CHAPTER 5
LIFE PROCESSES
• All living organisms have certain common characteristics such as respiration,
growth, nutrition, reproduction, responding to stimuli, etc.
• There are certain important processes that maintain homeostasis and proper
functioning of the body. They are called life processes.
• These processes are essential for all living organisms including plants and
animals.
• These life processes are nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation,
metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
Energy is needed for all life processes.
We get energy from the food that we eat – Nutrition
Increase the body size by growth.
Life on earth depends on carbon based molecules.
Most of our food sources are carbon-based.
Depending on the complexity of the carbon sources, different organisms use
different kinds of nutritional processes.
In unicellular organisms, all the life processes are carried out by a single cell.
In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are carrying out the life
processes.
In single-celled organisms, there are no specific organs for taking food,
exchange of gases or removal of wastes etc. because the entire surface of the
organism is in contact with the environment.
In multi-cellular organisms, various body parts and specialized systems
perform various life activities.
During chemical reactions, the body uses carbon source and oxygen for the
production of energy.
Then creates by-products that are harmful to our body. These waste products
are needed to be removed from the body by a process called excretion.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 1
Nutrition
The process of getting food which is needed for our
body is called nutrition.
• There are two main modes of nutrition:
• Autotrophic
• Heterotrophic.
• Autotrophic nutrition found in plants, algae and
some bacteria which have chlorophyll.
• Organisms produce their own food with the help of light energy or chemical
energy by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
• If an organism can make its own food using sunlight or chemicals, such mode
of nutrition is called autotrophic nutrition.
• Plants carry out photosynthesis with the help
of light energy and are called
photoautotrophs.
• Few bacteria use chemicals to derive energy
and are called chemoautotrophs.
• Plants prepare food with the help of organic
materials such as carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of chlorophyll and
sunlight.
• The prepared food is called Glucose (Carbohydrate) and the by-product is
Oxygen.
• Chlorophyll is the green pigment which traps sunlight for photosynthesis.
• The light energy is converted into chemical energy.
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• The glucose or carbohydrate, produced during photosynthesis is (excess food)
stored in the form of starch. It is the internal energy reserve to be used as and
when required by the plant.
• The glucose is soluble in water. Excess glucose can damage the plant. Hence
the plants store the excess food in the form of starch.
• Animals store excess glucose in the form of glycogen.
The following events occur during this process –
I. Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
II. Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
III. Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate
product Malic acid which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the
chlorophyll during the day.
An activity which demonstrates that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.
Procedure:
Take a plant with variegated leaves.
Keep the plant in a darkroom for 2-3 days to de-starch.
Take and keep the plant in sunlight for 3-4 hours.
Pluck a leaf and conduct the starch test.
Starch test:
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 3
Procedure:
Take a variegated leaf from the plant.
Boil the leaf in water for 30 seconds to destroy the cell wall.
Take the leaf and boil it in alcohol in a water bath to kill the chlorophyll.
Take the leaf and wash with warm water to make it soft.
Take a watch glass or white tile and spread the leaf on it.
Put a drop of Iodine solution on it which is brown in colour.
Result:
The brown colour turns into blue or
black shows the presence of starch,
where the green colour was present.
Conclusion:
The colour change shows that the chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.
Internal structure of a leaf
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 4
Cuticle Upper, waxy layer
Prevents the loss of water.
Upper Single layer.
epidermis Protects the inner parts of the leaf and prevents the water loss.
Palisade Just below the upper epidermis
mesophyll Closely packed cells. Rich in chlorophyll.
Active site for photosynthesis
Spongy Loosely packed cells with air spaces
mesophyll Less chlorophyll than palisade mesophyll.
Gas exchange in function (O2 & Co2)
Lower Single layer.
epidermis Stomata and guard cells are located here.
Stomata and guard cells – gas exchange.
Stomata
Stomata are tiny pores present in the lower epidermis.
During photosynthesis, the gaseous
exchange takes place in the leaves
through these pores.
The opening and closing of stomata is
controlled by the guard cells.
The guard cells swell when water
flows into them, causing the stomata pore to open.
Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 5
An activity which demonstrates that
Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis.
Procedure:
Take two well watered plants.
Keep the plant in a darkroom for 2-3 days to destarch.
Keep a dish or watch glass of KOH with one of the plants.
Close both plants with bell jars.
Keep the plants in sunlight for 3-4 hours.
Pluck a leaf from each plant and conduct the starch test. (above mentioned)
Result:
Apparatus-b: The brown colour turns into blue or black in the shows the
presence of starch.
Apparatus-a: The brown colour retains due to the absence of starch.
