Lecture 3 – Human body

CONTENT

 Human Digestive System

 Liver, Pancreas & Gall Bladder
 Respiratory System
 Circulatory System
 Excretory System
 The Brain
 Neuron
 Endocrine Glands
 Hormones
 Human Reproductive System

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 The human digestive system consists of the

gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of
digestion.
 Biomacromolecules (carbohydrates, proteins etc.)
in food cannot be utilized by our body in their
original form.
  They have to be broken down and converted into simple substances (glucose, amino
acids etc.) in the digestive system.
 During the digestion process, Biomacromolecules like
 carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose,
 fats into fatty acids and glycerol,
 Proteins into amino acids.
 This process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is
called digestion.

Mouth & Buccal Cavity

 The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion. Ingestion happens
through mouth. The mouth leads to the buccal cavity or oral cavity.

 Chemical process of digestion is initiated in the oral cavity by the hydrolytic action of
the carbohydrate splitting enzyme, the salivary amylase.

 Lysozyme is also present in saliva acts as an antibacterial agent that prevents

infections.

 The oral cavity leads into a short pharynx which serves as a common passage for food
and air. The Oesophagus and the trachea (wind pipe) open into the pharynx.

 A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents the entry of food into the glottis
(opening of the wind pipe).

 The swallowed food passes into the foodpipe or oesophagus then enter stomach.

Stomach

 The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive
juices.
 The mucous protects the lining of the stomach.
 The acid kills many bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the
medium in the stomach acidic.
 The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler substances.

Small Intestine

 The small intestine is distinguishable into three regions, a ‘C’ shaped duodenum; a
long coiled middle portion jejunum, and highly coiled ileum.
 The small intestine is highly coiled and is about 5 meters long.
  It also receives secretions from the liver
and the pancreas. Besides, its wall also
secretes juices.
 The digested food passes into the blood
vessels in the wall of the intestine. This
process is called absorption.
 The inner walls of the small intestine
have thousands of finger-like
outgrowths. These are called villi.
 Villi increase the surface area for
absorption of the digested food.
 The absorbed substances are
transported via the blood vessels to
different organs of the body where they
are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by the body. This
is called assimilation.

Large intestine

 It is about 1.5 meters in length.

 Its function is to absorb water and some salts from the undigested food material.
 The remaining waste passes into the rectum and remains there as semi-solid faeces.
 The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time to time. This is called
egestion.
 It consists of the caecum, colon, and rectum.
LIVER, PANCREAS & GALL BLADDER
Liver

 It is the largest gland in the body.

 It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac
called the gall bladder.
 Bile plays an important role in the digestion
of fats.

Pancreas

 The pancreas is a large cream-colored gland

located just below the stomach.
 The pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates
and proteins and changes them into simpler
forms.
 The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline
pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the endocrine portion secretes hormones,
insulin and glucagon.

Gall bladder

 The gall bladder is a pouch-shaped organ that stores the bile produced by the liver.
 The gall bladder shares a vessel, called the common bile duct, with the liver.
 When bile is needed, it moves through the common bile duct into the first part of
the small intestine, the duodenum.
 It is here that the bile breaks down fat.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 The respiratory system is a biological

system consisting of specific organs and
structures used for gas exchange.
 In the human body, O2 & CO2 are gases
that are exchanged.
 We need O2 for metabolism & we need
to exhale CO2 which is the by-product of
our metabolism.
Respiratory Mechanism

 The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a pressure
gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.
 Note: Have you experienced difficulty in breathing in Ladakh? (High altitude areas)
 The pressure gradient is maintained with
the help of special muscles - the Diaphragm
and External & Internal intercostals
muscles between the ribs.
 On average, a healthy human breathes 12-
20 times/minute.
 Alveoli are the primary sites of the
exchange of gases.
 The exchange of gases also occurs between
blood and tissues.
 O2 and CO2 are exchanged in alveoli by
diffusion-based on pressure & concentration gradient.
 Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2. 97 % of O2 is transported by RBCs
in the blood. Some O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the plasma.
 Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron-containing pigment present in the RBCs which is
responsible for the transfer of O2 and CO2.
 O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin.
 CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin and bicarbonate in the
blood.
 RBCs contain an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase which helps in transport as
bicarbonate.
  CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported to the alveoli is
released out as CO2.

Respiratory Disorders
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 The English physician, William Harvey,

discovered the circulation of blood.
 The circulatory patterns are of two
types – open or closed.
 In birds and mammals, its closed
system in which oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood is received by the
left and right atria respectively passes
on to the ventricles of the same sides.
 Birds & Mammals have double
circulation.

Heart

 The heart has four chambers.

 The two upper chambers are called the
atria and the two lower chambers are
called the ventricles.
 A thin, muscular wall called the
inter-atrial septum separates the right
and the left atria, whereas a thick-
walled, inter-ventricular septum
separates the left and the right
ventricles.
 The walls of the chambers of the heart are made up of muscles.
 These muscles contract and relax rhythmically.
 This rhythmic contraction followed by its relaxation constitutes a heartbeat.
 This rhythmic contraction helps in pumping blood throughout the body.
 This rhythmic event in the heart which is cyclically repeated is called the cardiac
cycle and it consists of systole and diastole of both the atria and ventricles.
 A normal heart beats 72 times per minute.
 During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 mL of blood
which is called the stroke volume.
 Hence, in an entire body cardiac cycle, approximately 5000 mL or 5 liters of blood is
pumped.
 During each cardiac cycle, two prominent sounds are produced.
 The first heart sound (lub) is associated with the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid
valves whereas the second heart sound (dub) is associated with the closure of the
semi lunar valves.
Electrocardiograph (ECG)

 An electrocardiograph is used to obtain an electrocardiogram (ECG).

 ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a
cardiac cycle.

Disorders of Circulatory System

 High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)- Hypertension is the term for blood pressure
that is higher than normal (120/80). In this measurement 120 mm Hg (millimeters of
mercury pressure) is the systolic, or pumping, pressure and 80 mm Hg is the
diastolic, or resting, pressure.
 Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)- often referred to as atherosclerosis, affects the
vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle.
 Angina- It is also called ‘angina pectoris’. A symptom of acute chest pain appears
when no enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.
 Heart Failure- means the state of the heart when it is not pumping blood effectively
enough to meet the needs of the body.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

When our cells perform their work, certain waste

products are released.

These waste products are pushed into the blood stream.

These are toxic waste material and hence need to be
removed from the body.

The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of

the living organisms is called excretion.

Waste removal is done by the blood capillaries in the

kidneys. When the blood reaches the two kidneys, it
contains both useful and harmful substances.

The useful substances are absorbed back into the blood.

The wastes are removed as urine.
Wastes produced in the Human body

 Animals accumulate ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, water, and ions like
Na+, K+, Cl–, phosphate, and sulphate as wastes.
 It ca be by metabolic activities or by other means like excess ingestion.
 Ammonia, urea, and uric acid are the major forms of nitrogenous wastes excreted by
the animals.
 Ammonia is the most toxic form and requires a large amount of water for its
elimination.
 Uric acid needs a minimum loss of water for removal.

Kidneys

 Kidneys are reddish-brown, bean-shaped

structures situated between the levels of the
last thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.
 Each kidney of an adult human measures 10-12
cm in length, 5-7 cm in width. Its average
weight of 120--170 g.

 Towards the center of the inner concave

surface of the kidney is a notch called the hilum
through which the ureter, blood vessels, and
nerves enter.
 Each kidney has nearly one million complex
tubular structures called nephrons, which are
the functional units.
 Each nephron has two main parts –
1. Glomerulus
2. Renal tubule
 Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the
afferent arteriole – a fine branch of the renal
artery.
 Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by
an afferent arteriole.
 The renal tubule begins with a double-walled cup-like structure called Bowman’s
capsule, which encloses the glomerulus.

Urine Formation Process

 Urine formation involves three main processes namely, glomerular filtration,

reabsorption, and secretion, that take place in different parts of the nephron.
  The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood, which is carried out by the
glomerulus and is called glomerular filtration.
 On average, 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per minute.
 The amount of filtrate formed by the kidneys per minute is called glomerular
filtration rate (GFR). Normal GFR : 125 ml/minute or 180 liters per day
 Although 180 liters is filtered in a day but normal urine discharge is about 1.5 liters a
day..
 During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete substances like H+, K+, and
ammonia into the filtrate.
 Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary bladder where it
is stored till a voluntary signal is given by the central nervous system (CNS).
 This signal is initiated by the stretching of the urinary bladder as it gets filled with
urine.
 The CNS passes on motor messages to initiate the contraction of smooth muscles of
the bladder and simultaneous relaxation of the urethra causing the release of urine.
 The process of release of urine is called micturition and the neural mechanism
causing it is called the micturition reflex.

Role of other Organs in Excretion

 Other than the kidneys, lungs, liver, and skin also help in the elimination of
excretory wastes.
 Our lungs remove large amounts of CO2 and also significant quantities of water
every day.
 Liver secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol,
degraded steroid hormones, vitamins, and drugs.
 Most of these substances ultimately pass out along with digestive wastes.
 The sweat and sebaceous glands in the skin can eliminate certain substances through
their secretions.
 Sweat produced by the sweat glands is a watery fluid containing NaCl, small amounts
of urea, lactic acid, etc.

Kidney Disorders

 Chronic kidney disease- It’s commonly caused by high blood pressure.

 Kidney stones-They occur when minerals and other substances in the blood
crystallize in the kidneys, forming solid masses (stones).

 Glomerulonephritis- an inflammation of the glomeruli.

  Polycystic kidney disease- Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic disorder that causes
numerous cysts (small sacs of fluid) to grow in the kidneys.

Endocrine & Vertebral System

HUMAN BRAIN

 The brain can be divided into three major parts: (i) forebrain, (ii) midbrain, and (iii)
hindbrain.
 The forebrain consists of cerebrum,
thalamus and hypothalamus.
 The midbrain is located between the
thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain
and pons of the hindbrain.
 The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum
and medulla (also called the medulla
oblongata).
 Pons consists of fibre tracts that
interconnect different regions of the brain.

NEURON
There are three different types of neurons:

Sensory Neurons

 The sensory neurons convert signals from the external environment into
corresponding internal stimuli.
Motor Neurons

 These are Multipolar and are located in the central nervous system extending their
axons outside the central nervous system.
 This is the most common type of neuron and transmits information from the brain to
the muscles of the body.

Interneurons

 They are Multipolar in structure. Their axons connect only to the nearby sensory
and motor neurons.
 The helps in passing signals between two neurons.

VERTEBRAL SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
 HORMONES

 Protein hormones: (e.g., insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic

hormones, etc.)
 Steroidal hormones (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
 Iodothyronines (eg: thyroid hormones)
 Amino-acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine)

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The reproductive events in humans include

1. formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males and ovum in
females,
2. Transfer of sperms into the female genital tract (insemination),
3. Fusion of male and female gametes (fertilisation) leading to the formation
of zygote.
4. Formation and development of blastocyst and its attachment to the
uterine wall (implantation),
5. Embryonic development (gestation) and
6. Delivery of the baby (parturition).
 GENERAL SCIENCE – Physics

GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Physics
• Physics is a science that deals with the structure of matter and the interactions between the
fundamental constituents of the observable universe.
• The ultimate aim of physics is to find a set of laws governing matter, motion, and energy at
macroscopic and microscopic scale of everyday life.
• Earlier, Physics was a basic science and was often compared with natural Philosophy. As the
modern sciences developed and became increasingly specialized, stream of physics also expanded.

Scope of Physics

CLASSICAL MECHANICS
• Mechanics generally means the study of the motion of objects or their lack of motion under the
action of given forces.
• Classical mechanics is sometimes considered a branch of applied mathematics.
• Mechanics consists of study of statics, kinematics, and dynamics plus the study of the action of
forces in each.

News laws of Motion

The three laws of motion set forth by Isaac Newton form the foundation of classical mechanics.

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1. Newton’s First Law of motion

• Newton’s first law of motion states that “An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object
in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force.” Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to
remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it.
• It is the natural tendency of objects to resist changes m their state of motion. This tendency
to resist changes in their state of motion is described as inertia.
• Inertia: Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion. But what
is meant by the phrase state of motion? The state of motion of an object is defined by its
velocity - the speed with a direction. Thus, inertia could, be redefined as follows; inertia:
tendency of an object to resist changes in its velocity.
• There are many more applications of Newton’s first law of motion.
• Blood rushes from your head to your feet while quickly stopping when riding on a
descending elevator.
• The head of a hammer can be tightened onto the wooden handle by banging the bottom of
the handle against a hard surface.
• While riding a skateboard (or wagon or bicycle), you fly forward off the board when hitting
a curb or rock or other object which abruptly halts the motion of the skateboard.
2. Newton's Second Law of Motion:
• The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional
to the mass of the object.
• The relationship between an object’s mass m, its acceleration a, and the applied force F is F =
ma. Acceleration and force are vectors, in this law the direction of the force vector is the same
as the direction of the acceleration vector.
• Acceleration, a, is defined as a change in velocity, meaning a change in its magnitude or
direction, or both.
• Newton’s second law of motion states that the acceleration of a system is directly
proportional to and in the same direction as the net external force acting on the system, and
inversely proportional to its mass.

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Applications of Second law of motion

• Do you watch Sports?
• How can a batsman hit Sixer? How can a player hit home run? Tennis racket smashes the ball
for acceleration.
• When you push on the pedals, your bicycle accelerates.
• Shopping cart is easy to move when not loaded.
3. Newton's Third Law of Motion:
• For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair forces acting on the two
interacting objects. The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the
second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the
force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs – equal and opposite action-reaction
force pairs.
• The rocket’s action is to push down on the ground with the force of its powerful engines, and
the reaction is that the ground pushes the rocket upwards with an equal force.
• There’s also the example of shooting a cannonball. When the cannonball is fired through the
air (by the explosion), the cannon is pushed backward. The force pushing the ball out was
equal to the force pushing the cannon back, but the effect on the cannon is less noticeable
because it has a much larger mass. That example is similar to the kick when a gun fires a bullet
forward.
• Friction: Friction is a force that resists the movement of one surface over another. The force
acts in the opposite direction to the way an object wants to slide. If a car needs to stop at a
stop sign, it slows because of the friction between the brakes and the wheels.
• Measures of friction are based on the type of materials that are in contact. Concrete on
concrete has a very high coefficient of friction. That coefficient is a measure of how easily one
object moves in relationship
to another. When you have
a high coefficient of friction,
you have a lot of friction
between the materials.

What is Acceleration?
• When an object's velocity
changes, it accelerates.
Acceleration shows the change
in velocity in a unit time. Velocity
is measured in meters per

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – Physics

second, m/s, so acceleration is measured in (m/s)/s, or m/s2, which can be both positive and
negative. The symbol for acceleration is a (boldface).
• When the velocity decreases the body is said to undergo retardation or deceleration.

FORCE:
Force is an influence that can change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass
to change its velocity, i.e., to accelerate.

• Force can be defined as a push or a pull. (Technically, force is something that can accelerate
objects.). Force is measured by N (Newton). A force that causes an object with a mass of 1 kg to
accelerate at 1 m/s is equivalent to 1 Newton.
• Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that every massive particle in the universe attracts
every other massive particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• In equation form, the gravitational force where r is the distance between two bodies of masses
rn1 and m2 and 6 the universal gravitational constant.
• Centripetal Force: For a body to move in a circle there must be a force on it directed towards the
centre. This is called the centripetal force and is necessary to produce continuous change of
direction in a circular motion.
• The magnitude of the centripetal force on an object of mass m moving at a speed v along a path
with radius of curvature r is given by the relation the direction of the force is toward the centre of
the circle in which the object is moving. Centrifugal force is equal and opposite to centripetal force,
i.e. it acts outwards.

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Work, Power and Energy

• When a force acting on a body produces a change in the position of the body, work is said to be
done by the force. Work done on an object is defined as the magnitude of the force multiplied by
the distance moved by the object in the direction of the applied force. The unit of work is joule: 1
joule = 1 newton 1 meter. Work done on an object by a force would be zero if the displacement
of the object is zero.
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work. Power = (work done) / (time taken). The SI unit of
power is watt. 1 W = 1 Joule/second. The unit of power is also horse power. It is the power of an
agent which can work at the rate of 550-foot pounds per second or 33,000 foot pounds per
minute.
• An object having capability to do work is said to possess energy. Energy has the same unit as that
of work.
• An object in motion possesses what is known as the kinetic energy of the object. An object of
mass, m moving with velocity v has a kinetic energy of
• The energy possessed by a body due to its change in position or shape is called the potential
energy. The gravitational potential energy of an object of mass, m raised through a height, h from
the earth’s surface is given by mgh.
• According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can only be transformed from one form to
another; it can neither be created nor destroyed. The total energy before and after the
transformation always remains constant.
• Energy exists in nature in several forms such as kinetic energy, potential energy, heat energy,
chemical energy etc. The sum of the kinetic and potential energies of an object is called its
mechanical energy.

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Law of Conservation of Energy

• According to this law, energy can only be converted from one form to another, it can neither be
created nor destroyed. The total energy before and after the transformation always remains the
same.
• Transformation of Energy- The conversion of one form of energy to the other form is termed as
transformation of energy. The phenomenon in which energy is transformed from useful from to
useless form is known as dissipation of energy.

