CHAPTER ONE

Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology

A vacuum is a volume that encloses little or no matter. In other words, it is a
region that has a gaseous pressure much lower thanthat of atmospheric
pressure.A partial vacuum is a vacuum with low amounts of matter enclosed.
A total, perfect, or absolute vacuum has no matter enclosed. Sometimes this
type of vacuum is referred to as "freespace."The term vacuum comes from
the Latin vacuus, which meansempty. Vacuus, in turn, comes from the word
vacare, whichmeans "be empty."
Examples of Vacuum Systems.
1. Vacuum tubes: these are devices usually made of glass that contain very
low gas pressures inside the tube.
2. Space: space is considered a vacuum. Space does containsmatter, but the
pressure is much lower than what you would find on a planet for instance.
3. Vacuum Cleaner: a vacuum cleaner sucks up debris because it creates a
pressure difference between the area to be cleaned and the suction tube.

Pressure
The gas molecules inside a container will exert a force on the container wall.
Pressure (p) is defined as the force (F) exerted perpendicularly to the surface
(A): P=F/A. The lowest pressure on the surface of the Earth is 300 mbar,
which occurs on Mount Everest; accordingly, any pressure below 300 mbar is
considered vacuum.
The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa), which is equivalent to N.m-2 . One
Pa is defined as the pressure exerted by one Newton of force perpendicularly
over 1 m² of surface area. Other units which are commonly used are the mbar
and Torr.

Types of Pressure
1. Absolute pressure: The pressure measured relative to a perfectvacuum.
2. Gauge pressure: The pressure measured relative to the atmospheric
pressure.
3. Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere on a given point.
4. Absolute zero pressure: Absolute zero pressure is atheoretically perfect
vacuum.
Air
The mixture of naturally occurring gases and human-made air pollutants
that makes up the earth's atmosphere is known as air.
Air Components:
The air in the atmosphere consists of nitrogen, oxygen (which is the
life-sustaining substance for animals and humans), carbon dioxide, water
vapour and small amount of other elements (argon, neon, etc). There is no
apparent scent or color in pure air. Dust, pollen, and spores are common
contaminants in air.
COMPOSITION OF AIR
1- Nitrogen (78%)
2- Oxygen (20.9%)
3- Other gases (>0.17%)
4- Argon (>0.90%)
5- Carbon dioxide (0.03%)

Vacuum Classificationd and Ranges

Vacuum can be classified into several ranges depending on the pressure

value. The vacuum range varies from the low vacuum range at 33 mbar of
pressure, to the extreme high vacuum (XHV) when the pressure is below
1 × 10-12mbar. The vacuum ranges, together with typical applications
asclassified by the American Vacuum Society in 1980. The veryhigh vacuum
(VHV) and ultra-high vacuum (UHV) ranges are the usual ranges at which
particle accelerators operate.
Vacuum gauge
A vacuum gauge is a pressure measuring instrument that measures pressure
in a vacuum, it measures vacuum pressure, which is lower than atmospheric
pressure.
A vacuum gauge is found in many industrial, laboratoryresearch, and
automotive applications.

Applications of vacuum gauge

1- Industrial use: To control pressure in industrial processes likevacuum
drying or distillation.
2- Pick and place: Vacuum pick and place applications are spreadthroughout
many industries, such as the automotive, food & beverage, manufacturing,
pharmaceutical, chemical, and nautical industries.
3- Medical equipment: In suction devices and vacuum-assisteddelivery
systems.
4- HVAC systems: When pulling a vacuum during installation or repair of a
refrigerant circuit. Pulling a vacuum means evacuatingair and matter from
the system.
5- Research: To measure and control pressure in laboratoryexperiments. For
example, measuring the pressure in a vacuum tosee how materials behave at
low pressures.
6- Automotive: To monitor vacuum in brake systems that have a brake
booster, which controls proper power breaking.
7- Food Processing: To monitor pressure levels in vacuum packaging
machines.
8- Pharmaceuticals: To monitor pressure levels in vacuum dryingand
granulation processes.

VACUUM GAUGE
Effect of Temperature on the Pressure and Number of Moles within a Given
Vacuum
The temperature of an object is usually defined as the average kinetic energy
of its constituent particles, and since a vacuum has no constituents, its
temperature would be zero under this [Link] lesser the number of
molecules in a vacuum, the nearer it is to perfection; and consequently the
lower its temperature and pressure.