Conclusion:
Apparatus-a: The KOH absorbs carbon dioxide. So the starch test is
negative. This shows Co2 is essential for photosynthesis.
Raw materials:
In terrestrial plants, the water is taken up from the soil by the roots.
Other materials like Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Iron and Magnesium are also
taken up from the soil.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 6
Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other
compounds.
This is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites, or by bacteria
from atmospheric nitrogen.
Heterotrophic Nutrition
• Heterotrophic nutrition found in
bacteria, fungi and animals.
• They obtain energy from organic
compounds, such as animals
eating plants or other animals
as food.
• Different types of Heterotrophic
nutrition such as holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition.
• Some organisms feed on dead and decaying organic
matter. This mode of
nutrition is called
saprophytic nutrition.
Saprophytic • Some organisms like
Nutrition
fungi - bread moulds,
yeast and mushrooms
break-down the food
material outside the
body and then absorb it.
• Some other organisms get food from
plants or animals without killing
them. This is called parasitic
nutrition.
Parasitic
Nutrition • They live on or in the body of a
host and get nutrients directly from
the body of the host.
• Examples: cuscuta (amar-bel),
ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 7
How do Organisms obtain their Nutrition?
1. Nutrition in Amoeba-Holozoic Nutrition
• Amoeba uses a holozoic
mode of nutrition.
• It engulfs the food particle
using a false foot called
pseudopodia, the process is
called phagocytosis.
• The engulfed food gets
enclosed in a food vacuole.
• As the food vacuole passes
through the cytoplasm,
digestion, absorption and
assimilation take place.
• When the food vacuole
opens to outside, the
undigested food eliminates by egestion.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 8
2. Nutrition in Paramecium
Paramecium holozoic nutrition.
They have cilia that help them to
engulf the food through the oral
groove.
A food vacuole is formed and
encloses the food.
It moves through the cytoplasm, the
process is called cyclosis.
Food digested in the food vacuole is absorbed by the cytoplasm.
Undigested food is given out to a tiny pore called anal pore or cytopyge.
Nutrition in Human
• Humans are omnivores, they can eat both plant and animal based food.
• Humans have a very complicated digestive system.
• It has an alimentary canal and associated digestive glands, which together
function to digest food.
• There are five stages in human nutrition- Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption,
Assimilation and Egestion, take place in the alimentary canal
• Assimilation of food takes place in the whole body.
The alimentary canal consists of the following parts:
1. Mouth 6. Pancreas
2. Buccal cavity 7. Small Intestine
3. Oesophagus 8. Large Intestine
4. Stomach 9. Anus
5. Liver
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 9
Holozoic Nutrition
The alimentary canal
• The alimentary canal in humans is a long tube of varying diameter.
• It starts with the mouth and ends with the anus.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 10
Mouth & • It is the first opening of the alimentary canal and helps to
Buccal take food.
Cavity • The buccal cavity is present behind the mouth.
• The buccal cavity has teeth and a tongue.
• The set of teeth helps in the mastication of food.
• The tongue has taste buds which help in tasting the food.
• Teeth are the hard structures present in the buccal cavity,
help to cut, tear and masticate the food.
• There are four types of teeth in humans, Incisors, canines,
premolars and molars
each with a specific
Teeth
function.
• Incisors cut the food;
canines tear the food
while molars and premolars crush it.
• The dental formula in adult humans is 2:1:2:3.
Structure of a human teeth
• The vertical section of a tooth
shows four layers such as
enamel, dentine, cement and
dental pulp.
• The portion above the gum is
crown and below is root.
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Enamel • It is the outermost, shiny, highly mineralized and the
hardest part of the human body.
Dentine • Makes the bulk of the tooth and contains 70% inorganic
salts.
Cement • It is present at the lining of a tooth and bony socket.
Dental • It is the central soft part of a tooth and contains nerve
endings, blood and lymph vessels along with connective
pulp
tissue.
Tooth Decay
• Sugary food stuck between the teeth.
• Bacteria settle at the food and produce acid.
• The acid attacks the enamel.
• Slowly a cavity develops; more bacteria will grow and produce more acid.
• It increases the size of the cavity.
• Eventually the decay reaches to the living parts of the tooth like dentine and
pulp cavity, which leads to painful swelling with pus.
Salivary glands:
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 12
• Fluid called saliva secreted by the salivary glands.
• Three pairs of major salivary glands under and behind our jaw
• The salivary glands are located in the buccal cavity and pour saliva during
mastication of food.
• The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase which breaks down
starch to simple sugar.
• The food is mixed systematically with saliva and moved around the mouth
while chewing by the muscular tongue.