Science in Action
• When a boy runs, the internal energy in his body is converted into kinetic energy.
• When we throw an object, the muscular energy stored in our body is converted into kinetic
energy.
• Electric energy into light energy-Electrical Bulb.
• Chemical energy into electrical energy-Cell.
• Electrical energy into heat energy- Heater.
• Electrical into mechanical – Electrical motor
• Mechanical into electrical – Dynamo
• Sound energy into electrical energy – Microphone

Conservation laws
• Conservation of mass suggests that matter can be neither created nor destroyed. In a process it
simply, changes the physical or chemical properties of substances within an isolated system
leaving the total mass unchanged.
• Conservation of linear momentum expresses the fact that a body or system of bodies in motion
retains its total momentum, the product of mass and vector velocity, unless an external force is
applied to it.
• Conservation of angular momentum of rotating bodies is analogous to the conservation of linear
momentum. It expresses that a body or system that is rotating continues to rotate at the same
rate unless a twisting force, called a torque, is applied to it.

Sound
• Sound is a form of energy and like all other energies, sound is not visible to us. It produces a
sensation of hearing when it reaches our ears. Sound cannot travel through vacuum.

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• Sound is produced due to vibration of different objects. The matter or substance through which
sound is transmitted is called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Sound moves through a
medium from the point of generation to the listener.
• In longitudinal wave the individual particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the
direction of propagation of the disturbance. The particles do not move from one place to another
but they simply oscillate back and forth about their position of rest. This is exactly how a sound
wave propagates, hence sound waves are longitudinal waves. Sound travels as successive
compressions and rarefactions m the medium. In sound propagation, it is the energy of the sound
that travels and not the particles of the medium.
• There is also another type of wave, called a transverse wave. In a transverse wave particle do not
oscillate along the line of wave propagation but oscillate up and down about their mean position
as the wave travels. Thus, a transverse wave is the one in which the individual particles of the
medium move about their mean positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. Light is a transverse wave but for light, the oscillations are not of the medium
particles or their pressure or density − it is not a mechanical wave.
• To and fro motion of an object is known as vibration. This motion is also called oscillatory motion.

Properties of Sound

• Amplitude and frequency are two important properties of any sound.

• The loudness or softness of a sound is determined basically by its amplitude. The amplitude of the
sound wave depends upon the force with which an object is made to vibrate.
• The change in density from one maximum value to the minimum value and again to the maximum
value makes one complete oscillation.
• The distance between two consecutive compressions or two consecutive rarefactions is called the
wavelength
• The time taken by the wave for one complete oscillation of the density or pressure of the medium
is called the time period, T.
• The number of complete oscillations per unit time is called the frequency. The frequency is
expressed in hertz (Hz).
• Larger the amplitude of vibration, louder is the sound. Higher the frequency of vibration, the
higher is the pitch, and shriller is the sound.
• The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound. If the frequency of vibration is higher, we
say that the sound is shrill and has a higher pitch. If the frequency of vibration is lower, we say that
the sound has a lower pitch.

Doppler effect
The apparent change in the frequency of sound due to the relative motion between the source and
the observer is called the Doppler effect
An increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, or other waves as the source and observer
move towards (or away from) each other. The effect causes the sudden change in pitch noticeable in

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – Physics

a passing siren of train.

The reason for the Doppler effect is that when the source of the waves is moving towards the observer,
each successive wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the crest of the
previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous
wave. Hence, the time between the arrivals of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced,
causing an increase in the frequency. While they are traveling, the distance between successive wave
fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together". Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away
from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous
wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance
between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

Speed of Sound

• Sound propagates through a medium at a finite speed. The speed of sound depends on the
properties of the medium through which it travels. The speed of sound in a medium depends also
on temperature and pressure of the medium. The speed of sound decreases when we go from
solid to gaseous state. In any medium as we increase the temperature the speed of sound
increases. Experiment shows that the velocity of sound in air at 0 0C is about 332 meters per
second.
• The velocity of sound through a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of
the gas.
• The law of reflection of sound states that the directions in which the sound is incident and
reflected make equal angles with the normal to the reflecting surface and the three lies in the
same plane.
• If we shout or clap near a suitable reflecting object such as a tall building or a mountain, we will
hear the same sound again a little later. This sound which we hear is called an echo. The sensation
of sound persists in our brain for about 0.1 second. To hear a distinct echo, the time interval
between the original sound and the reflected one must be at least 0.1 second. If we take the speed
of sound to be 344 m/s at a given temperature, say at 22 0C in air, the sound must go to the
obstacle and reach back the ear of the listener on reflection after 0.1s. Hence, the total distance
covered by the sound from the point of generation to the reflecting surface and back should be at
least Thus, for hearing distinct echoes, the minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of
sound must behalf of this distance, that is, 17.2 m. This distance will change with the temperature
of air. Echoes may be heard more than once due to successive or multiple reflections.

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Light
• Light is a form of energy that causes the sensation of vision.
• The main source of light on Earth is the Sun. Historically, another important source of light for
humans has been fire.
• Light is more complicated than sound. Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation which
transmits spatial and temporal information.
• To understand light, you have to know that what we call light is what is visible to us. Visible light
is the light that humans can see. Other animals can see different types of light. Dogs can see only
shades of grey and some insects can see light from the ultraviolet part of the spectrum.
• Any medium through which light can travel is an optical medium. If this medium is such that light
travels with equal speed in all directions, then the medium is called a homogeneous. The
homogeneous media through which light can pass easily, are called transparent media. The media
through which light cannot pass, are called opaque media. Again, the media through which light
can pass partly, are called translucent media.

Properties of Light
• Light travels faster than sound. The speed of light in vacuum is 3 x 108 m/s.
• Light has dual nature. It acts as wave as well as particle.
• Light travels in Straight line.
• Light can carry energy and information.
• Light comprises of multiple colors – VIBGYOR.
• Light interacts with other matter.

Optics - As a Ray
• The basic element in geometrical optics is the light ray, a hypothetical construct that indicates the
direction of the propagation of light at any point in space.
• Historically it was easy to imagine it representing a narrow beam of light by a collection of parallel
arrows - a bundle of rays.
• As the beam of light moves from one medium to another, reflects off surfaces, disperses, or comes
to a focus, the bundle of rays traces the beam’s progress in a simple geometrical manner.

Reflection
• The turning back of light in the same medium is called reflection of light.
• Light is reflected from all surfaces. Regular is reflection takes place when light is incident on
smooth, polished and regular surfaces.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – Physics

• After striking the surface, the ray of light is reflected in another direction. The light ray, which
strikes any surface, is called the incident ray. The ray that comes back from the surface after
reflection is known as the reflected ray.
• The angle between the normal and incident ray is called the angle of incidence. The angle between
the normal and the reflected rays is known as the angle of reflection.

• Laws of reflection:
• 1st law: The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface of the mirror, all lie in
the same plane.
• 2nd law: The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Both angles are measured
with respect to the normal to the mirror.
Note: Even in cases of irregular reflection, laws of reflections are followed. But the reflected light
appears diffused.

Refraction
• The bending of the light ray
from its path in passing from
one medium to the other
medium is called refraction of
light.
• If the refracted ray bends
towards the normal relative to
the incident ray (Passing
obliquely), then the second
medium is said to be denser
than the first medium. But if
the refracted ray bends away
from the normal, then the
second medium is said to be
rarer than the first medium.
• If a ray of light passing normally i.e., at right angles from one medium to another optical medium
then it does not bend or deviate from its path.
• Refraction of light takes place due to change in the speed of light as it enters from one medium to
another medium.

Laws of Refraction
There are two laws of refraction

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – Physics

• 1st law: The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the refracting surface at the point
of incidence are in the same lane.
• 2nd law: The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for a
pair of media i.e.
Sini Sinr=constant(1μ2)
where, 1μ2 is the refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t medium 1. This law is also known as Snell’s
law.

Significance of Refraction
• Refraction occurs due to change of Speed when crossing one medium to another and it results in
change in Direction of light.
o Why do starts twinkle?
▪ The stars seem to twinkle in the night sky due to the effects of the Earth's atmosphere.
When starlight enters the atmosphere, it is affected by winds in the atmosphere and
areas with different temperatures and densities. This causes the light from the star to
twinkle when seen from the ground.
o What is a Mirage?
▪ A mirage is a naturally-occurring optical phenomenon in which light rays bend via
refraction to produce a displaced image of distant objects or the sky.
o Similarly, Why Rainbow is formed? Why something in water looks offset from original
position? (Coin in a water bucket)
o How can we focus light in eye? How do we make optical instruments, lens, microscopes?
• How does light carry information in an optical fibre it light travels in straight line?

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

• When a light ray, travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium is incident at the interface
at an angle of incidence greater than critical angle (c) i.e., the angle of incidence in a denser
medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium becomes 90∘, then light rays reflected
back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection (TIR).
• Sparkling of diamond, optical fibres etc. are the applications of total internal reflection.

Critical angle: The angle of incidence in a denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer
medium becomes 90∘ is called critical angle.

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Dispersion of White Light

The phenomenon of decomposition of the white light into seven component colours when passing
through a prism or through a transparent object delimited by non parallel surfaces is called dispersion
of light. A beam of light containing all the visible spectrum of the light is white, because the sum of all
the colors generates the white color. Normally the light we use is white. It’s the light containing all the
colors mixed together. The light is decomposed in all the component colours, i.e., Violet, Indigo, Blue,
Green, Yellow, Orange and Red, called as VIBGYOR.

VIBGYOR
• The colours of the spectrum of white light are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red
(VIBGYOR).
• Each colour is associated with light of a particular wavelength. Red light has longest wavelength
while violet has shortest.
• When light passed through a prism, the angle of deviation by a prism is not the same for all the
wavelength. Hence the prism disperses white light into its constituent colours.
• The red is deviated least and the violet most. Red travels most extensively.

Diffraction of Light
• The wavelength of light is of the order of angstroms. So, when light waves encounter obstacles of
very small sizes, the light waves bend around the edges of the obstacle and travel. This is known
as diffraction of light.
• Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The amount of
bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the opening.
• It is because of diffraction even where shadow is expected such area is illuminated.
• In the atmosphere, diffracted light is actually bent around atmospheric particles commonly, tiny
water droplets found in clouds. An optical effect that results from the diffraction of light by
water droplets is the silver lining sometimes found around the edges of clouds or coronas
surrounding the sun or moon.

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Interference of Light
• When two light waves of exactly same frequency travels in medium, in the same direction
simultaneously then due to their superposition, the intensity of light is maximum at some points
while the intensity is minimum at some other points. This phenomenon is called interference of
light.
• Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form the resultant wave of
the lower, higher or same amplitude.
• Interference of light waves happen all the time, the randomly phased light waves constantly
produce bright and dark fringes at every point but we seldom see them through naked eye.
• A soap Bubble which reflects spectrum of light, oil film water doing the same are examples of that.

Compton Scattering
The interplay of light with objects around us gives rise to several spectacular phenomena in nature
like the blue colour of the sky, colour of water in deep sea, the reddening of the sun at sunrise and the
sunset etc. When sunlight enters the earth atmosphere, air and water vapour molecules absorb part
of the light and reradiate it to all directions. This is called scattering of light.

• While diffraction and interference highlight wave character of light, Compton scattering shows its
EM particle. Light comprises of particles called photons.
• Compton scattering was discovered by Arthur Holly Compton. It is the scattering of a photon after
an interaction with a charged particle, usually an electron.
• If it results in a decrease in energy of the photon, it is called the Compton effect.

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Tyndall Effect
When a beam of sunlight enters a dusty (or smoke filled) room through a window then path becomes
visible due to scattering of light by dust or smoke particles this phenomenon is called Tyndall effect.

Surface Tension
• Surface tension can be defined in the form of an imaginary line on the liquid surface or by relating
it to the work done. The force acting per unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the free liquid
surface at right angles to the line and in the plane of liquid surface, is known as surface tension.

• Surface tension is the tendency of liquid surfaces at rest to shrink to minimum surface area
possible. The surface of the liquid behaves like an elastic sheet.
• Surface tension is what allows objects with a higher density than water such as razor blades and
insects to float on a water surface without becoming even partly submerged.
• Examples of surface tension are
o Raindrops are spherical in shape.
o The hair of a shaving brush cling together when taken out of water.
o Oil spread on cold water but remains as a drop on hot water etc.
• What causes the Surface tension?
Intermolecular forces like Van der Waals force, draw the liquid particles together along the
surface.

Law of Gravitation
• Earth attracts everybody towards itself with a force known as ‘gravity’. Due to the force of gravity
the ball thrown upwards doesn’t go upwards but it falls downwards after covering some vertical
distance. Actually, every object attracts every other object towards itself with a force. This force
is called the gravitational force. Gravitational force is one among the four fundamental forces. It
is always attractive in nature.
• All the objects in the universe attract each other with a certain amount of force, but in most of
the cases, the force is too weak to be observed due to the very large distance of separation.
• Isaac Newton unified “earthly” bodies and “heavenly” bodies with the Universal Law of
Gravitation. Newton used the universal law of gravity to prove that the moon is accelerating
towards Earth just as a body on Earth is falling towards Earth.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – Physics

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

• The gravitational force of attraction between
any two bodies in the universe is directly
proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
• Newton’s law of gravitation explains the
rotation of the moon around the earth or
earth around the sun.
• It also correctly predicts the solar and lunar
eclipses and the orbits and time periods of
the artificial satellites.
• Newton came to the conclusion that any two objects in the Universe exert gravitational
attraction on each other.

Earth’s Gravitational Pull

• Earth’s Gravity is the force of attraction exerted by the earth towards its center on a body lying on
or near the surface of the earth.
• The force of gravity acting on a body is the measure of the weight of the body. The force of gravity
produces an acceleration in a body and it is known as acceleration due to gravity.
o Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity = mg
o g= Gm/r2 = 9.8 m/s2 , (G=6.67 x 10-11 N m2 / Kg2) (Planet with mass m and radius r)
• The acceleration due to gravity g decreases above and below the earth’s surface. Hence, the
weight of a body decreases with an increase in height above the earth’s surface or an increase in
depth below the earth’s surface.
• The value of ‘g’ is maximum at the poles and minimum at the equator of the earth. At the center
of the earth, ‘g’ is zero.

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Theory of Relativity
• Relativity is a theory developed by Albert Einstein. It states that space and time are relative. All
the motion is relative to a frame of reference.
• When matters velocity reaches the speed of light, its behaviour can be described by the theory of
relativity. Furthermore, the limiting velocity of natural space is the speed of light, which is
emphasized in the theory of relativity.

Special Relativity
• The special theory of relativity or special relativity is a physical theory which states the relationship
between space and time. This is often termed as STR theory. Special theory of relativity is based
on two postulates –
o Laws of Physics are invariant
o Irrespective of the light source, the speed of light in a vacuum is the same in any other space.
• The special theory of relativity states that nothing can exceed the speed of light, which is the same
in all inertial time frames and that all inertial time frames are equally good for carrying out
experiments.
• It means, the laws of physics are the same for all irrespective of the velocity of the observer.
• The speed of light is always constant regardless of the motion of the light source or the motion of
the observer.
• Matter and energy are aspects of the same phenomenon, matter energy, and are linked in the
famous equation: E = mc2

General Relativity
• Einstein in his general theory of relativity said that being at rest in the gravitational field and
accelerating in a gravitational field are identical physically.
• Using this, Einstein was able to explain a discrepancy in the rotation of the different planets.
Einstein also explained the effect of a large concentrated mass (Eg: Sun) saying it ‘warped’ the
space around it.
• Einstein basically concluded that space, or rather spacetime, is curved. This is the theory laid the
foundation of Time travel & Time dilation. It also explained that universe is expanding, and parts
of it are moving away from Earth faster than the speed of the light.

Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamic process is said to take place if some change occurs in the state of a
thermodynamic system, i.e, the thermodynamic variables of the system - pressure, volume,
temperature and entropy change with time.

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• The following types of thermodynamic processes can take place:

o Isothermal process: A thermodynamic process that takes place at constant temperature.
o Isobaric process: A thermodynamic process that takes place at constant pressure.
o Isochoric process: A thermodynamic process that takes place at constant volume.
o Adiabatic process: A thermodynamic process in which no heat enters or leaves the system.
o Cyclic process: A thermodynamic process in which the system returns to its original state.

Laws of Thermodynamics
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• First law of thermodynamics states that When energy moves into or out of a system, the system’s
internal energy changes in accordance with the law of conservation of mass.
• Second law of thermodynamics states that state of the entropy of the entire universe, will always
increase over time.
• Third law of thermodynamics states that Entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero.

Magnetism
When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south direction. The tip which points to
the geographic north is called the north pole and the tip which points to the geographic south is called
the south pole of the magnet.
There is a repulsive force when north poles (or south poles) of two magnets are brought close
together. Conversely, there is an attractive force between the north pole of one magnet and the south
pole of the other.
• It attracts small piece of Iron towards it.
• it always ernes to rest in north-south direction when suspended freely.
• like poles repel, unlike poles attracts each other
• Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
• the strength of a magnet is maximum at poles.

Magnetic Induction
The phenomenon due to which an unmagnetized magnetic substance behaves like a magnet, due to
the presence of some other magnet, is called magnetic induction.
Magnetic induction depends upon the nature of magnetic substance. Magnetic induction is inversely
proportional to the distance between inducing magnet and the magnetic substance. More powerful
the inducing magnet, the more strong will be the magnetism in magnetic substance.
The space around the magnet where its influence can be detected is called the magnetic field.