CHAPTER TWO
Components of Simple Vacuum
[Link] suctioncups or Specialgrippers: are the interface between vacuum
system and work piece
2. Mounting elements: Fast and flexible connection of vacuumcomponents to
tooling systems.
3. Vacuum generators: Centralized or decentralized vacuumgeneration by
means of ejectors, pumps or blowers.
4. Switches and system monitoring: Measuring and controlcomponents to
ensure safe operation of the vacuum system.
5. Filters and connectors: Filters protect the vacuum generator; hoses and
connectors connect the components.
Valve technology: Valves are used to control the vacuum as well as the
compressed air.
Common Types of Vacuum Pumps
1. Rotary vane pumpsA rotary vane pump is a type of positive-displacement
pump that consists of vanes mounted to a rotor that rotates inside a cavity.
Insome cases, these vanes can have variable length and/or betensioned to
maintain contact with the walls as the pump [Link] type of pump was
invented by Charles C. Barnes of Sackville, New Brunswick, who patented it
on June 16, [Link] have been various improvements since, including a
variablevane pump for gases (1909).This type of pump is considered less
suitable than other vacuum pumps for high-viscosity and high-pressure fluids
and is complexto operate. They can endure short periods of dry operation,
andare considered good for low-viscosity fluids.
2. Diffusion pumps: Diffusion pumps use a high speed jet of vapor to direct
gasmolecules in the pump throat down into the bottom of the pump and out
the exhaust. They were the first type of high vacuum pumps operating in the
regime of free molecular flow, where themovement of the gas molecules can
be better understood asdiffusion than by conventional fluid dynamics.
Invented in 1915 by Wolfgang Gaede, he named it a diffusion pump since
hisdesign was based on the finding that gas cannot diffuse againstthe vapor
stream, but will be carried with it to the [Link], the principle of
operation might be more precisely described as gas-jet pump, since diffusion
plays a role also inother high vacuum pumps. The diffusion pump can also be
categorized as a momentum transfer pump.
3. Diaphragm Vacuum pumps
4. Liquid Ring Vacuum pumps
5. Scroll vacuum pumps
6. Turbomolecule vacuum pumps

COMMON TYPES OF GAUGES

1. Mcleod Gauge: It is a device used to measure very low pressures at
approximately
10-6 torr. The device is named after itsinventor, Herbert Mcleod in the year
[Link] size of the mac load gauge is similar to that of a
mercurymanometer which is the most common instrument used for
themeasurement of pressure. This Mcleod gauge also has mercury inside it,
and the pressure measurement is done by observing changes in the mercury
level.
2. The Pirani gauge: It is a robust thermal conductivity gaugeused for the
measurement of the pressures in vacuum systems. It was invented in 1906
by Marcello Stefano [Link] Pirani gauge consists of a metal sensor wire
(usually gold plated tungsten or platinum) suspended in a tube which is
connected to the system whose vacuum is to be measured.
The wire is usually coiled to make the gauge more compact. The connection
is usually made either by a ground glass joint or a flanged metal connector,
sealed with an o-ring. The sensor wire is connected to an electrical circuit
from which, after calibration, a pressure reading may be taken. A heated
metal wire (sensor wire, or simply sensor) suspended in a gas will lose heat
to the gas as its molecules collide with the wire and remove heat. If the
gas pressure is reduced, the number of molecules present will fall
proportionately and the wire will lose heat more slowly. Measuring the heat
loss is an indirect indication of [Link] electrical resistance of a wire
varies with its temperature, so the resistance indicates the temperature of
wire. In many systems, the wire is maintained at a constant resistance R by
controlling the current I through the wire. The resistance can be set using a
bridge circuit. The current required to achieve this balance is therefore a
measure of the [Link] gauge may be used for pressures between 0.5
Torr to 1×10-4 Torr. Below 5×10-4 Torr, a Pirani gauge has only one significant
digit of resolution. The thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the gas
affects the read out from the meter, and therefore the apparatus may need
calibrating before accurate readings are obtainable. For lower pressure
measurement, the thermal conductivity of the gas becomes increasingly
smaller and more difficult to measure accurately, and other instruments such
as a Penning gauge or Bayard–Alpert gauge are used instead.

PIRANI GAUGE
3. Cold cathode ionization Vacuum gauge
Cold cathode ionization vacuum gauges essentially consist of only two
electrodes, a cathode and an anode, between which ahigh voltage is applied
via a series resistor. Negatively charge delectrons leave the cathode through
field emission, moving at high velocity from the cathode toward the anode.
As they travel this path, they ionize neutral gas molecules, which ignites a gas
discharge. The measured gas discharge current is a parameter for pressure.
However only few molecules are ionized in the case of straight electron
trajectories, which results in lower sensitivity and interruption of the gas
discharge at approximately 1 hPa
4. Hot Cathode Ionization Vacuum Gauge:
In this case electrons are generated with the aid of a heated cathode. A thin
wire is arranged in the middle of the cylindrical, lattice-shaped anode; this
wire serves as the ion collector. Avoltage of approximately 100 V is applied
between anode and cathode. This accelerates all emitted electrons toward
the [Link] emission current is measured in the anode circuit, which can
be set by means of the heat output of the cathode. On their way to the anode
electrons collide with gas molecules. The ions travel to the collector being at
the same potential as the anode.
The measured collector current is a parameter for pressure. Since the
emission current is proportional to the ion current, it can be used to set the
sensitivity of the gauge. A hot cathode vacuum gauge also gives a gas type
dependent pressure signal. However the measurement results are
significantly more accurate (typically ±10 %) than those obtained with a cold
cathode ionization vacuum gauge (typically ± 25 %). Bayard-Alpert vacuum
gauges are therefore often used as a reference for calibration.
5. The U-tube Manometer:
It has a U-shaped glass tube and a measuring scale. A manometer is an
instrument that measures the gauge pressure. It is a primary pressure
calibration instrument most suitable for the calibration of other pressure
gauges.
The U-tube manometer has openings at both ends of [Link] pressure to be
measured is applied to one opening end of the U-shaped glass tube. The
applied pressure presses the liquid and thus the liquid moves down the tube.
We can see in the above picture that the level goes down in the left leg of the
tube, while in the right leg the liquid level rise. A scale fitted between the
tubemeasures this [Link] the applied pressure to the left leg
of the tube becomes constant. When the pressure exerted by column h
balance the pressure applied to the left side of the manometer, then the
liquid will stop moving in the tube. We can calculate the applied pressure by
knowing the column of liquid, and the density of the filling liquid.
The applied pressure can be calculated using the below-given formula.