• It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, with a
Oesophagus sphincter at each end.
• It transports food and fluid, from the mouth to the
stomach.
• The food is taken from the mouth to the stomach
through the food-pipe or oesophagus.
• The lining of the oesophagus has muscles which
contract rhythmically for pushing the food towards the
stomach.
• This process is called peristalsis.
• It is a muscular bag like structure.
• It receives food from the oesophagus at one end and
Stomach opens to the small intestine at the other end.
• The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucus,
hydrochloric acid and digestive juices.
• Food is mixed into a semi-solid mass in the stomach
and is called chyme.
• Enzymes present in the gastric or digestive juice break
down the food.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 13
• Hydrochloric acid helps in the partial digestion of
proteins and also kills harmful bacteria in the food.
• The mucus secreted by the wall of the stomach resists
the action of HCl.
• The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a
sphincter muscle, which releases it in small amounts
into the small intestine.
• The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which
facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin – a protein
digesting enzyme.
• The small intestine is about 20 feet long in humans,
which is the longest part in our digestive system.
• It has 3 regions, duodenum- followed by the stomach,
jejunum-middle part and the ileum –before the large
intestine.
• The length of the small intestine differs in various
animals depending on their food.
• Herbivores have long and small intestines to allow
Small intestine
the cellulose to be digested.
• Meat is easy to digest, hence carnivores like tiger,
lion have a shorter small intestine.
• The small intestine is the site of the complete
digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
• The liver and pancreas pour their secretions for this
purpose.
• The food from the stomach is acidic and has to be
made alkaline for the action of pancreatic enzymes.
• A common pancreatic duct from the pancreas and
liver opens into the duodenum.
• Most of the chemical digestion and absorption take
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 14
place in the small intestine.
• The liver produces bile juice to digest or emulsify
fats.
• Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large
globules which makes it difficult for enzymes to act on
them.
• Bile salts break them down into smaller globules
increasing the efficiency of enzymes.
• The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains
enzymes like trypsin for the digestion of proteins.
• Lipase breaks down emulsified fats.
• The walls of the small intestine contain glands which
secrete intestinal juice.
• Finally, the enzymes convert:
• Proteins ---amino acids,
• complex carbohydrates ---glucose
• Fats--- fatty acids and glycerol.
• The internal surface of the small intestine has finger-
like projections called villi, which increase the surface
area for absorption.
• The villi are rich in blood vessels which take the
absorbed food to each and every cell of our body
through blood.
• The large intestine in humans is about 5 feet long.
Large intestine • It has two regions, colon (1.5 m) and rectum (10 cm in
the adult).
• The part of the large intestine after the ileum is called
the colon and the last part is called rectum.
• Colon has three regions - ascending colon, transverse
colon and descending colon.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 15
• The undigested food is sent to the large intestine where
the last absorption water and salts.
• The rest of the material is removed from the body
through the anus.
• The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal
sphincter.
Digestive glands
• Different glands produce digestive juices to digest the food.
• Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Gallbladder and Pancreas.
• Salivary glands secrete saliva which starts to digest the food in the mouth.
• Gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach secrete HCl and enzyme
pepsin.
• The liver secretes bile which is stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps in
digestion of fats.
• The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and its secretion is called
pancreatic juice.
• Ex: Enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, and amylase are present in
the pancreatic juice.
The pancreas is a long, flat gland present behind the stomach.
• It is one of the major digestive glands
and is of mixed nature-endocrine &
exocrine.
• As an endocrine organ, it secretes two
hormones called insulin and
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 16
glucagon which maintain the blood sugar level.
• As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice or digestive enzymes.
• Enzymes like trypsin and chymotrypsin and proteases which digest
proteins.
• Pancreatic Amylase which digests the starch content of the food.
• Pancreatic lipases are the pancreatic enzymes that help in digestion of fats.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 17
Respiration
Respiration is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of the body with
the help of oxygen to release energy. It takes place in the mitochondria of the
cells.
The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules
(Adenosine tri phosphate) from ADP molecules (Adenosine di phosphate)
and inorganic phosphate.
Energy
ADP + Phosphate ATP
from respiration
Energy is stored in the cells in the form of ATP molecules.