Electricity
The phenomenon due to which a suitable combination of bodies on rubbing, get electrified is called
electricity.
If a charge on a body is not allowed to flow. It is called the static electricity.
When two objects are rubbed together, some electrons from one object move to another object. For
example, when a plastic bar is rubbed with fur, electrons will move from the fur to the plastic stick.
Therefore, plastic bar will be negatively charged and the fur will be positively charged.
When a negatively charged object touches a neutral body, electrons will spread on both objects and
make both objects negatively charged. When it touches positively charged object, charges are
neutralized.

Electric Current
Electric Current is the flow of electrons/charges across a given cross section or area due to difference
in electric potential.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – Physics

Electric current always flows from the point of high potential. The potential difference between two
conductors is equal to the work done in conducting a unit positive charges from one conductor to the
other conductor through a metallic wire.
In order for a charge to flow, it needs a push (a force) and it is supplied by voltage, or potential
difference. The charge flows from high potential energy to low potential energy.
The flow of charge is called the current and it is the rate at which electric charges pass though a
conductor.

Clouds & Lightning

Clouds are very small droplets of water in the form of vapour. A patch of cloud develops an electric
charge on it by friction.

As a result of friction the upper layers of cloud (which are away from earth) get positively charged and
the lower layers of cloud (which are facing earth) get negatively charged.

Dry and pure water are bad conductors of electricity, hence clouds continue to carry the charge on
them till the intensity of charge between the two gets too high.

When two patches of cloud bearing different charges cone face to face they get attracted to one
another and the electrons from negatively charged cloud jump to the positively charged cloud. The
jumping of electrons between the clouds results in a big spark. The heat from the spark results in
sudden expansion of air setting the air in violent waves which are heard by us as thunder. The spark
is seen as a flash of lightning first and then followed by a thunder, a little later.

To protect tall buildings from damage by lightning, a lightning conductor is fixed on them.

Earthing
The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directly to the earth by
the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing.

Generally, iron is used for the earthing. The earthing provides the simple path to the leakage current.
The shortcircuit current of the equipment passes to the earth which has zero potential.

Salt and charcoal increase the conductivity of the soil in the earth pit. As a result, the fault current
finds it easy path through equipment to the earth. The alternate layers of charcoal and salt maintain
low resistance for earth fault currents.

Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is a branch of physics which deals with the relationship between electricity and
magnetism.

Whenever current is passed through a straight conductor it behaves like a magnet. The magnitude of
magnetic effect increases with the increase in the strength of current.

Faraday’s law of induction explains the way changing magnetic fields can cause current to flow in wires
and vice versa.

Faraday's first law of electromagnetic induction states, “Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying
magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

GENERAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY
• Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, properties and change of matter.
• Matter is something that takes up space (it has mass & volume) and is made up of particles.
• Chemistry is mainly concerned with atoms (a basic particle in chemistry) and their interactions
with other atoms.
• Most matter consists of an agglomeration of molecules, which can be separated relatively easily.
Molecules, in turn, are composed of atoms joined by chemical bonds that are more difficult to
break. Each individual atom consists smaller subatomic particles.

Atom
• Atom is the smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of electrically
charged particles.
• It also is the smallest unit of matter that has the characteristic properties of a chemical element.
As such, the atom is the basic building block of chemistry.
• Most of the atom is empty space. The rest consists of a positively charged nucleus of protons and
neutrons surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.

Structure of Atom
• Many scientists have tried to explain the structure of atom.
• Dalton’s atomic model
• Thomson’s model
• Ernest Rutherford’s model
• Niels Bohr’s model
• Schrödinger’s Quantum model

• All substances are made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

• Atoms of the same elements are identical in shape, size, mass and other properties.

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• Each element is composed of its own kind of atoms. Atoms of different elements are different in
all respects.
• Atom is the smallest unit that takes part in chemical combinations.
• Atoms combine with each other in simple whole number ratios to form compound atoms called
molecules.
• Atoms cannot be created, divided or destroyed during any chemical or physical change.
• Size of the Atom/Elements: Atoms are very small, they are smaller than anything that we can
imagine or compare with. One hydrogen atom, the smallest atom known, is approximately mm in
diameter. Atomic radius is measured in nanometres. 1 m = 109 nm.

Subatomic Particles
All atoms except hydrogen contain three basic subatomic particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Electrons and protons are found at the centre of the atom within a dense region called the nucleus.
In contrast, electrons are found outside the nucleus in a region called the electron cloud or electron
shell.
Electrons Protons Neutrons

•Electron is negatively •Protons are positively •Neutrons are electrically

charged particle. charged subatomic neutral particles and carry
particles. no charge.
•The charge of an electron
is approximately -1.602 × •The charge of a proton is •The mass of a neutron is
10-19 approximately 1.602 × 10- almost the same as that of
19 a proton i.e. 1.674×10-24
•The mass of an electron is
approximately 9.1 × 10-31 •The mass of a proton is
kg. approximately 1.672 × 10-
24

•Protons are over 1800

times heavier than
electrons.

Electrons
• They are negatively charged particles that
revolve around the nucleus in a fixed orbit.
Unlike protons and neutrons, electrons are
fundamental particles much smaller (almost
1800 times) in size than protons and
neutrons. The standard symbol used for an
electron is e or e–.
• Electrons move so fast around the nucleus
that their exact location within an atom
cannot be determined with accuracy. When
the number of negatively charged electrons
is equal to the number of positively charged
protons, the atom is neutral in charge.

• Each shell can contain only a fixed number of electrons:

o The first shell can hold up to two electrons, the second shell can hold up to eight (2 + 6)
electrons, the third shell can hold up to 18 (2 + 6 + 10) and so on.

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• The general formula is that the nth shell can in principle hold up to 2(n2) electrons.

Electron Shell Configuration

• Electronic configuration, also called electronic structure or electron configuration, the

arrangement of electrons in orbitals around an atomic nucleus.
• The electronic configuration of an atom in the quantum-mechanical model is stated by listing the
occupied orbitals, in order of filling, with the number of electrons in each orbital indicated by
superscript. In this notation, the electronic configuration of sodium would be 1s22s22p63s1,
distributed in the orbitals as 2-8-1.
• Often, a shorthand method is used that lists only those electrons in excess of the noble
gas configuration immediately preceding the atom in the periodic table.
• For example, sodium has one 3s electron in excess of the noble gas neon (chemical symbol
Ne, atomic number 10), and so its shorthand notation is [Ne]3s1.
• Electrons fill orbitals according to the Aufbau principle, in which the lowest energy orbitals are
filled first. Orbitals are filled as 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p6.

Importance of Neutron
• Neutrons have no charge, yet they are extremely important for stability of an atom.
• The primary role of the neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is to contribute to the binding energy
glue that holds the nucleus itself together.
• In order to overcome the repulsive forces of the protons, neutrons are present in the structure.
Presence of Neutrons creates the mass deficit that is converted into binging energy to hold the
nucleus together.
• They are also found within the nucleus along with the protons in a tightly packed manner.
Neutrons, similar to protons, are made of quarks and gluons. They were discovered by James
Chadwick in the year 1932 and are denoted by the symbol n or n0.

Atomic Number
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom decides which element it is. This very important
number is called the atomic number (Z).

• In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons, so the atomic
number also indicates the number of electrons present in the atom. The chemical identity of an
atom can be determined solely by its atomic number.

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• Atomic number is usually denoted by the letter Z. It is defined as the number of units of protons
in the nucleus.
• If an atom has 6 protons it is carbon. An atom of 92 atomic number corresponds to uranium.
• It is the electrons that determine how one atom interacts with another. Number of electrons
(range) in turn depends on protons. In the end it is the number of protons in the nucleus that
determines the chemical properties of an atom.

Atomic Mass
• A property closely related to an atom's mass number is its atomic mass. The mass of an atom
depends on the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons it contains.
• A value is assigned to the mass of one atom of a given element so that it can be used as standard.
By international agreement, atomic mass (some-times called atomic weight) is the mass of the
atom in atomic mass units (amu).
• One atomic mass unit (also called one Dalton) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth
the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
• Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope that has six protons and six neutrons. Setting the atomic mass of
carbon-12 at 12 amu provides the standard for measuring the atomic mass of the other elements.

Element
• In chemistry, an element is a pure substance consisting only of atoms that all have the same
numbers of protons in their nuclei.
• An element is the simplest form of a substance.
• Generally, it cannot be simplified or broken down further into smaller particles.
• Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols for elements in a very specific sense. When he
used a symbol for an element, he also meant a definite quantity of that element, that is, one atom
of that element.
• A symbol signifies a shorthand representation of an atom of an element. The symbol of any
element is based the English name or Latin name (written in English alphabets) and many of the
symbols are the first one or two letters of the element’s name in English.
• The first letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter (uppercase) and the second letter
as a small letter (lowercase). Examples are: (i) hydrogen- H (ii) aluminium- Al and not AL (iii) cobalt-
Co and not CO. Symbols of some elements are formed from the first letter of the name and a
letter, appearing later in the name. Examples are (i) chlorine, Cl, (ii) zinc, Zn etc.

Periodic Table

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Isotopes
Atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have different mass number. It is interesting to note
that atoms of a given atomic number can have different number of neutrons.

For example, take the case of hydrogen atom, it has three atomic species, namely protium (11 H),
deuterium (21 H or D) and tritium (31 H or T). The atomic number of each one is 1, but the mass
number is 1, 2 and 3, respectively. All isotopes of an element have the same number of valence
electrons thus have identical chemical properties.
The physical properties of the isotopes are different
due to the difference in the number of neutrons in
their nuclei. The densities, melting points and
boiling points etc., are slightly different.

Synthetic Elements
• Synthetic element is one of 24 known chemical
elements that do not occur naturally on Earth.
• They have been created by human manipulation
of fundamental particles in labs.

Molecules
• A molecule s in general a group of two or more
atoms that are chemically bonded together,
that is, tightly held together by attractive
forces. A molecule can be defined as the
smallest particle of an element or a compound
that is capable of an independent existence and
shows all the properties of that substance.
Atoms of the same element or of different
elements can join together to form molecules.
• The molecules of an element are constituted by
the same type of atoms. Molecules of many
elements, such as argon (Ar), helium (He) etc.
are made up of only one atom of that element.
But this is not the case with most of the

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nonmetals. For example, a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen and hence it is
known as a diatomic molecule, 02 if 3 atoms of oxygen unite into a molecule, instead of the usual
2, we get ozone. The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its atomicity.
• Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions to form molecules of
compounds. Compounds composed or metals and nonmetals contain charged species. The
charged species are known as ions. An ion is a charged particle and can be negatively or positively
charged. A negatively charged ion is called an ‘anion’ and the positively charged ion, ‘cation’. Take,
for example, sodium chloride (NaCl). Its constituent particles are positively charged sodium ions (
) and negatively charged chloride ions ( ). Ions may consist of a single charged atom or a group of
atoms that have a net charge on them. A group of atoms carrying a charge is known as a
polyatomic ion.

Chemical Bonding
• Chemical bonds are what hold atoms together to form the more complicated aggregates that we
know as molecules and extended solids. The forces that hold bonded atoms together are basically
just the same kinds of electrostatic attractions that bind the electrons of an atom to its positively-
charged nucleus. Chemical bonding occurs when one or more electrons are simultaneously
attracted to two nuclei.

• Strong chemical bonds are the intramolecular forces that hold atoms together in molecules.

• A strong chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of electrons between atomic centers
and relies on the electrostatic attraction between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the
orbitals.
• Mainly 3 Types of bonds can be present in Chemical Compounds.
o Ionic bond.
o Covalent bond.
o Metallic bond.

Ionic bond
It is formed by Transferring of Electrons between 2. Atoms. These types of bonds are mainly formed
between Metals and Non - Metals. These compounds exist in solid form. These compounds have high
boiling Point. Melting Point and thermal stability. Ionic compounds contain ions (cations and anions)
which are held together by the strong electrostatic forces of attraction.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

Covalent bond
It is formed by equal sharing of Electrons between 2 Atoms. This type of bond is mainly formed
between non - metals. These compounds may be solid, liquid or gas. These compounds have low
boiling Point, Melting Point and thermal stability in comparison to ionic Bond.

Metallic bond
• A metallic bond is formed when the valence electrons are not associated with a particular atom or
ion, but exist as a "cloud" of electrons around the ion centers.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

• Metallic materials have good electrical and thermal conductivity when compared to materials with
covalent or ionic bonding. A metal such as iron has metallic bonding.
• The structures formed by metals are held together by metallic bond.
• Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the outer shells of the metal atoms are free to
move.
• The metallic bond is the force of attraction between these free electrons and positive metal ions.

Molecular bond

• A molecular or covalent bond, is formed when atoms bond by sharing pairs of electrons. This
sharing can occur from atom to atom, or from an atom to another molecular bond.
• Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction and repulsion that exist between molecules or ions.
These forces help hold the ions and molecules of a substance together.
o Dispersion – Ion-Ion
o Dipole–Dipole
o Hydrogen Bonding
o Ion-Dipole (London Dispersion)

Polar & Non-Polar Molecules

• Non-polar covalent bond: A bond between two non-metal atoms that have the same
electronegativity and therefore have equal sharing of the bonding electron pair. Nonpolar

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

molecules are the molecules in which the electrons are equally shared among the involved atoms
and have a zero-dipole moment.
• Polar covalent bond: A bend between two non-metal atoms that have different electro
negativities and therefore have unequal sharing of the bonding electron pair. A polar molecule is
a chemical substance in which the distribution of electrons between the atoms involved is uneven,
resulting in a dipole moment.

Compound
• Chemical compound of any substance is composed of identical molecules consisting of atoms of
two or more chemical elements.
• All the matter in the universe is composed of the atoms of more than 100 different chemical
elements, which are found either in pure form or combined as chemical compounds.
• For example, our body is composed of majority compounds made of elements of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen are simply C, H, and O.
• Water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio two hydrogen atoms for every
oxygen atom, contains H2O molecules.
• Chemical compounds show a bewildering array of characteristics. At ordinary temperatures and
pressures, some are solids, some are liquids, and some are gases. Some are colorful, some are
colorless, some have odor. Some compounds are highly toxic to humans, whereas others are
extremely essential for life.
• Substitution of only a single atom within a compound may be responsible for changing its
properties.
• Compounds are also classified as
o Organic Compound
o Inorganic Compound
o Organometallic Compounds

Organic Compounds
• Organic compounds are substances that contain carbon (C), and carbon atoms provide the key
structural framework that generates the vast diversity of organic compounds.
• All living things on the Earth & in universe have a crucial dependence on organic compounds.
• Fats, proteins, carbohydrates, haemoglobin, chlorophyll, enzymes, hormones, vitamins etc are all
organic compounds.
• Carbon Bond: A carbon–carbon bond is a covalent bond between two carbon atoms.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

• The most common form is the single bond, a bond composed of two electrons, one from each of
the two atoms. The carbon–carbon single bond is a sigma bond which is found in alkanes.
• Carbon atoms can also form double bonds in compounds called alkenes
• They can form even triple bonds in compounds called alkynes.

Inorganic compounds
• Inorganic compounds include compounds that are made up of two or more elements other than
carbon, as well as certain carbon-containing compounds that lack carbon-carbon bonds, such as
cyanides and carbonates.
• Ex: Oxides, Sulphides, Nitrides, hydrides, chlorides etc.
• Transition metals also form a great variety of inorganic compounds.
• Inorganic compounds are obtained from natural processes which are not related to any of the life
forms on earth or any result of human experiments which are conducted in laboratories.

Organometallic Compounds
• Organometallic
Compounds are
chemical compounds
which contain at
least one bond
between a metallic
element and a
carbon atom
belonging to an
organic molecule.
Even metalloid
elements such as
silicon, tin, and
boron are known to
form organometallic
compounds which are used in some industrial chemical reactions.
• The bond between the metal and the carbon atom is often highly covalent in nature.
• Most of the organometallic compounds exist in solid states, especially the compounds in which
the hydrocarbon groups are aromatic or have a ring structure.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE – CHEMISTRY

• The compounds consisting of highly electropositive metals such as sodium or lithium are very
volatile and can undergo spontaneous combustion.
• In many cases, organometallic compounds are found to be toxic to humans (especially the
compounds that are volatile in nature).
• These compounds can act as reducing agents, especially the compounds formed by highly
electropositive metals.

Ions
• Compounds composed of metals and non-metals contain charged species known as ions.
• An ion is a charged particle and can be negatively or positively charged.
o Negatively charged: Anion
o Positively charged: Cation
• Ions mainly consist of a single charged atom or a group of atoms that have a net charge on them.
A group of atoms carrying a charge is known as a polyatomic ion.
• Cations are ions that carry a net positive charge because the number of protons in the species is
greater than the number of electrons. The formula for a cation is indicated by a superscript
following the formula that indicates the number of the charge and a "+" sign. A number, if present,
precedes the plus sign. If only a "+" is present, it means the charge is +1. For example,
Ca2+ indicates a cation with a +2 charge.
• Anions are ions that carry a net negative charge. In anions, there are more electrons than protons.
The number of neutrons is not a factor in whether an atom, functional group, or molecule is an
anion. Like cations, the charge on an anion is indicated using a superscript after a chemical
formula. For example, Cl- is the symbol for the chlorine anion, which carries a single negative
charge (-1). If a number is used in the superscript, it precedes the minus sign.