P= ¶gh
Where:
¶= density of the liquid (kg/m³)
P= applied pressure (pa)
g= gravitational force (9.8 m/s²)
h= height of the column (m)

U-TUBE MANOMETER

CHAPTER THREE: LEAK DETECTION

Leak Detection: The simplest definition for the term "leak" is an "opening" in a
(separating) wall or barrier through which solids, liquids or gasescan
undesirably enter or exit a vacuum system No vacuum system or device can
ever be absolutely vacuum-tight, nor does it actually need to be. The essential
element is theleak rate must be low enough that the required operating
pressure,gas balance and ultimate pressure in the vacuum container are not
influenced. The leak rate of a vessel indicates the amount of gas flow which
escapes through the walls of the vessel. It must be noted, however, that the
leak rate for a leak depends on the type of gas.

Types of Leak
1. Leaks in detachable connections: Flanges, ground mating surfaces, covers.
2. Leaks in permanent connections: Bending, solder and welding seams,
glued joints.
3. Leaks due to porosity: Particularly following mechanical deformation
(bending) or thermal processing of polycrystalline materials and cast
components.
4. Thermal leaks: Opening up of leak due to extreme temperature loading
(heat/cold).
5. Apparent (virtual) leaks: Quantities of gas will be liberated from hollows
and cavities inside cast parts, blind holes and joints(also due to the
evaporation of liquids).
6. Indirect leaks: Leaking supply lines in vacuum systems or furnaces (water,
compressed air, brine).
7. Serial leaks: This is the leak at the end of several "spaces connected in
series", e.g. a leak in the oil-filled section of the oil case pan in a rotary vane
pump.
8. One-way leaks: These will allow gas to pass in one direction but are tight in
the other direction (very seldom). An area which is not gas-tight, but which is
not leaky in the sense that a defect is present would be the same.
9. Permeation: Naturally permeability of gas through materials such as rubber
hoses, elastomer seals, etc. (unless these parts have become brittle and thus
"leaky").

The Main Vacuum Leak Tests

1. The bubble test: This involves putting a punctured bicycle tube under water
and marking where the bubbles come from or placing washing up liquid
around the joint of an active water/gas pipe to see where the bubbles/froth
forms.
2. The pressure decay test: This test is conducted by evacuating aclosed
vacuum vessel until a certain pressure is reached. From there, the pump’s
inlet valve is closed and then opened again after some time. This process is
repeated several times; if the time to return the vacuum to its original level
remains constant, then a leak is present. If this time decreases, gas is most
likely being removed from the inside of the system – but this doesn’t exclude
the possibility of a leak.
3. The pressure rise test: This test is essentially the opposite of the pressure
decay test. It involves marking the vacuum level against the time taken to
achieve that level. After isolating the system, if a leak is present the curve will
become a straight line.
4. Helium tests: The only way to detect a leak smaller than 1x10-6 mbar is with
a helium leak detector. Helium is typically used not just because of its ability
to measure small vacuum leaks, but also because it’s very mobile (low mass),
completely inert/non-reactive (and therefore harmless) and is available at a
relatively low cost.
5. High frequency vacuum test: Electrical gas discharge canindicate pressure
inside equipment.
6. Foam-spray test: Escaping gas forms soap bubbles at the leak points.

Hazards Associated With Gases

Hazards associated with compressed gases include oxygen displacement,

fires, explosions, and toxic gas exposures, as well as the physical hazards
associated with high pressure systems.
Special storage, use, and handling precautions are necessary inorder to
control these hazards.
1. A gas explosion is an accident resulting from ignition of a mixture of air
and flammable gas, typically from a gas leak. In household accidents, the
principal explosive gases are those used for heating or cooking purposes
such as natural gas, methane, propane, butane. In industrial explosions many
other gases, like hydrogen, as well as evaporated (gaseous) gasoline or
ethanol play an important role. Industrial gas explosions can be prevented
with the use of intrinsic safety barriers to prevent ignition.
2. Risk of poisoning due to toxic gases such as carbon monoxide(CO),
hydrogen sulphide (H ₂ S), carbon dioxide (CO ₂ ), chlorine(Cl ₂ ), and so on.3.
Risk of suffocation or asphyxiation due to lack of oxygen,which may be
consumed or displaced by another gas.

Source: GLT222 Raymond