When the cells need energy, ATP is broken down in the presence of water to
form ADP and energy is released.
water
ATP ADP + Energy
Types of respiration
Based on the availability of Oxygen
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 18
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
i) Takes place in the presence of Takes place in the absence of
oxygen. It produces more energy. oxygen. It produces less energy. The
The end products are carbon end products are lactic acid or
dioxide, water and energy. It takesethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy.
place in most organisms. It takes place in muscle cells and
yeast.
ii) The glucose is converted into In anaerobic respiration in muscle
pyruvate in the cytoplasm in the cells, glucose is converted into
presence of oxygen. pyruvate and in the absence of
oxygen pyruvate is converted into
lactic acid and energy.
iii) Then in the presence of oxygen, Takes place in the absence of
pyruvate is converted into carbon oxygen. It produces less energy. The
dioxide, water and energy in the end products are lactic acid or
mitochondria. ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy.
It takes place in muscle cells and
yeast.
Aerobic respiration
O O
2 2
Glucose Pyruvate CO + H O + Energy
2 2
in cytoplasm in mitochondria
Anaerobic respiration
presence of O2 absence of O2
Glucose Pyruvate Lactic acid + Energy
in cytoplasm in muscle cells
In anaerobic respiration in yeast, glucose is converted into pyruvate and
in the absence of oxygen pyruvate is converted into ethanol, carbon
dioxide and energy. This process is called fermentation
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 19
presence of O2 absence of O2
Glucose Pyruvate Ethanol + CO2 + Energy
in cytoplasm in yeast
Gas exchange in animals
• Terrestrial animals use lungs for respiration.
• They use atmospheric oxygen.
• Aquatic animals use gills for respiration
• They use dissolved oxygen in the water.
• The breathing rate in aquatic organisms is much faster than that of
terrestrial organisms.
• Fishes take water through the mouths and bathe the gills where the dissolved
oxygen is absorbed by blood.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 20
Human respiratory system
Nose
Nasal cavities
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea (wind pipe)
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Lungs
Alveoli
• Respiration means the exchange of gases.
• Animals and plants have different means of gas exchange.
• Cellular level respiration means the burning of the food and produce
energy for other life processes.
• Cellular respiration may take place in the presence or absence of oxygen.
• The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used for the
synthesize of ATP molecules which are the fuel of all other cellular activities.
• In these processes, ATP is broken down and releases energy used for the
endothermic reactions in the cell.
• ATP can be used in the cells for the contraction of muscles, protein synthesis,
conduction of nervous impulses and many other activities.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 21
1. Air enters through the nostrils.
2. The hairs and mucus traps the dust particles.
3. Air passes through the phraynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and enters the
lungs.
4. The trachea has rings of cartilage which prevents it from collapsing when
there is no air in the trachea.
5. The bronchi divides into smaller tubes called bronchioles which ends in tiny
air sacs called alveoli.
6. The alveoli are supplied with blood vessels through which exchange of gases
takes place by diffusion.
7. The alveoli help to increase the surface area for the exchange of gases.
Alveoli
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 22
• A pair of lungs is located at the chest.
• They are made up of tiny air sacs called alveoli.
• The gas exchange takes place in between the alveoli and the blood capillaries.
• The blood brings carbon dioxide from the body parts and releases into the
alveoli.
• The oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the blood.
• The air is blood vessels transport oxygen around the body.
• This is a continuous process; the air is taken in and moves out.
• Hence the lungs always contain a residual volume of air which provides
sufficient time for oxygen absorption and carbon dioxide release.
• Human RBC contains a red pigment called haemoglobin, which carries
Oxygen around the body.
• Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen.
• Hence it is transported in the dissolved form in our blood.
Mechanism of breathing
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 23
Breathe in Breathe out
When we breathe in air, the muscles of the When we breathe out air, the muscles of the
diaphragm contract and move downward diaphragm relax and move upward and the
and the chest cavity expands and air enters chest cavity contracts and air goes out of the
into the lungs. lungs.
• The rib cage, muscles associated with the rib cage and diaphragm, help in
inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out) of gases.
• Exchange of gases takes place between the alveoli surface and surrounding
blood vessels.
• Alveoli provide a large surface area for gas exchange.
• When the body size of animals increases, the diffusion pressure is insufficient to
supply oxygen to all parts of the body.
• In human beings, RBC contains the haemoglobin, which has a very high affinity
for oxygen.
• Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly
transported in the dissolved form in our blood (plasma).
Gas exchange in plants
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 24
• In plants the exchange gases takes place through stomata.
• Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion here.
Diffusion:
It is the movement of molecules from higher
concentration to the lower concentration.
• The direction of diffusion depends upon the environmental conditions and the
requirements of the plant.
• At night, there is no photosynthesis. So CO2 diffuses from the leaf to the
atmosphere.
• During the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis, so
there is no CO2 release.
• Oxygen is released as the waste or by-product of photosynthesis.
Chapter 5 – Life Processes 25