Chemical Reaction
• A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical change. A chemical
change is also called a chemical reaction. The change may conveniently be represented by a
chemical equation.
• Chemical reactions occur when different atoms and molecules combine together and spit apart.
For example, if Carbon (C) is burnt in Oxygen (O2) to form Carbon Dioxide, a Chemical Reaction
occurs. This reaction can be written: C+O2→CO2. This is called a Chemical Equation. The
substances on the left-hand side of the equation are called the Reactants. The substances on the
right-hand side are called the Products.
• Substances are either chemical elements or chemical compounds.
• A chemical reaction rearranges the constituent atoms of the reactants to create different
substances as products.
• Every chemical reaction follow,
o Conservation of mass.
o Conservation of energy.
o Law of definite proportion.
Note: In principle, Most chemical reactions are reversible, that is, they can and do run in both
directions. But chemical changes that occur are irreversible.

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Polymers

• Polymerization is a process in which relatively small molecules, called monomers, combine

chemically to produce a very large chainlike or network molecule, called a polymer.
• The monomer molecules may be all alike, or they may represent two, three, or more different
compounds.
• Usually at least 100 monomer molecules must be combined to make a product that has certain
unique physical properties.
• Polymers are materials made of long, repeating chains of molecules. The materials have unique
properties, depending on the type of molecules being bonded and how they are bonded. Some
polymers bend and stretch, like rubber and polyester. Others are hard and tough, like epoxies and
glass.
• Most of the polymers around us are made up of a hydrocarbon backbone.
A Hydrocarbon backbone is a long chain of linked carbon and hydrogen atoms, possible due to the
tetravalent nature of carbon.

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Chemistry in everyday life

• Why does your mouth stink in the morning?
o Saliva production decreases while you're sleeping, leaving you with dry mouth at night. Since
saliva usually flushes out odor-causing particles, you're left with bacterial buildup that makes
its presence known with its distinctive aroma.
• How does soap clean your face? How is your body soap different from detergent soap?
o Surrounded by the soap, the oil molecules become suspended and distributed in the water
rather than stubbornly clinging to your skin. This allows the dirt and germs on your skin—or
on clothing, surfaces, or towels—to be rinsed away with the water.
o Soaps have relatively weak cleaning action, whereas detergents have a strong cleaning effect.
• Why Onion makes you cry?
o Onions release enzymes and sulfenic acid when their skin is broken. These compounds
combine to produce S-oxides, an irritating gas, which generates tears when it touches the eye.
• Why some fruits are ripened & others are still raw?
o Ethylene is a gaseous plant hormone that plays an important role in inducing the ripening
process for many fruits, together with other hormones and signals. An unripe fruit generally
has low levels of ethylene. As the fruit matures, ethylene is produced as a signal to induce fruit
ripening.

Best way to prepare chemistry for UPSC is just look around you and get answers to every day
questions like
• What are the chemicals used in your food?
• Why does stale food tastes stale & smells bad?
• How can you preserve food for longer time?
• Why does Ice float in water?
• Do you apply any cosmetics before you go to work?
• How do sunscreens work?
• Does bottled water expire?
• What is antacid? Why do you use it?

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

WHAT IS BIOLOGY?
• Biology is the study of life. The word "biology" is derived from the Greek word "bios" (life) and
"logos" ("study").
• Biologists study the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living
organisms.
• Biology helps us to understand how living things work and how they function and interact on
multiple levels.
• Advances in biology have helped scientists do things such as develop better medicines and
treatments for diseases, understand how a changing environment might affect plants and animals,
produce enough food for a growing human population and predict how eating new food or sticking
to an exercise regimen might affect our bodies.
• Biology is divided into many sub-branches such as:
o Botany: study of plants.
o Zoology: study of animals.
o Morphology: study on internal body parts of different living species.
o Ecology: studies on the relation of living organism with their living environment.
o Taxonomy: study on identification and categorization of living species.
o Anatomy: study of external body parts.
o Genetics: study of how the inheritance transferred from generation to generation.

Botany
Geneti Zoolog
cs etc y

Biolog
Anato y Morph
my ology

Taxono Ecolog
my y

CELL BIOLOGY
• Cell biology is the study of cell structure and function, and the cell is the fundamental unit of life.
Some organisms have only one cell, while others are with huge numbers of cells.
• Robert Hooke discovered and coined the term cell in 1665.
• After that Robert Brown discovered the Cell Nucleus in 1831. The cell theory, that all the plants
and animals are composed of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of life was proposed by
Scleiden & Schwann in 1839.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

• In 1860s Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of Genetics. With the discovery of the electron
microscope in 1940, it was later possible to observe and understand the complex structure of the
cell and its various organelles.

CELL STRUCTURE
Cells are the smallest structures capable of maintaining life and reproducing, compose all living things,
from single-celled plants to multibillion-celled animals. The human body is made up of numerous cells,
begins as a single, newly fertilized cell. Almost all human cells are microscopic in size. Cells are simple
membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating particles.

CELL ORGANELLES
There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. A cell consists of three parts:
the cell membrane, the nucleus, and, the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements
of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called organelles.
Organelles are living part of the cell have definite shape, structure and functions. To keep their
function different from each other these organelles use membranes bound little structure with in
themselves. Some of the important organelles are:

CELL MEMBRANE
• In the living organism there are two types of cellular organizations. If we look at very simple of
cellular like bacteria and blue-green algae, we will discover cells that have no defined nucleus,
these are prokaryotes cells. The cells which have definite nucleus are known as eukaryote.
• But the things which both have in common is that there are compartments surrounded by some
type of membranes. These are called cell membranes.
• Cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane.
• Cell Membrane is like a plastic bag with some tiny holes that bag holds all of the cell pieces foreign
particles outside the cell.
• The holes are there to let some things move in and out of the cell. Compounds called proteins and
phospholipids make the basic bag.
• The proteins are found around the holes and help move molecules in and out of the cell.

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• Substances like and can move across the cell membranes by a process called diffusion. Diffusion
is a process of movements of substance from a region of high concentration to a region where its
concentration is low.
• Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water molecules is called osmosis.

CYTOPLASM
• It is the fluid that fills a cell. Scientists used to call the fluid proto-plasm, cytoplasm contain many
specialized cell called organ cells. Each of these organ cells performs a specific function for the
cell.
• It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus. The cytoplasm
is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
• It also contains other specialized cell organelles. Each of these organelles performs a specific
function for the cell.

NUCLEUS
The cell nucleus acts like the brain of the cell. It helps control eating, movement and reproduction.
Not all cells have a nucleus. The nucleus contains, the following components:
(a) Nuclear envelope: It surrounds the nucleus and all of its contents nuclear envelope is a membrane
similar to the cell membranes around the whole cell.
(b) Chromatin: When the cell is in resting state there is something called chromatin in the nucleus.
Chromatin is made up of DNA, RNA and nucleus protein. DNA and RNA are the nucleus acids inside
the cell. When the cell is going to divide, the chromatin become very compact. It condenses when the
chromatin comes together, we can see the chromosomes.
(c) Chromosomes: Chromosomes make organism what they are. They carry all the information used
to help a cell grow, thrive and reproduce.
(d) Nucleolus: It is a dense spherical granule contained within the nucleus, its size is related to the
synthetic activity of the cell. Neurons cell have a comparatively larger nucleate than those cells have
no synthetic activity. The nucleus stores proteins.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

VACUOLES
• It is a fluid filled spaces enclosed by membranes. It is a storage sac for solid or liquid contents.
• It stores excess water, minerals, food substance, pigments and waste products. Its size in animal
is small and in plant it is big. Many substances of importance in the life of the plant cell are stored
in vacuoles.
• These are amino acids sugars. It also Contain Various organic acid and some proteins.
• Large vacuoles are common in plant cells. Vacuoles in animal cells are much smaller.
• The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.

LYSOSOMES
• Lysosome is a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
• It helps to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material. Old organs cell ends up in the
lysosomes.
• When the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell.
Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the “suicide ways” of the cell.
• Lysosomes are able digest these because they contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of
breaking down all organic material.

Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex

• Golgi apparatus is found in most cell. It is another packaging organelle like the molecules and
combines them to make molecules and combines them to make molecules that are more complex.
It then takes those big molecules, packages them in vesicles and either stores them for faster use
or sends them out of the cell.
• Other functions:
• Its functions include the storage modifications and packaging of products in vesicles.
• It is also the organ Elle that builds lysosomes (cells digestion machines).
• Golgi apparatus is membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells that is made up of a series of
flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.
• The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids
into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations.
• It is located in the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic reticulum and near the cell nucleus. While
many types of cells contain only one or several Golgi apparatuses, plant cells can contain
hundreds.

Ribosomes
• Ribosomes synthesis protein, and ER sent this protein in various part of the cell. Whereas SER
helps in the manufacture of fats.
• Ribosomes are very important cell organelles composed of RNA and protein that converts genetic
code into chains of amino acids.
• A ribosome is a complex molecular machine found inside the cells that produce proteins from
amino acids during a process called protein synthesis or translation.
• The process of protein synthesis is a primary function, which is performed by all living cells.
• Ribosomes are known as the protein factory of the cell
• Functions of these proteins and fats:

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

• Protein and fat (lipid) help in building the cell membranes. This process is known as membranes
biogenesis.
• Some other protein and fat functions as enzymes and hormones.
• SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Endoplasmic reticulum is large network of membranes connected at one plasma membranes.
• Endoplasmic reticular (ER) are two types: - rough endoplasmic reticular (RER) and Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
• RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its
surface.
• The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell function.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) helps in production & utilization of proteins & lipids. Some of these
proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. Some other proteins and lipids function
as enzymes and hormones.
• ER also serves as channels for the transport of materials especially proteins between various
regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
• Functions of ER:
o It forms the supporting skeleton frame work of the cell.
o It provides a pathway for distribution of nuclear material.
o It provides surface for various enzymatic reactions.

Mitochondria
• Mitochondria is known as the power house of the cell. The energy required for various chemical
activities headed for life is released by mitochondria in form of ATP (adenosine-tri-phosphate)
molecules.
• ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy are stored in ATP for making
new chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
• Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA and ribosomes,
therefore mitochondria are able to make their own protein.
• Mitochondria is absent in bacteria and the red blood cells of mammals and higher animals.

Plastids
• These are present only in plant cells. There are two types of plastids:- chromoplasts (colour
plastids) and leucoplast (white or colourless plastids).
• Chloroplast impact colour to flower and fruits.
• Plastids are self-replicating. i.e. they have the power to divide, as they contain DNA, RNA and
ribosomes.
• Plastids contains the pigment chlorophyll that is known as chloroplast. It is the site for photo
synthesis.
• The above-mentioned cell organelles are the living part of the cell but there are some non - living
parts with in the cell like vacuoles and granules.
• Plastids are similar to mitochondria in external structure. Like the mitochondria, plastids also have
their own DNA and ribosomes.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

Plant cell and Animal cell

Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Nucleus elliptical in shape. [Link] rounded in shape
2. Mitochondria fewer. [Link] numerous.
Plant cells do not burst if placed in hypotonic Animal cells usually burst if placed in
3. 3.
solution. hypotonic solution
4. Centrioles absent except in lower plants. [Link] present.
Spindle formed during cell division is an astral Spindle formed during cell division is of
5. 5.
type. amphiastral type.
Golgi apparatus consists of a single
6. Golgi body has distyosomes. 6.
complex.
7. Lysosomes rare. 7. Lysosomes present in animal cells.
8. Glyoxysomes present. 8. Glyxosomes absent.
9. Crystals of inorganic substances occur inside. 9. Crystals do not occur.
Adjacent cells connected by a number of
10. Adjacent cells connected through 10.
junctions.
11. Cytokinesis by middle lamella. 11. Cytokinesis by cleavage.

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Micro Organisms
• Microorganism or microbe is an organism that is microscopic. The study of microorganisms is
called microbiology.
• Microorganisms are classified into four major groups. These groups are bacteria, fungi, protozoa
and algae.
• Viruses: They reproduce only inside the cells of the host organisms which may be bacterium,
plants or animal.
• Common cold, influenza and most coughs are caused by viruses.
• Serious diseases like polio and chicken pox are also caused by viruses.
• Microorganisms may be single celled like bacteria. Some algae and protozoa. Multicellular such as
algae and fungi.
• Microorganisms like amoeba can live alone, while fungi and bacteria may live in colonies.

Bacteria
• Bacteria are microbes with a cell structure simpler than that of many other organisms. Their
control centre, containing the genetic information, is contained in a single loop of DNA.
• Some bacteria have an extra circle of genetic material called a plasmid rather than a nucleus. The
plasmid often contains genes that give the bacterium some advantage over other bacteria.
• For example, it may contain a gene that makes the bacterium resistant to a certain antibiotic.
• Bacteria are thought to have been the first organisms to appear on earth, about 4 billion years
ago. The oldest known fossils are of bacteria-like organisms.
• Some bacteria are harmful, but most serve a useful purpose. They support many forms of life,
both plant and animal, and they are used in industrial and medicinal processes. Most bacteria
come in one of three basic shapes: coccus, rod or bacillus, and spiral.

Fungi
• Fungi can be single celled or very complex multicellular organisms. T
• hey are found in just about any habitat but most live on the land, mainly in soil or on plant material
rather than in sea or fresh water. A group called the decomposers grow in the soil or on dead plant
matter where they play an important role in the cycling of carbon and other elements.
• Some are parasites of plants causing diseases such as mildews, rusts, scabs or canker. In crops
fungal diseases can lead to significant monetary loss for the farmer.

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• A very small number of fungi cause diseases in animals. In humans these include skin diseases
such as athletes’ foot, ringworm and thrush.
• Fungi are subdivided on the basis of their life cycles, the presence or structure of their fruiting
body and the arrangement of and type of spores (reproductive or distributional cells) they
produce.
• The three major groups of fungi are:
o Multicellular filamentous moulds.
o Macroscopic filamentous fungi that form large fruiting bodies. Sometimes the group is
referred to as ‘mushrooms’, but the mushroom is just the part of the fungus we see above
ground which is also known as the fruiting body.
o Single celled microscopic yeasts.

Virus
• Viruses are the smallest of all the microbes. They are said to be so small that 500 million
rhinoviruses (which cause the common cold) could fit on to the head of a pin.
• They are unique because they are only alive and able to multiply inside the cells of other living
things. The cell they multiply in is called the host cell.
• A virus is made up of a core of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protective
coat called a capsid which is made up of protein. Sometimes the capsid is surrounded by an
additional spikey coat called the envelope.
• Viruses are capable of latching onto host cells and getting inside them.
• Virus is an infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply only in living
cells. Viruses occupy a special taxonomic position: they are not plants, not animals, or prokaryotic
bacteria.

Diseases caused by Microorganisms

• Diseases caused by microorganisms are quite common. They differ in severity and symptoms.
• The various types of disease-causing pathogens can be categorised into the following:

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Bacterial diseases
• Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that exist almost everywhere on earth. They are
very diverse and can live in various types of environments, including on and inside the human
body.
• Many bacteria are harmless, and some are actually beneficial to human health. Several groups of
bacteria also cause diseases and are called pathogenic bacteria. Some diseases caused by
microorganisms; several are caused by pathogenic bacteria.
• If your immune system is compromised by a virus, you become more prone to bacterial infections
as well. Sometimes the diseases caused by viruses can lead to normally harmless bacteria
becoming pathogenic.
• Doctors usually recommend antibiotics to treat bacterial infections. However, overuse of
antibiotics can also lead to bacterial strains becoming resistant to antibiotics. Bacteria can cause
diseases by excreting or secreting toxins.
• Bacteria can lead to several kinds of diseases in human beings. Bacterial diseases include
o Botulism
o Typhoid
o Tuberculosis
o Cholera
o Diphtheria
o Bacterial meningitis
o Tetanus
o Lyme disease
o Gonorrhoea
o Syphilis
o Strep throat
o Urinary tract infection (UTI)
o Bacterial gastroenteritis
o Salmonella food poisoning
o [Link] infection
o Cellulitis

Viral diseases
• Viruses are microscopic pathogens containing genetic codes, such as DNA or RNA. They must
invade a host in order to multiply.
• Once an individual is infected, viruses invade the cells within the body and use the components of
the host cell to replicate themselves, thereby creating more viruses.
• The new viruses are released from the host cells after the process of replication is complete. This
results in diseases caused by microorganisms.
• Some variants of viruses can remain dormant for days or weeks before they start multiplying
again. This is why sometimes a person appears to have recovered from a viral infection but ends
up falling sick again.
• Viral infections are difficult to treat as viruses are immune to antibiotics. Viruses can be
transmitted through respiratory droplets via the air we breathe, or through contact with the blood
or bodily fluids of a person with an infection.

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• Among the diseases caused by microorganisms, many are caused by viruses. Several viral diseases
include:
o Common cold
o Flu
o Warts, including genital warts
o Oral and genital herpes
o Meningitis
o Measles
o Viral gastroenteritis
o Chickenpox/shingles
o Many hepatitis variants
o Dengue fever
o HIV and AIDS
o Yellow fever
o Coronavirus diseases

Fungal diseases
• Fungi can refer to any member of a group of spore-producing organisms that feed on organic
matter. There are millions of different fungal species, and some are microscopic.
• Only a few fungi variants are pathogenic. When we talk about diseases caused by microorganisms,
some of these are caused by pathogenic fungi.
• Some fungal microorganisms live on and inside the human body and can cause sickness when they
overgrow. Fungi cells have a nucleus protected by a membrane and a thick cell wall, making them
hard to kill.
• Some fungal infections are easy to treat. However, some new strains of fungal infections are
suspected to be more dangerous. Several fungal infections are contagious and can spread from
one person to another through contact.
• Fungal diseases are common in human beings. These diseases include:
o Pneumocystis pneumonia
o Blastomycosis
o Histoplasmosis
o Ringworm
o Athlete’s foot
o Jock itch
o Cryptococcosis
o Valley fever
o Candidiasis
o Aspergillosis
o Vaginal yeast infections
o Thrush
o Fungal nail infections (onychomycosis)

Protozoan diseases
• Protozoa are single-celled organisms found in different types of habitats. They can live on or inside
human bodies and multiply.

