piston
cylinders; if not one of them has more
shadow and resulting force imbalance
turns the panel until the difference in
the opposing forces is zero.

Support frame

Piston cylinder

Figure 1.28 The pneumatic tracker controller scheme

28
 INTRODUCTION

The pneumatic tracker controller makes use of gas contained within two
cylinders and piston which exert pressure on solar panel frame due to
thermal expansion of trapped gas in opposing directions. When
differently oriented two cylinders experience difference pressure forces
due non-identical solar insolation on non-solar aligned solar absorber
surfaces the resulting imbalanced force turns the panel until the
imbalance is reduced to zero.

29