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• Protozoa can cause infections and diseases in human beings. Transmission of protozoa from one
individual to another can occur through a faecal-oral route or can be transmitted by an arthropod
vector.
• Protozoa that are infectious to humans are classified into four groups: Sarcodina, Mastigophora,
Ciliophora, and Sporozoa.

Helminthic diseases
• Helminths are multicellular parasitic worms. Some adult helminths are visible to the human eye
and are not microscopic.
• However, helminths fall within the field of microbiology because their microscopic eggs and larvae
are responsible for many diseases caused by microorganisms.
• Helminth infections often occur when a person drinks water contaminated with worm eggs and
larvae.
• There are three main groups of helminths that cause disease in humans: flatworms
(platyhelminthes), thorny-headed worms (acanthocephalans), and roundworms (nematodes).

Are Microorganisms always bad?

• Some microorganisms are harmful [pathogens] as they cause various diseases in humans. Some
other microorganisms are beneficial and contribute to human welfare.
• Microscopic creatures including bacteria, fungi and viruses, can make you ill. But what you may
not realize is that trillions of microbes are living in and on your body right now. Most don’t harm
you at all.
• They help you digest food, protect against infection and even maintain your reproductive health.
We tend to focus on destroying bad microbes. But taking care of good ones may be even more
important.
• Friendly Micro Organisms
o Making of curd and breed: - milk is turned into curd by bacteria. The bacterium lacto bacillus
promotes the formation of curd.
o Yeast reproduces rapidly and produces during respiration. Bubbles of the gas fill the dough
and inert-volume; this is the basis of the use of yeast in the booking industry for making
breads, pastries and cakes.
o Yeast is used for commercial production of alcohol and wine. For this purpose, yeast is grown
as natural sugars present in grains like barley, wheat, rice, crushed fruit juice etc.
o This process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as fermentation Lewis Pasteur
discovered fermentation.
• Medicinal Use of Micro Organisms
o The medicine which kills or stops the growth of diseases causing microorganism is called
antibiotics.
o Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of the commonly known antibiotics-
Which are made from fungi and bacteria.
o Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin.
o Antibiotics are not effective against cold and flu as these are caused by virus.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

• Vaccine
o When a disease carrying microbe enters our body, the body produces antibodies to fight the
invader.
o The antibodies remain in the body and we are protected from the disease causing microbes.
This is how a vaccine work.
o Several diseases including cholera, TB, small pox and hepatitis can be prevented by
vaccination.
o Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for small pox.
• Increasing Soil Fertility
o Some bacteria and blue green algae are able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich
the soil with nitrogen and increase its fertility.
o These microbes are commonly called biological nitrogen fixer.

Plant Physiology
• Plant physiology is a branch of study in Botany dealing with the physiological processes or
functions of plants.
• It is a descriptive study of variation and structure of plants at the molecular and cellular level,
resulting in ecological, physiological and biochemistry related aspects of plant exploration.
• Plant physiology deals with different plant structures and their functioning. It enables analysing
processes in plants, namely photosynthesis, mineral nutrition, respiration, transportation, and
ultimately plant development and growth which are traits displayed by living entities.

Parts of plant
• Parts of plants are: Root, Stem, Leaf and Flower.

Root
• Root is the descending, non-green, underground part lacking nodes, internodes, leaves and buds.
• It is responsible for nutrition and support.
• Radicle comes out/arise from the seed coat in the form of soft structure and move toward the
soil. It develops and forms primary root.
• Functions of Root:
o It helps in the absorption of water and in organic nutrient from the soil.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

o It anchors the plant body and support it

o It is a storage of food and nutrients.
• There are two types of roots: monocot root and dicot root.

Dicot Root Monocot Root

The cortex area is narrow. The cortex region is wide.
The epiblema, cortex and endodermis There is no formation of cork and only the epiblema is
are peeled and replaced by cork. peeled off.
Older dicot roots have a covering of Older monocot roots show a covering of exodermis.
cork.
The endodermis is less thick and the Endodermis cells are highly thick and the Casparian stripes
Casparian strips are prominent. are only visible in young roots.
Passage cells are absent in the Passage cells are present and they are thin-walled.
endodermis.
Percicycle produces cork cambium and Pericycle only produces lateral roots.
lateral roots.
The number of xylem and phloem The number of xylem and phloem cells range between 8-
bundles vary from 2-5 and sometimes 46.
up to 8.
Xylems vessels are angular Xylem vessels are oval or rounded.
The conjunctive tissue is The conjunctive tissue can be parenchymatous or
parenchymatous and it forms the sclerenchymatous and conjunctive parenchyma does not
cambium. form the cambium.
Secondary growth takes place to help Secondary growth is absent.
cork and vascular cambium.
Pith is reduced or absent and the Pith is well-developed.
reduced pith is very small.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

Xylem Phloem

Xylem Phloem
Xylem helps in conduction of water and Phloem helps in conduction of food materials
minerals. and organic solutes.

The flow of material is mostly unidirectional. The flow of material is bidirectional.

Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion
parenchyma and xylem fibers. cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibers.

Conducting elements of xylem are tracheids Conducting element of phloem is sieve tubes.
and vessels.
Out of four element of xylem, only xylem Out of four elements of phloem, only phloem
parenchyma is living, rest three are dead. fibers are dead, rest three are living.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

Stem
• A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root.
• Characteristics
o It is the ascending part of plant, which develops from the plumule of embryo.
o These are differentiated into nodes and internodes and nodes posses leaves.
o It carries terminal bud for growth in length.
o These are capable of doing photosynthesis.
o When it gets matured, it carries flowers and fruits.
o These are positively phototropic, negatively geotropic and negatively hydrotropic.
• Functions of stem
o It supports plants and holds leaves flower and buds.
o It also connects the passage of roots to leaves and help in transport of water, minerals, sugar,
etc. to different part of plant.
o Due of modification of stem in thorn, it reduces transpiration
• Economic importance of stem
o Stems like sugarcane are the source of sugar.
o Stems like asparagus, bamboo, etc. are vegetables, cinnamon used as a spice is derived from
the bark of the tree.
o Medicines are obtained like quinine, Camphor, etc.

Leaf
• Leaf develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later develops into
a branches.
• Leaf develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later develops into
a branches.
• When leaf is modified in different structure. It is called modification of leaves. Eg - leaf tendrils,
leaf spine etc.
• Leaf tendril: The whole leaf is modified into a wire like structure which is called leaf tendril. Eg.
Lathyrus aphaca (wild pea).
• Leaf spine: Leaves or any part of leaflet are modified into pointed spine. (Eg. Opuntia, Aloe,
Argemone.) either to escape transpiration or for protection.
• Leaf scale: Leaves become thin, dry and form a membrane or paper like structure and serve to
protect axillary buds as in Ficus and Tamarix, Ruscus or store food and water as in onion.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

Flower
• Flower is a specialized branch of limited growth which bears floral leaves that carry on sexual
reproduction and give rise to seeds and fruits. The study of flower as called anthology.
• In a flower, 4 types of floral leaves are found. These are - sepal, petal, stamen and carpel.
• Androecium and gynoecium are reproductive organs.
• When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual. A flower having either
only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.

Gymnosperm v Angiosperm

• Angiosperms and gymnosperms are the two main categories of the plants. Both are seed-bearing
plants having few similarities.
• The main difference between these two is their diversity. Angiosperms are more diverse in comparison
to the gymnosperms.
• The higher diversity of angiosperms is due to their wide adaptability in terrestrial ecosystems.
• Angiosperms, are also known as flowering plants and having seeds enclosed within their fruit. Whereas
gymnosperms have no flowers or fruits and have naked seeds on the surface of their leaves.
• Gymnosperm seeds are configured as the cones. Some other main characteristics which differentiate
both are based on flowers, fruits, and seeds.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

Parameter Angiosperms Gymnosperms

These are seed-producing These are seed-producing non-

Definition flowering plants whose seeds flowering plants whose seeds
are enclosed within an ovary. are unenclosed.

Their seeds are bare and not

Their seeds are enclosed inside
Seeds enclosed, which are found on
an ovary, usually in a fruit.
scales, leaves, or as cones.

The lifecycle of these plants is

These plants are evergreen in
Life Cycle seasonal because these die
nature.
during autumn/fall.

These are present in flowers

These are present as cones and
Presence and can be unisexual or
are unisexual.
bisexual.

Reproduction is depending on Here, Reproduction is

Reproduction
the animals for spread. depending on wind for spread.

Tissue These have triploid tissue. These have haploid tissue.

Their leaves are scale-like and

Leaves The shape of the leaves is flat.
needle-like.

Wood These have hardwood. These have softwood.

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 GENERAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY – BIOLOGY

Used for Medications, food,

Uses Used for Paper, Lumber, etc.
clothing, etc.

Androecium
• Androecium is the male reproductive organ of the flower, which produces micropores.
• It comprises all the stamens in the flower. Each stamen is made up of a filament and an anther. A
ring of stamens occurs in the middle of a flower.
• Anthers have pollen sacs. The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs.
• Filament is the stalk which holds the anther away from the flower. Each anther has two lobes;
each connects to the filament at the base.
• A sterile tissue called the connective holds the two lobes together.

Gynoecium
• The gynoecium is the female reproductive organ of the flower, which produces macrospores or
ovules.
• It develops the seeds and fruit. Gynoecium occurs at the center of a flower and is surrounded by
the stamens.
• The three components of a gynoecium are stigma, style, and ovary.
• Stigma occurs at the tip of the style and it is sticky and feathery to capture pollen grains.
• The style is the stalk, which holds the stigma away from the flower.
• After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit.

Fruit
• The ovary wall, after fertilization has occurred, develops into a fruit. Fruits may be fleshy, hard,
multiple or single.
• Seeds germinate, and the embryo grows into the next generation sporophyte.
• Fruits protect the seeds. This is the primary function of the fruits and not just satisfying your taste
buds!
• In some fruits, seeds are absent. Examples include grapes, banana, etc. They are parthenocarpic or
seedless fruits.
• The fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants. Fruit is basically a mature or ripened
ovary, developed after fertilisation.
• The Seeds are basically the ovules after fertilization.

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 SPACE MISSIONS

CONTENT

 IRNSS – NAVIC
 Gaganyaan
 Vyom Mitra
 Chandrayaan I & II
 Mangalyaan
 Mission Shakti
 Project NETRA
 ADITYA – L1
 AstroSAT
 NISAR
 UNNATI program
 Future Plans
 Top Space Agencies in the World
 Juno Mission
 NEW HORIZONS
 Kuiper Belt
 CASSINI
 Messenger
 OSIRIS – REX
 Parker Solar Probe
 JAMES WEBB TELESCOPE
 HUBBLE TELESCOPE
 KEPLER SPACE TELESCOPE
 Sofia
 Artemis Mission
 Dawn Mission
 DART
 Kessler Syndrome
 International Space Station (ISS)
 NASA Missions by Location
 IRNSS – NAVIC

 In 2006, the Government of India began a project called IRNSS (Indian regional
navigation satellite system) which was expected to be completed and implemented by
2015-16.
 The main objective is to provide reliable position, navigation and timing services over
India and its neighbourhood.
 Simply put, it works just like GPS but within a 1,500-km radius over the Indian sub-
continent.
 The constellations' first satellite (IRNSS-1A) was launched on 1st July 2013 and the
seventh and final satellite (IRNSS-1G) was launched on 28th April 2016.
 In 2016, with the last launch of IRNSS-1G, IRNSS was renamed Navigation Indian
Constellation (NaVIC) by PM Modi.
 As of now, IRNSS consists of eight satellites, three satellites in geostationary orbit, and
five satellites in geosynchronous orbit.
 IRNSS-1I was launched in 2018 which is expected to replace IRNSS-1A, which was
rendered ineffective after its three rubidium atomic clocks failed.
 Potential Uses:
 Terrestrial, aerial and marine navigation;
 Disaster management;
 Vehicle tracking and fleet management (especially for mining and transportation
sector);
 Integration with mobile phones;
 Precise timing (as for ATMs and power grids);
 Mapping and geodetic data capture.

GAGANYAAN

 Gaganyaan will be India’s maiden human spaceflight mission.

 It was created in 2007 as Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (HSP) to develop the
technology needed to launch a
crewed orbital spacecraft into low
Earth orbit.
 The first crewed flight is planned
with a spacecraft called Gaganyaan
for December 2022 on a GSLV Mk-III
rocket.
 ISRO has been developing most of
the technologies for crewed flight
and it performed a Crew Module
Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment
and a Pad Abort Test for the mission.
 Crew training is being provided by
Russia.
 If completed on schedule, India will
become the fourth nation to conduct independent human spaceflight after the USSR,
USA & China.

VYOM MITRA

 In 2020, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) unveiled its first ‘woman’
astronaut, named Vyom Mitra who will
ride to space in the first test flight of the
human space mission, Gaganyaan.
 Vyom Mitra is a half-humanoid and her
body stops at the torso and has no legs.
 She is capable of switching panel
operations, performing Environment
Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS)
functions, conversations with the astronauts, recognizing them and solving their
queries.
 She can also detect and give out warnings if the environment changes within the cabin.
 Vyom Mitra has been developed by the ISRO Inertial Systems Unit,
Thiruvananthapuram.
 CHANDRAYAAN I & II

 Chandrayaan-1 was India's first moon mission. It was launched on 22 October 2008
from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
 Chandrayaan-1 made more than 3400 orbits around the moon and was operational for
312 days till 29 August 2019.
 Chandrayaan-2 was launched on 22 July, 2019 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre,
Sriharikota.
 The mission life of the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter is one year and Lander (Vikram) and
Rover was one Lunar Day that is 14 earth days.
 The lift of mass of Chandrayaan-1 was 1380 kg while Chandrayaan-2 weighs 3850 kg.
 Chandrayaan-1 was launched by PSLV-C11 whereas Chandrayaan-2 was launched by
GSLV MK-III M1.
 Chandrayaan-1 discovered some traces of water on the moon.
 Some minerals on the surface of the Moon were also detected by Chandrayaan-1 that is
Magnesium,
Aluminium and
Silicon.
 Another
achievement of this
mission was the
global imaging of
the moon.
 Chandrayaan-2
objectives were
wide. It did a soft
landing on the lunar
surface near the
South Pole and
deployed a rover on
the surface of the
Moon (Rover failed).
 The south pole of the moon was chosen by the Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) for Chandrayaan II because this lunar surface area remains in shadow.
 There is a possibility of the presence of water in permanently shadowed areas around it.
 The South Pole region also has craters that are cold traps and contain a fossil record of
the early Solar System.
 MANGALYAAN

 Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also called Mangalyaan is a spacecraft orbiting Mars
since 24 September 2014.
 MOM was launched on November 5, 2013.
 It is India's first interplanetary mission.
 With launch of MOM, ISRO has become the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the
Soviet space program, NASA, and the European Space Agency.
 India is the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, and the first nation to do so on its first
attempt.
 The Mangalyaan or Mars Orbiter Mission was launched by using a Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV) rocket C25.
 It costs 450 crore, weight 1350 kg, travelled for 300 days covered 65 crore km means
7Rs/km.
 It Carries 5 instruments for Atmospheric studies.

MISSION SHAKTI
 In 2019, Mission Shakti was undertaken to develop highly-potent Anti-satellite weapons
(ASAT).
 SHAKTI is a joint programme of DRDO & ISRO.
 The Anti-satellite (ASAT) System is a missile-based system to attack moving satellites.
 After this test, India will now have the power to decimate satellites for pure military and
strategic purposes.
 ASAT missiles can be air, sea or land-based.
 PROJECT NETRA

 NETRA is an early warning system in space to detect debris and other hazards to
Indian satellites.
 NETRA stands for Network for space object Tracking and Analysis.
 Under the project, the ISRO has to put up many observational facilities: connected
radars, telescopes; data processing units, and a control center.
 They can spot, track and catalogue objects as small as 10 cm, up to a range of 3,400 km
and equal to a space orbit of around 2,000 km.
 The project will give India its own capability in space situational awareness (SSA).
 The ultimate goal of NETRA is to capture the GEO scenes at 36000km.
 This will help in space surveillance as well as monitoring space debris.

ADITYA – L1

 ADITYA-1 is India’s first solar mission intended to study Sun’s Corona, Chromospheres,
and Photosphere.
 Aditya will also study the particle flux
emanating from the Sun, and the
variation of magnetic field strength.
 Aditya would be placed in a point in
space known as the L1 Lagrange point.
 Aditya L1 will study the Sun’s corona
(Visible and Near-infrared rays), Sun’s
photosphere (soft and hard X-ray),
chromospheres (Ultra Violet), solar
emissions, solar winds and flares, and
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), and will
carry out round-the-clock imaging of the
Sun.
 Aditya L1 will be ISRO’s second space-
based astronomy mission after AstroSat.
 UNNATI PROGRAM

 ISRO launched a capacity-building program on Nanosatellite development named

UNNATI in October 2021.
 It is an initiative to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first United Nations
conference on the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space (UNISPACE+50).
 It would provide opportunities to the participating developing countries to strengthen in
assembling, integrating, and testing of Nanosatellite.
 FUTURE PLANS
Shukrayaan-1

 Shukrayaan-1 is a proposed mission of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).

 It is a mission to study Venus for
more than four years.
 Scientific objectives: Investigation
of the surface processes and
shallow subsurface stratigraphy;
and solar wind interaction with
Venusian Ionosphere, and studying
the structure, composition, and
dynamics of the atmosphere.
 The satellite is planned to be
launched onboard GSLV Mk II
rocket.
 The proposed orbit is expected to
be around 500 x 60,000 km around
Venus.
 This orbit is likely to be reduced
gradually, over several months to a lower apoapsis (farthest point).

TOP SPACE AGENCIES IN THE WORLD

1. NASA – the National Aeronautics and Space Administration – USA - 1958

2. RFSA – Russian Federation Space Agency – USSR/Russia - 1922

3. ESA – European Space Agency – 22 EU member - 1975

4. ISRO – Indian Space Research Organization – India - 1969

5. CNSA – China National Space Administration – China – 1993

6. CSA - Canadian Space Agency – Canada - 1990

7. JAXA – Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency - 2003

 JUNO MISSION
Objectives

 To measure the planet Jupiter’s composition, magnetic and gravity fields, and polar
magnetosphere.
 To investigate the planet’s formation and origin.
 To find out the amount of water present in its atmosphere.
 To learn whether Jupiter has a rocky core or not.
 To find out more about Jupiter’s mass distribution and deep winds.

NEW HORIZONS

 NASA’s First Mission to the Pluto System and the Kuiper Belt
 The New Horizons mission is helping us understand worlds at the edge of our solar
system by making the first reconnaissance of the dwarf planet Pluto and by venturing
deeper into the distant, mysterious Kuiper Belt – a relic of solar system formation.
 CASSINI

 Cassini–Huygens mission, commonly called Cassini is collaboration between NASA,

the European Space Agency, and the Italian Space Agency to send a probe to study
the planet Saturn and its system, including its rings and natural satellites.

MESSENGER

 It is NASA’s mission for understanding Mercury, the smallest, densest and least-
explored of the terrestrial planets.
 The spacecraft was launched aboard a Delta II rocket in August 2004 to study
Mercury’s chemical composition, geology, and magnetic field.
 New observations by the MESSENGER spacecraft provide compelling support for
the long-held hypothesis that Mercury harbors abundant water ice and other
frozen volatile materials in its permanently shadowed polar craters.

OSIRIS – REX

 OSIRIS-Rex stands for Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security-

Regolith Explorer.
 It is a NASA asteroid study and sample-return mission from Asteroid Bennu.
 Bennu was selected for a the OSIRIS-REx mission from over 500,000 known asteroids,
due to its
 Proximity to Earth
 Bennu is around 500m in diameter & rotates slowly enough to ensure that
the regolith stays on its surface
  Bennu is a primitive asteroid
 Also, Bennu is of interest as it is a Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA).
 Every 6 years, Bennu’s orbit brings it within 200,000 miles of the Earth, which means it
has a high probability of impacting Earth in the late 22nd Century.

PARKER SOLAR PROBE

 Parker Solar is NASA’s robotic spacecraft to probe the outer corona of the Sun.
 It is part of NASA’s Living with a Star Program
 NASA renamed the spacecraft from the Solar Probe Plus to the Parker Solar Probe in
honor of astrophysicist Eugene Parker.
 This was the first time NASA named a spacecraft for a living individual.
 NASA’s Parker Solar Probe lifted off on 12th August 2018 from a pad here at Cape
Canaveral Air Force Station.
 JAMES WEBB TELESCOPE

 Webb is an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency

(ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
 The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST or Webb) will be a large infrared telescope
with a 6.5-meter primary mirror.
 The telescope has been launched on an Ariane 5 rocket from French Guiana.
 The James Webb Space Telescope will not be in orbit around the Earth. It will be Sun
observing equipment at the second Lagrange point or L2.
 Webb will be the premier observatory of the next decade.
 It will study every phase in the history of our Universe, ranging from the first luminous
glows after the Big Bang, to the formation of solar systems capable of supporting life
on planets like Earth, to the evolution of our own Solar System.

HUBBLE TELESCOPE

 It was built by the United States space agency NASA, with contributions from the
European Space Agency.
 NASA named the world’s first space-based optical telescope after American astronomer
Edwin P. Hubble who confirmed an “expanding” universe theory, which provided the
foundation for the big-bang theory.
 It is a large space telescope and was launched in 1990 and is still operational.
 Hubble features a 2.4-meter mirror, and its four main instruments include ultraviolet,
visible, and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

KEPLER SPACE TELESCOPE

 NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope was an observatory in space dedicated to finding planets
outside our solar system with a particular focus on finding planets that might resemble
Earth.
 Kepler space telescope is a retired space telescope launched by NASA in 2009 to
discover Earth-size planets orbiting other stars.
 During its over nine year’s life, Kepler had observed 530,506 stars and detected 2,662
planets.
 NASA retired its Kepler space telescope as it ran out of fuel.

SOFIA

 The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) is a joint project of NASA
and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) to construct and maintain an airborne
observatory.
 SOFIA is the largest airborne observatory in the world, capable of making observations
that are impossible for even the largest and highest ground-based telescopes.

ARTEMIS MISSION

 Under the Artemis lunar exploration program, NASA wants to send the first woman
and the next man to the Moon by the year 2024.
 ARTEMIS stands for Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence, and Electrodynamics of
Moon’s Interaction with the Sun.
 The mission was named Artemis after the Greek mythological goddess of the Moon
and twin sister to Apollo.
 The main objective is to measure what happens when the Sun’s radiation hits our rocky
moon, where there is no magnetic field to protect it.
 DAWN MISSION

 Dawn mission was launched by NASA deploying spacecraft to study the asteroid Vesta
and dwarf planet Ceres.
 It is the only mission ever to orbit two extraterrestrial targets and will characterize the
early solar system and the processes that dominated its formation.
 Dawn orbited giant asteroid Vesta for 14 months from 2011 to 2012, then continued on
to Ceres, where it has been in orbit since March 2015.
 The spacecraft is likely to run out of a key fuel known as hydrazine.

DART

 The DART (Double Asteroid Redirection Test) is a planetary defense-driven test of

technologies for preventing an impact of Earth by a hazardous asteroid.
 DART would be NASA’s first mission to demonstrate what’s known as the kinetic
impactor technique, striking the asteroid to shift its orbit – to defend against a potential
future asteroid impact.

KESSLER SYNDROME

 The Kessler Syndrome is a theory proposed by NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978,
used to describe a self-sustaining cascading collision of space debris in LEO.
 It’s the idea that two colliding objects in space generate more debris that then collides
with other objects, creating even more shrapnel and litter until the entirety of LEO is an
impassable array of super-swift stuff.
 At that point, any entering satellite would face unprecedented risks of headfirst
bombardment
 INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION (ISS)

 The International Space

Station (ISS) is a modular
space station (habitable
artificial satellite) in low
Earth orbit since 1998.
 It is a multinational
collaborative project
involving five participating
space agencies: NASA
(United States), Roscosmos
(Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA
(Europe), and CSA (Canada).

NASA MISSIONS BY LOCATION

• Moon
• Apollo
• Clementine
• GRAIL
• LADEE
• LCROSS
• LRO (Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter)
• Mini-RF
• Moon Mineralogy Mapper
• Ranger
• Surveyor
 SPACE TECHNOLOGY

CONTENT

 Solar System
 Space
 Orbit
 Satellite
 Cryogenic Stage
 PSLV
 GSLV
 Scramjet Engine
 Lagrange Points
 Indian Space Foray
 Major Milestones on Indian Space Program

SOLAR SYSTEM

Planets

 A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star is known as a planet.

 The planets of our solar system are divisible into two groups:
 1. the planets of the inner circle (as they lie between the sun and the belt of
asteroids) or the inner planets or the ‘terrestrial planets’ (meaning earth-like
as they are made up of rock and metals, and have relatively high densities)
2. The planets of the outer circle or outer planets or the ‘gas giant planets’ or
the Jovian planets – meaning Jupiter-like.
 The inner-circle- Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
 Outer circle- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
 The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper
belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits.

Other Solar System Objects

 Asteroid belt- Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation that circle the Sun in a
zone lying between Mars and Jupiter. The circular chain of asteroids is called the
asteroid belt.
 Pluto and Charon- Pluto (39 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt.
Charon is Pluto’s largest moon.
 Kuiper belt-The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt but
consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice.
 Comets- A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the
Sun, heats up due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the
nucleus and begins to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma, and
sometimes also a tail.
 A meteoroid is any solid debris originating from asteroids, comets or other celestial
object and floats through interplanetary space.
  A meteor is the streak of light that appears in the sky when a meteoroid enters the
atmosphere (mesosphere) at about 200 km at high speed and burns up because of
friction.
 A meteor is popularly termed a ‘shooting star’ or ‘falling star’.
 In some cases, the meteoroid does not burn up completely and makes its way to the
Earth’s surface. The surviving chunk is called a meteorite.

6. Meteor and
Meteorites : A
meteor is also
2. Planets : A called a shooting
1. Stars: A star is planet is a body star. It is
5. Asteroids:
a form of a that revolves basically a space
4. Comets : A Asteroids are
celestial object around a star. 3. Satellites : It is body like
comet is an icy small planets or
made up of a The star must be a natural or meteoroid,
object which is planet fragments
shining spheroid enormous artificial space comet or
present in Solar that revolve
of plasma held enough to be object with a asteroid which
System that around the sun.
together by its spherical by its recognized orbit enters Earth's
revolves around Big asteroids are
own gravity. The own magnitude around a planet. atmosphere. If
the Sun. also called
nearby star to with its own the shooting
planetoids.
Earth is the Sun. gravitational starts doesnot
effect. burn out and hits
the surface, it
becomes
meteorite.

ORBIT

 An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around another.
 Planets, comets, asteroids, and other objects in the solar system orbit around the
sun.
 Most of the objects orbiting the sun move along or close to an imaginary flat surface
called as ecliptic plane.
 Earth’s satellites revolve around it in earth orbits.

Shape of an orbit

 Orbits come in different shapes but the most prevalent orbits are elliptical.
 For some planets, orbits are almost circular. For comets, orbits are highly eccentric
or squashed.
 Since most orbits are elliptical, the objects that orbit around do not always stay the
same distance from their parent body. Sometimes they are closer, and at other times
they are farther away.
 The closest point a satellite comes to Earth is called its perigee. The farthest
point is the apogee.
  For objects revolving around the sun, the point in their orbit closest to the sun
is perihelion. The farthest point is called aphelion.

Types of Earth Orbits

 Low Earth orbit (LEO)

 Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
 Geo Synchronous orbit (GSO)
 Geostationary orbit (GEO)
 Polar orbit (PO)
 Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO)
 Transfer orbits
 Geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)

Types of Orbits

 The list of orbits are given below:

 Geostationary Orbit (GEO)
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
  Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
 Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO)
 Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO)

Geosynchronous Orbit Geostationary Orbit

•About 35,786 kilometers above the Earth’s •While geosynchronous satellites can have
surface, satellites are in geosynchronous any inclination, the key difference to
orbit. GEO is a high Earth orbit. geostationary orbit is the fact that they lie
•At any inclination, a geosynchronous orbit on the same plane as the equator.
synchronizes with the rotation of the Earth. •Geostationary orbits fall in the same
category as geosynchronous orbits, but it’s
•More specifically, the time it takes for the parked over the equator.
Earth to rotate on its axis is 23 hours, 56
minutes, and 4.09 seconds. •We can say that Geostationary orbit is
special case of geosynchronous orbit.
•If you are an observer on the ground, you •Weather monitoring satellites go in
would see the satellite as if it’s in a fixed geostationary orbits.
position without movement. This makes
geosynchronous satellites particularly useful
for telecommunications and other remote
sensing applications.
 SATELLITE

 A satellite is a body that orbits around another body in space.

 Satellite can be natural or artificial/man-made.
 Moon is the natural satellite of Earth.
 There are many man-made satellites that are revolving around the Earth.
 Man-made satellites on the basis of their applications and purpose can be divided
into four types –
1. Geostationary Satellites (Communication) – INSAT Series, GSAT series,
EDUSAT and HAMSAT
2. Earth Observation Satellites– IRS series, CARTOSAT, RESOURCESAT,
OCEANSAT and RISAT and recently envisioned ASTROSAT (Astronomy
related)
3. Navigation Satellites-GAGAN and IRNSS (now NAVIC)
4. Space Missions- MOM, Gaganyaan and Chandrayaan-2
5. Small Satellites– Jugnoo (Nanosatellite)

Escape Velocity

 The minimum velocity that a moving body (such as a

rocket) must have to escape from the gravitational
field of a celestial body (such as the earth) and move
outward into space.
 On earth, the escape velocity is around 40,270 kmph,
which is around 11,186 m/s.

Orbital velocity

 Orbital velocity is the speed required to achieve orbit around a celestial body, such
as a planet or a star.
 A rough, general figure for the Earth's mean orbital speed is 30 kilometers per
second (km/s), or 18½ miles per second (mi/s).

How do we send a satellite in Space?

Satellite launcher

 A launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket-propelled vehicle used to carry a

payload from Earth's surface to space, usually to Earth orbit or beyond.
 Launchers or Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space.
 India has two operational launchers:
 Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
 GSLV with indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage has enabled the launching up to 2
tonne class of communication satellites.
 GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) uses a three-stage launching
system.
 First Stage: Solid stage which provides lift-off to the rocket.
 Second Stage: Liquid Stage or semi cryogenic stage.
 Third Stage: Cryogenic stage.
 CRYOGENIC STAGE

 Rocket engine needs an enormous amount of thrust to escape Earth’s gravitational

pull.
 The fuel used in launch vehicles is Hydrogen and Oxygen (Oxidiser) which produces
good thrust but in the gaseous form, they require a bigger fuel chamber.
 A bigger fuel chamber means bigger size & larger weight of rocket which means
lower payload eventually..!!
 To solve this problem, hydrogen and oxygen in their liquid form or in a cryogenic
form are carried.
 Cryogenic form reduces the volume of propellent, increases density & provides more
thrust in less burning time.
 The engines which used fuel in this form are called Cryogenic engines.
What is Cryogenics?

 In physics, cryogenics is the production and behaviour of materials at very low

temperatures.
 In general, a universal definition of “cryogenics” and “cryogenic” is anything that is
below the threshold of 120 K (or –153 °C) so that we can distinguish this from
conventional refrigeration.

PSLV

 Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) was the third generation launch vehicle of
India after SLV & ASLV.
 PSLV was the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.
 Since its first launch in 1994, PSLV emerged as the reliable and versatile workhorse
launch vehicle of India.
 Between 1994-2017, PSLV launched 39 consecutively successful missions.
 PSLV evolved through different variants like PSLV-CA, PSLV-DL, PSLV-QL & PSLV-XL.
 PSLV-XL had a Payload capability of 1523 Kg till 600km.
 GSLV

 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle is the largest launch vehicle in India.

 It is a fourth-generation launch vehicle with indigenously developed cryogenic Upper
Stage (CUS).
 It has evolved through variants like Mark I, II & III (Still in testing).
 In fact, GSLV Mk III has been chosen to launch the Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft.
 GSLV Mk III is designed to carry a 4000 kg payload into Geosynchronous or about
10000 kg to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

RLV-TD

 Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstration Program or RLV-TD is a series

of technology demonstration missions that have been considered as a first step
towards realizing a Two Stage To Orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable vehicle.
 A Winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been
configured to act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies, namely,
hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight, and hypersonic flight
using air-breathing propulsion.
1. Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX) (May 2016)
2. Landing Experiment (LEX)
3. Return Flight Experiment (REX)
4. Scramjet Propulsion Experiment (SPEX)

SCRAMJET ENGINE

 A jet engine is a machine that converts energy-

rich, liquid fuel into a powerful pushing force
called thrust.
 The thrust from one or more engines pushes a
plane forward.
 A scramjet engine is an improvement over the
ramjet engine as it more efficiently operates at
hypersonic speeds and allows supersonic
combustion.
 LAGRANGE POINTS

 Lagrange points are positions in space where

objects sent there tend to stay put.
 At Lagrange points, the gravitational pull of two
large masses precisely equals the centripetal
force required for a small object to move with
them.
 These points in space can be used by spacecraft
to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in
position.
 Of the five Lagrange points, three are unstable and two are stable.
 The unstable Lagrange points - labeled L1, L2, and L3 - lie along the line
connecting the two large masses.
 The stable Lagrange points - labeled L4 and L5 - form the apex of two equilateral
triangles that have large masses at their vertices.
 The L1 point of the Earth-Sun system affords an uninterrupted view of the sun
and is currently home to the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Satellite SOHO.
 The L2 point of the Earth-Sun system is the current home of Planck and the
future home of the James Webb Space Telescope.
 The twin Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) spacecraft will orbit at
the fourth and fifth Lagrange points to provide a three-dimensional view of the
Sun.
 INDIAN SPACE FORAY

 India started its Space endeavors way before independence. Before independence
main contributions came from
scientists like [Link] and
Meghnad Saha.
 After independence in 1950 space
research got a boost with the
establishment of the Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) which was
chaired by Homi Bhabha.
 Later on in 1962, Jawahar Lal Nehru
setup Indian National Committee
for Space Research (INCOSPAR)
which was chaired by Dr. Vikram
Sarabhai.
 After seven years INCOSPAR
became ISRO in 1969. Since then,
ISRO has grown leaps and bounds.
Today it is one of the premier
institutions for space research in
while world.

MAJOR MILESTONES ON INDIAN SPACE PROGRAM

1962 Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed by the
Department of Atomic Energy and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket
Launching Station (TERLS) started.
1963 First sounding rocket launched from TERLS (November 21, 1963)
1965 Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.
1967 Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad
1968 TERLS dedicated to the United Nations (February 2, 1968).
1969 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed under the Department of Atomic
Energy
1975 ISRO First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975). Becomes
 Government Organisation (April 1, 1975)
1979 First Experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload onboard (August
10, 1979). Satellites could not be placed in orbit. Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite
for earth observations, launched (June 7, 1979).
1980 Second Experimental launch of SLV-3, Rohini satellite successfully placed in
orbit.(July 18, 1980).
1982 INSAT-1A launched (April 10, 1982). Deactivated on September 6, 1982.
1988 INSAT-1C launched (July 21, 1988). Abandoned in November 1989. Launch of first
operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1A (March 17, 1988). Second
developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-2 onboard (July 13, 1988). Satellites could
not be placed in orbit.
2000 INSAT-3B, the first satellite in the third generation INSAT-3 series, launched by Ariane
from Kourou French Guyana, (March 22, 2000).
2004 The first operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F01) successfully launched EDUSAT from
SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota (September 20, 2004).
2007 Successful recovery of SRE-1 after maneuvering it to re-enter earth’s atmosphere
And descend over the bay of Bengal about 140 km east of Sriharikota.
2008 PSLV-C11 successfully launches CHANDRAYAAN-1 from Sriharikota.
2013 PSLV – C25 successfully launches Mars Orbiter Mission Spacecraft from Sriharikota.
2015 PLSV-C30 launched 1513kg ASTROSAT into orbit. Along with ASTROSAT, six satellites
from international customers.
2016 Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) Launch. ISRO’s Scramjet
Engine Technology Demonstrator.
2017 CARTOSAT-2 launched on PSLV C-37 launching 104 satellites in one go. It was ISRO’s
most complicated satellite launch till date.
 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

CONTENT

 What is nuclear technology?

 Evolution of Nuclear Technology
 Radioactive Decay
 What is Half Life?
 Radio Carbon Dating
 Binding Energy
 Nuclear Fission & Nuclear Fusion
 Nuclear reactor
 Nuclear Weapons
 Applications of Nuclear technology
 Dangers associated with Nuclear technology

WHAT IS NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY?

 Nuclear Technology refers to the technology involved in the nuclear reactions of

the atomic nuclei.
 Under nuclear technology, nuclear energy or
characteristic features of the Nucleus of an
atom are utilized.
 Nuclear energy is released by the change that
occurs in the nucleus of an atom caused by
either Nuclear Fission or Fusion.
 Nuclear technologies are used in nuclear reactors, nuclear weapons based on
nuclear fission and fusion, nuclear medicines, smoke detectors, gun sights, etc.

EVOLUTION OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

 In 1896, Henri Becquerel while investigating phosphorescence in the uranium salts

discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity.
 The units of measurement for radioactivity are the Becquerel.
 Later on, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie investigated the phenomenon of
radioactivity and discovered that materials having radioactivity produce three
distinct penetrating rays called alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays.
  It was later understood that radiation produced by radioactive decay has an ionizing
effect which could pose long-term radiation hazards.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

 Radioactive decay or nuclear decay or nuclear disintegration is the process by

which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation.
 An unstable material with an unstable nucleus is considered radioactive.
 An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, or decay, into a more stable
configuration but will do so only in a few specific ways by emitting certain particles
or certain forms of electromagnetic energy.

Types of Radioactive Decay

 There are three types, namely:
1. Alpha decay (𝛼-decay)
2. Beta decay (𝛽-decay)
3. Gamma decay (𝛾-decay)
Radioactivity

 Unstable atoms undergo radioactivity.

 It may be a natural process or a forced process.
 According to quantum theory, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will
decay, regardless of how long the atom has existed.
 However, for a significant number of identical atoms, the overall decay rate can be
expressed as decay constant or as a half-life.

WHAT IS HALF LIFE?

 The half-life of a radioactive

isotope is the interval of time
required for one-half of the
atomic nuclei of a radioactive
sample to decay (change
spontaneously into other nuclear
species by emitting particles and
energy).
 It can also be defined as the time
interval required for the number
of disintegrations per second of
radioactive material to decrease
by one-half.
 The half-life of an isotope is used to describe the rate at which the isotope will
decay and give off radiation.
 Using the half-life, it is possible to predict the amount of radioactive material that
will remain after a given amount of time.

RADIO CARBON DATING

 Carbon dating is one of

archaeology’s mainstream
methods for dating organic
objects up to 50,000 years
old.
 This method is based on the
idea of radioactive decay of
Carbon-14 isotopes over
thousands of years.
 Through physics, scientists
have discovered that
radioactive molecules decay
at a specific rate dependent
on the atomic number and mass of the decaying atoms.
 BINDING ENERGY

 When nucleons bind together to form a nucleus, they must lose a small amount of
mass (Mass Deficit or Mass defect).
 This mass change must be released as various types of photon or other particle
energy.
 The energy released can be calculated from Einsteinian E = mc2.
 Thus, after the binding energy has been removed, binding energy = mass change ×
c2.
 This energy is a measure of the forces that hold the nucleons together.
 It represents energy that must be resupplied from the environment for the nucleus
to be broken up into individual nucleons.

 For example, an atom of deuterium has a mass defect of 0.0023884 amu, and its
binding energy is nearly equal to 2.23 MeV. This means that 2.23 MeV of energy is
required to disintegrate an atom of deuterium.

NUCLEAR FISSION & NUCLEAR FUSION

 Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

• In Nuclear Fission, a heavy nucleus • In Nuclear fusion, two light nuclei

splits into 2 smaller nuclei. combine to form a single heavier
• Generally, the stability of the nucleus.
nucleus is maintained by the • Then why is energy released?
balance between the repulsive • The sum of the masses of the
forces of the protons and the product nuclei is less than the
binding energy. sum of the masses of the initial
• During fission, the repulsive forces fusing nuclei. Hence, a large
become dominant over the binding amount of energy is released
energy.

Nuclear Fusion – Thermonuclear Fusion in Sun

 Nuclear fusion is defined as the combining of several small nuclei into one large
nucleus with the subsequent release of
huge amounts of energy.
 The difference in mass between the
reactants and products is manifested as
either the release or the absorption of
energy.
 Nuclear fusion powers our sun and
harnessing this fusion energy could provide
an unlimited amount of renewable energy.
  An example of nuclear fusion is the process of four hydrogen coming together to
form helium.

Nuclear Fusion on Earth

 Nuclear fusion-based power plants are presently not in operation on large scale.
 However, some nuclear fusion reactors for research operations are present in many
parts of the world.
 International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) in France will be the first
fusion device that will produce net energy and would maintain fusion for long
periods of time.
 The machine is being designed for producing 500 megawatts of Fusion Power.
 ITER is a partnership of 35 countries to develop nuclear fusion technology. India is a
participant in this research.
 The multibillion-dollar project is scheduled for completion in 2025 and seeks to
prove the feasibility of nuclear fusion as a large-scale source of energy.
What is a Tokamak?

 A Tokamak is a device that uses a

powerful magnetic field to confine
plasma in the shape of a torus.
 The Tokamak is one of several types
of magnetic confinement devices
being developed to produce
controlled thermonuclear fusion
power.
 As of 2022, it is the leading
candidate for a practical fusion
reactor.

HL-2M Tokamak

 The HL-2M Tokamak reactor is China’s largest and most advanced nuclear fusion
experimental research device.
 The mission is named Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST).
 Located in Sichuan province and completed late last year, the reactor is often called
an “artificial sun” on account of the enormous heat and power it produces.
 It uses a powerful magnetic field to fuse hot plasma and can reach temperatures of
over 150 million degrees Celsius- approximately ten times hotter than the core of
the sun.
 Scientists hope that the device can potentially unlock a powerful clean energy
source.

NUCLEAR REACTOR
 Fuel - Generally, Uranium Oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to form fuel rods

Moderator – helps to slow down the neutrons released from fission reaction so that they
cause more fission. Usually liquid water, heavy water or graphite is used as moderator.

Control Rods – These help in absorption of charged neutrons. They are made up of
neutron-absorbing materials such as Boron or Cadmium.

Coolant - A liquid or a gas is need to cool the reactor core and transfers heat from the core
to the heat exchanger

Containment System – Protection of reactor as well as protection from radiation. It is

usually thick concrete or steel enclosure.

Types of Reactors

Pressurized water reactor Heavy water reactors

(PWR) •These reactors uses heavy water
Non pressurized boiling •The reactor core heats pressurized i.e. Deuterium oxide (D2O) as its
water reactor (BWR) water which does not boil due to coolant and moderator.
high pressure and high boiling
point.

Fast reactors Fast Breeder reactors Thorium reactors

•Fast reactors use fast moving •Breeder reactors are those which •Th-232 is not a fissile material, but
neutrons for sustaining a fission are capable of generating more when it absorbs a neutron, it
reaction. These reactors don't use fuel than it consumes. Breeder converts itself to U-233 which is a
any neutron moderator for slowing reactors use fast moving neutrons fissile material.
down the fast moving neutrons. for producing energy.

India’s Nuclear Program

 India’s three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Homi Bhabha in

the 1950s
 To secure the country’s long term energy independence, through the use of uranium
and thorium reserves found in the monazite sands of coastal regions of South India.
 Thorium is particularly attractive for India, as it has only around 1–2% of the global
uranium reserves, but one of the largest shares of global thorium reserves.
 However, at present thorium is not economically viable because global uranium
prices are much lower.
 The recent Indo-US Nuclear Deal and the NSG waiver, which ended more than three
decades of international isolation of the Indian civil nuclear programme, have
 created many hitherto
unexplored alternatives for the
success of the three-stage
nuclear power programme.
 Thorium itself is not a fissile
material and thus cannot
undergo fission to produce
energy.
 Instead, it must be transmuted
to uranium-233 in a reactor
fuelled by other fissile materials
[plutonium-239 or uranium-
235].
India’s Nuclear Status
 Currently, nearly all of India’s 6.7 GW of nuclear power is powered by PHWRs
which represents the natural end to Stage 1 of our program.
 Since 1985, stage 2 development is going on.
 The design of India’s first fast breeder, called Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR),
was done by Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR).
 Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd (Bhavini), a public sector company under the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), has been given the responsibility to build the
fast breeder reactors in India.
 At Kalpakam, the construction of the first PFBR was to be completed by 2012. Its
date of commission has been delayed to 2019 and then to 2022.
 According to the Indian government, large-scale thorium deployment can be only
expected 3–4 decades after the commercial operation of fast breeder reactors.

Operational Nuclear Power Plants-2021

Power Plant Location Operator Type Total Capacity (MW)
Kaiga Karnataka NPCIL IPHWR-220 880

IPHWR-220
Kakrapar Gujarat NPCIL 1,140
IPHWR-700

Kudankulam Tamil Nadu NPCIL VVER-1000 2,000

Madras (Kalpakkam) Tamil Nadu NPCIL IPHWR-220 440

Narora Uttar Pradesh NPCIL IPHWR-220 440

CANDU
Rajasthan Rajasthan NPCIL 1,180
IPHWR-220

BWR
Tarapur Maharashtra NPCIL 1,400
IPHWR-520
Total 7,480

 Apart from the three phase development, India is also following some alternative
approaches like
 Accelerator Driven Systems
 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
 Compact High-Temperature Reactors
 Molten Salt Reactors
 Nuclear Power Plants in India 2021- Under Construction
Power Plant Location Operator Type Total Capacity (MW)
Madras (Kalpakkam) Tamil Nadu BHAVINI PFBR 500

Kakrapar Unit 4 Gujarat NPCIL IPHWR-700 700

Gorakhpur Haryana NPCIL IPHWR-700 1,400

Rajasthan Unit 7 & 8 Rajasthan NPCIL IPHWR-700 1,400

Kudankulam Unit 3 & 4 Tamil Nadu NPCIL VVER-1000 2,000

Total 6,000

Nuclear Power Plants in India 2021- Planned Projects

Total Capacity
Power Plant Location Operator Type
(MW)
IPHWR-
Kaiga Karnataka NPCIL 1,400
700

Jaitapur Maharashtra NPCIL EPR 9,900

Kovvada Andhra Pradesh NPCIL AP1000 6,600

Kavali Andhra Pradesh NPCIL VVER 6000

IPHWR-
Gorakhpur Haryana NPCIL 2,800
700

IPHWR-
Mahi Banswara Rajasthan NPCIL 2,800
700

Madhya IPHWR-
Chutka NPCIL 1,400
Pradesh 700

Kudankulam Unit 5 &

Tamil Nadu NPCIL VVER-1000 2,000
6

Madras Tamil Nadu BHAVINI FBR 1,200

Tarapur Maharashtra AHWR 300

Total 33,000
 NUCLEAR WEAPONS

 The concept of nuclear fission itself is used in Nuclear weapons.

 When a single free neutron strikes the nucleus of an atom
of radioactive material like uranium or plutonium, it knocks
two or three more neutrons free.
 Energy is released when those neutrons split off from the
nucleus, and the newly released neutrons strike other
uranium or plutonium nuclei, splitting them in the same
way, releasing more energy and more neutrons.
 This chain reaction spreads almost instantaneously.
 The Hiroshima Bomb- Due to its long, thin shape, the
Hiroshima bomb was called ‘Little Boy’.
 The Nagasaki Bomb- Compared to the one used on
Hiroshima, the Nagasaki bomb was rounder and fatter. It
was called ‘Fat Man’.
 Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major
isotopes
 Uranium-238 (99.27% natural abundance)
 Uranium-235 (0.7202%) – Radioactive
 Uranium-234 (0.0059%)
 Low enriched uranium (LEU) is one which has a lower than
20% concentration of U-235. It is used in nuclear reactors
and for civilian purposes.
 Highly enriched uranium (HEU) is one which has a 20% or
higher concentration of U-235. Weapons grade Uranium is
U-235 which is enriched more than 85%.
 Why Weapons need Uranium enrichment?
 Any weapons-grade nuclear material must have a critical mass that is
small enough to justify its use in a weapon.
 The critical mass for any material is the smallest amount needed for a
sustained nuclear chain reaction.
 U-238 has infinite critical mass but U-235 has a critical mass of 52 kg with a
half life of 703,800,000 years.
 The shape with minimal critical mass and the smallest physical dimensions
is a sphere, in majority of weapons the fuel is in spherical shape.

Uranium Processing

 Uranium Enrichment methods

1. Diffusion
2. Centrifugation
3. Electromagnetic separation
4. Aerodynamic separation
5. Laser isotope separation

APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

DANGERS ASSOCIATED WITH NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
 NANO TECHNOLOGY

Introduction -

Nanotechnology is an emerging technology. We can consider it a part of 4th Industrial revolution’

About Nanotechnology -

 Definition - Nanotechnology is science, engineering and technology conducted at ‘nanoscale’ (1

and 100 nanometers).
 Nature - Highly interdisciplinary - Involves physics, chemistry, biology, materials science, and full
range of engineering disciplines.
 Objective - Study and manipulation of ‘extremely’ small things (Atoms and Molecules).
 Nano means ‘small” - It is difficult to imagine how ‘small’ so let us understand.
 Size of nanomaterials – 0.1 - 100 nanometer(nm) in size.
 1 nanometer – One billionth of a meter (10-9 metre)
 Illustrative examples -
 If a marble were a nanometer, then 1 meter would be the size of the Earth.
 Sheet of newspaper – 100,000 nanometers thick.
 1 inch – 25,400,000

Since we are talking about Nano technology let us try and understand the properties of Nano materials –
as ‘Nano technology’ involves creation and manipulation of nano materials.
 NANO - PARTICLES

Properties of Nano particles -

 Enhances catalytic activity – ‘Catalytic activity’ means the ability to speed up chemical reaction.
 Reason - As particle size ‘decreases’, surface area ‘increases’ which enhances catalytic activity.
 Impacts optical properties – ‘Optical property’ of a material defines how it interacts with Light.
 Reduction of particle size from micron to nanometer scale impacts optical properties.
 Impacts thermal properties – example Properties like ‘melting point’ and ‘thermal conductivity’
(ability of a material to conduct heat)
 Reduction of particle size from micron to nanometer influences thermal properties.

Types of Nano Particles

Classification based on the ‘material’ involved -

 Carbon-based Nanomaterials – example - carbon nanotubes, graphene.

 Metal-based Nanomaterials – example - nanogold, nano silver, and metal oxides.

Classification based on the origin -

 Natural Nanomaterials – example - Inorganic ash, soot, sulfur and mineral particles, opals,
shells, corals, spider silk, etc.
 Synthetic or Artificial Nanomaterials – example - nanotubes, quantum dots, nanoparticles, etc.

APPROACHES TO NANOTECHNOLOGY

Approaches to Nanotechnology -

 Bottom-up approach -
 Definition – The building of ‘nano structures’ starting with ‘small components’ such as atoms or
molecules.
 Example – ‘Carbon nanotubes’ built using ‘Graphite’.
 Top – down approach -
 Definition – Making ‘nanostructures’ starting with ‘larger structures’ and breaking away to nano
size.
 Example – Current Microelectronics (like silicon chips) to an extent can be seen as a top-down
approach.

EVOLUTION OF NANO-TECHNOLOGY

 Origin of Idea and concept – ‘There's plenty of room at bottom’ – Richard Feynman – Described
the process through which scientist will be able to ‘manipulate’ atom and molecules.
 2000 - Nanoparticle and Passive nano material - Focused on applications of nanomaterials as
coatings, polymers, and ceramic materials
 2005 – Active Nanomaterials – Example - Catalyst being made at nano level. It will become more
reactionary.
 2010 – Nano systems – Example – Printed circuit board being built using nano materials – nano
leads, nano silver ----> Helps save electricity.
 2020 – Molecular Nano systems – Example ---> Molecular nano organic material put in the blood
stream with properties to kill specific bacteria/virus.

APPLICATION OF NANO-TECHNOLOGY

 Medicine – Certain properties of nanomaterials help in early diagnosis and treatment of

diseases. They can attack cells’ selectively’ without harming other healthy cells.

Diagnostics (Invitro and Invivo)

Medical Imaging

MEDICINE
Vaccines

Regenerative Medicines

Nano Therapeutics

 Green Nanotechnology - Refers to use of nanotechnology to enhance ‘sustainability’. It includes

making ‘green’ nano-products and using nano-products in support of sustainability.
 IT and Electronics - Developing nanocircuits ---> Leads to further miniaturization of computers
making them even faster and compact.
 Automobile manufacturing - Nanotechnology will help in ‘manufacturing’ strong yet lighter
automobile component. Automobiles which don’t rust, are scratch free, utilize fuel more
efficiently etc.
 Cleaner Water - Nano membranes are used with the purpose of ‘softening water’ and ‘removal’
of contaminants.
 It can be useful for remediation, desalination, filtration, purification and water treatment.
 Nanoparticles can be used to convert the ‘contaminating’ chemical through a ‘chemical reaction’
to make it harmless.
 Nano particles can be used to ‘purify’ and ‘rejuvenate’ contaminated ponds and lakes.
 Textile Industry - Nanofibers improve cloth (stain repellant and wrinkle free), can be used to
make the strongest bullet proof jackets.
 Space - Nanotechnology may hold the key to making spaceflight more practical. Advancements
in nanomaterials can make spacecraft – lightweight, reducing the amount of rocket fuel
required etc.
  Fuel Nanotechnology can address the shortage of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline by
making the production of fuels from low grade raw materials economical, increasing the mileage
of engines, and making the production of fuels from normal raw materials more efficient.
 To build highly efficient sensors – They can help to detect disasters (example even small
chemical leakage can be detected by sensors made using nano particles. This will help in
preventing chemical disasters)
 Solar Cell Companies have developed ‘nanotech’ solar cells that can be manufactured at
significantly lower cost than conventional solar cells.
 Battery Companies are currently ‘developing’ batteries using nanomaterials. Properties -
Increased shelf life, Faster recharge compared to conventional battery.

In India in recent times – Focus related to Nanotechnology has been on ‘Graphene’ and ‘carbon
nanotubes. We will try and understand them briefly. (Carbon ---> Graphene ---> Carbon Nanotubes).
Carbon – Building block for many materials

 Carbon is a ‘non-metallic’ chemical element

 Carbon is regarded as a ‘common element’ of all known life.
 Carbon can be found in many forms, each of which has its ‘own’ physical characteristics.
 Some well-known forms of Carbon are materials like diamond and graphite.
 Only differ lies in ‘physical properties’ due to ‘variations’ in the arrangement of atoms in their
structures.

Graphene -

 Definition - Graphene is basically a ‘sheet’ of carbon atoms arranged in a ‘hexagonal’ layout.

 Fact – Graphene – Considered the first 2D material ever discovered.
 Properties - Graphene is called a” wonder material” (Due to its various properties)
♦ Graphene is one of the strongest materials in universe
♦ Possesses superior thermal and optical properties
♦ Has excellent tensile strength
♦ Relatively transparent
♦ Amazing electrical conductivity
♦ ‘Impermeable’ to most gases and liquids applications
 Applications - touchscreens (for LCD or OLED displays), computer chips, batteries. energy
generation, supercapacitors, medical equipment, water filters, solar cells.

Carbon Nanotubes -

 A sheet of graphene can be rolled-up to make a ‘carbon nanotube’. (Cylindrical in shape).

 They consist of rolled up sheets of ‘single layer’ carbon atoms.
 NANO-TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVES IN INDIA

 2001 - Nano Science and Technology Initiative (NSTI) under DST (Department of Science and
Technology).
 2007 - Mission on Nano Science and Technology (Nano Mission).
 Under the ‘12th FYP’ an allocation of Rs. 650 crore was made.
 DST is the ‘nodal’ agency for implementing the Nano Mission.
 2013 - Science, Technology and Innovation Policy which gave fillip to nano research.
 India is ranked ‘third’ in the number of papers published (over 25000), behind ‘only’ China and
USA.
 There have been more than 300 patent applications in the Indian Patent Office under
nanoscience.

ROBOTICS

 Definition - Robotics involves design, construction, operation, and use of robots.

 Objective – To design machines that can help and assist humans.
 2 type of Bots – Physical bot or virtual bot. (Bot is short form for Robot).
 Origin – Robotics term was first used by ‘Isaac Asimov’ (Book – Liar (Science fiction)).
 Concept of Robotics - In his book 3 laws of robotics were introduced.
 First Law - A robot ‘may’ not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm.
 Second Law -A robot ‘must’ obey the orders given by human beings except where such orders
would conflict with the First Law.
 Third Law - A robot ‘must’ protect its own existence if such protection does not conflict with the
First or Second Laws.

APPLICATION OF ROBOTICS
Nanorobotics -

 Definition - Creating machines or robots whose components are of nanometer scale. (10−9
meters).
 Possible applications include micro, utility bots, manufacturing, weaponry, cleaning etc.

QUANTUM COMPUTING

Quantum Computing -

 Quantum Computing – Study on how to use ‘Quantum Physics’ to create new ways of
computing.
 Quantum Physics – ‘Quantum physics explains how the universe works at a scale smaller than
atoms (I.e., subatomic particles – Protons, neutrons and electrons).

Principles of Quantum computing -

SMART MATERIALS

 Smart materials - (aka intelligent or responsive materials).

 Definition - Materials that have ‘one’ or ‘more’ properties that can be significantly changed in a
controlled fashion by external stimuli. (Stress, moisture, electric or magnetic fields, light,
temperature, pH, or chemical compounds).
 Part of Material sciences – ‘Smart material’ forms part of ‘Material sciences’. The objective of
material science is to discover and develop new material such as ‘smart material’ to find new
uses applicable to any sector. Let us understand with an example -

Graphene has multiple properties. Look at the image below.

Thus, due to these various properties (which can be manipulated) Graphene potential uses are almost
unlimited - batteries with more ‘autonomy’, cheaper photovoltaic solar cells faster computers, flexible
electronic devices, more resistant buildings, bionic limbs, etc.

Types of Smart Materials -

Piezoelectric materials

 They can convert ‘mechanical energy’ into ‘electrical energy’ and vice versa.
 Example, they change their shape in response to an electrical impulse or produce an electrical
charge in response to an applied mechanical stress.

Shape memory materials

 They can change the shape, even returning to their original shape, when exposed to a heat
source, among other stimuli.

Chromoactive materials

 They change ‘color’ when subjected to a certain variation in temperature, light, pressure, etc.
Nowadays, they are used in sectors such as optics, among others.
Magnetorheological materials

 They change their properties when exposed to a magnetic field.

 Example - They are currently used in ‘shock’ absorbers to prevent ‘seismic vibrations’ in bridges
or skyscrapers.

Photoactive materials

There are several types -

♦ ‘Electroluminescent’ emit light when they are fed with electrical impulses.
♦ ‘Fluorescents’ reflect light with greater intensity
♦ ‘Phosphorescent’ can emit light after the initial source has ceased.
 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

CONTENT

 Artificial Intelligence
 Internet of Things
 Computer Malware
 Touch Screen
 AMOLED Display
 Open Web v. Dark Web
 Big Data
 Cloud Computing
 Block Chain Technology
 Crypto Currency
 Net Neutrality

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

 The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy.

 AI is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or software perform
human-like tasks.
 It refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like thinking,
perceiving, learning, problem-solving, and decision making.
 It describes the action of machines accomplishing tasks that have historically
required human intelligence.
 It includes technologies like machine learning, pattern recognition, big data, neural
networks, self algorithms, etc.
 Examples from everyday life
 Siri, Alexa and other smart assistants
 Self-driving cars
 Chat bots
 Email spam filters
 Netflix's recommendations
 There are two subsets under the umbrella term AI: Machine learning and Deep
learning.
 Machine Learning Deep Learning/ Deep Neural Learning
 Machine Learning involves the use of  Deep learning is a subset of machine
algorithms to parse data and learn from it. learning in AI that has networks capable of
 It provides systems with the ability to learning unsupervised from data that is
automatically learn and improve from unstructured or unlabeled.
experience without being explicitly  Deep learning is a technique for
programmed. implementing machine learning.
 This enables making a determination or  Deep learning is an AI function that
prediction. imitates the workings of the human brain.

INTERNET OF THINGS

 The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects that are
embedded with sensors, software, and
other technologies for the purpose of
connecting and exchanging data with other
devices and systems over the internet.
 These devices can range from ordinary
household objects to sophisticated industrial
tools.
 Experts believe that today more than 10
billion IoT devices are connected.
 They expect this number to grow to 22 billion by 2025.

COMPUTER MALWARE

 Computer software is instructions that tell a computer what to do.

 The software comprises the entire set of programs, procedures, and routines
associated with the operation of a computer system.
 Malware is the shortened form of malicious software.
 Malware is an umbrella term used to refer to a variety of forms of hostile or
intrusive software including Ransom wares, Computer Viruses, Worms, Trojan
Horses, Spyware, Adware, Scare ware etc.
 Malware is any program or file that is harmful to a computer user.
 Malware can be deployed even remotely, and tracking the source of malware is
hard.
 Malware can be executable code, script, active content, and other third party
software.
 Malware can perform a variety of functions
1. Stealing data
2. Encrypting or deleting sensitive data
3. Altering or hijack core computing functions
4. Monitoring users’ computer activity without their permission
 How Malware enters?
1. Email
2. Instant messaging (IM)/peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing systems/Social
networks
3. Internet
4. Outdated software
5. Local Area Networks (LANs)
6. Pop-ups
7. Computer storage media/Mobile devices

TOUCH SCREEN

 Touch screen technology is the direct manipulation type gesture-based technology.

 Direct manipulation is the ability to manipulate the digital world inside a screen
without the use of command-line commands.
 There are three types of touch screen technology:
1. Capacitive touch screens are made up of multiple layers of glass and
plastic, coated with a conductor material like indium tin oxide or copper.
2. Resistive touch screens work exactly how their name implies - with
resistance to touch. A glass or hard plastic layer is blanketed by a resistive
metallic layer that conducts charge.
3. Surface wave technology uses ultrasonic waves that pass over the touch
screen panel. When the panel is touched, a portion of the wave is
absorbed.
 AMOLED DISPLAY

 In an LCD TV, liquid crystals rotate polarized light, effectively acting as a light valve
that illuminates all pixels simultaneously.
 Instead of the pixel-by-pixel lighting of OLED TVs, in a standard LCD TV, all light
comes from a big energy-guzzling backlight.
 The result is uniform brightness and relatively low contrast images.
 LED-TV backlighting comes in instead of having a one-piece backlight that limits
contrast; LED TVs are illuminated by LEDs.
 They’re ranged in either cluster behind the panel or on the sides. LED TVs have
resulted in flatter TVs.
 In an OLED panel, organic films
are placed between
semiconductors, then supplied
with an electrical current,
which effectively means that
each and every pixel can be
switched on and off
individually.
 This process simultaneously
uses less power to create more
brightness, and makes total
black possible.
 Today, we find AMOLED (Active-matrix organic light-emitting diode) & Super
AMOLED are display technologies used in Mobile devices and televisions.
 Active-matrix OLEDs (AMOLED) have a thin film transistor (TFT) under the anode
layer which forms a matrix.
 The TFT array determines which pixels get turned on in order to form an image.
 AMOLEDs use less power than PMOLEDs. AMOLEDs are more effective for larger
displays and videos (because they have faster refresh rates).
 AMOLEDs are typically used for computer monitors, TV screens, and electronic
signs/billboards.

Electronic paper

 Electronic paper and e-paper are display devices that mimic the appearance of
ordinary ink on paper.
 Unlike conventional LCD displays that EMIT light, electronic paper displays reflect
light like conventional paper.
 An ideal electronic paper display can be read in direct sunlight without fading of
images.
 OPEN WEB V. DARK WEB

 The dark net consists of a series of encrypted networks on the internet, which are
not recorded or indexed by commonly used search engines such as Google or Yahoo.
 They can only be accessed through specialized software like The Onion Router (Tor)
or The Invisible Internet Project (I2P)

Usage of Dark Net

 Protection of privacy of citizens from mass surveillance.

 To commit cybercrime such as hacking, phishing, file corruption etc.
 Protection of dissidents from political reprisals.
 Sale of prohibited and banned goods on shadow markets
 Whistle blowing and news leak of classified information to the public domain.
 Purchase and sale of illicit goods and services
 Bypassing network censorship, content-filtering systems and restrictive firewall
policies.

BIG DATA

 The definition of big data is data that contains greater variety, arriving in
increasing volumes and with more velocity.
 Variety, Volume & Velocity are known as the three Vs of Big Data.
 Big data is larger, more complex data sets, especially from new data sources.
 These data sets are so voluminous that traditional data processing software just
cannot manage it.
 Significance of Big Data in India
1. With a population of around 1.3 billion, Big Data holds a significant position
in the Indian context.
 2. As per the study conducted by
NASSCOM, “the Indian analytics
industry is predicted to reach
$16 billion mark by 2025.”

Big Data in India

 With a population of 1.2 billion, the

relevance of Big Data becomes all the
more pronounced for India.
 Recently, NITI Aayog also echoed the idea
of evidence-based policymaking guided
by Big Data.
 Discoms in India is using data from last-
mile sensors to implement measures of
cutting down aggregated technical and commercial losses.

CLOUD COMPUTING

 Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources,

especially data storage and computing
power, without direct active
management by the user.
 Simply put, cloud computing is the
delivery of computing services—
including servers, storage, databases,
networking, software, analytics, and
intelligence—over the Internet (“the
cloud”) to offer faster innovation,
flexible resources, and economies of
scale.
 One can typically pay only for cloud
services you use, helping lower your
operating costs.
 Advantages
1. Low capital expenditure
2. Flexible resources
3. Economies of scale
4. Improved disaster recovery and reliability
Edge computing

 Edge computing is a distributed IT architecture in which client data is processed at

the periphery of the network, as close to the originating source as possible.
1. It doesn’t mean the cloud will disappear. It means the cloud is coming to
you.
2. It means running fewer processes in the cloud and moving those
processes to local places, such as on a user’s computer or an edge
server.
 In edge computing data is analyzed locally, closer to where it is stored, in real-time
without latency.
 Edge Computing allows data from internet of things devices to be analysed at the
edge of the network before being sent to the data centre or cloud

BLOCK CHAIN TECHNOLOGY

 Blockchain technology was invented by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 for use in the
cryptocurrency bitcoin, as its public transaction ledger.
 In simple terms, blockchain is a digital ledger.
 Ledger is a book containing accounts to which debits and credits are posted from
books of original entry.
 A blockchain is a digitized, decentralized, public ledger.
 The blockchain is an incorruptible digital ledger of transactions that can be
programmed to record virtually everything of value.
 Each list of records in a blockchain is called a block.
 So a blockchain is a continuously growing list of records called blocks, which are
linked and secured.
 Blockchain consists of three important concepts: blocks, nodes, and miners.

Blocks

 Every chain consists of multiple blocks and each block has three basic elements:
The data in the block. A 32-bit whole number called a nonce.

Miners

 Miners create new blocks on the chain through a process called mining.
 In a blockchain, every block has its own unique nonce and hash.
 Nodes

 One of the most important concepts in blockchain technology is decentralization.

 No one computer or organization can own the chain. Instead, it is a distributed
ledger via the nodes connected to the chain.

National Strategy on Blockchain

 The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has prepared a

draft framework for the use of blockchain technology in government services .
 To explore the possibility of use of the technology for vaccine and medical supplies
logistics management for future purposes.
 Virtual and digital currencies such as bitcoin, however, have been kept out of the
ambit of this framework.

CRYPTO CURRENCY

 A cryptocurrency is a digital or virtual currency that is secured by cryptography,

which makes it nearly
impossible to
counterfeit or double-
spend.
 Majority of crypto
currencies are
decentralized
networks based on
blockchain technology
ie: A distributed ledger
enforced by a
disparate network of
computers.
 A defining feature of
crypto currencies is
that they are generally not issued by any central authority, rendering them
theoretically immune to government interference or manipulation.

Types of Cryptocurrency

 The first type of cryptocurrency was Bitcoin, which to this day remains the most
used, valuable and popular.
  Bitcoin was launched in 2009 by an individual or group known by the pseudonym
“Satoshi Nakamoto.
 The competing cryptocurrencies that were created as a result of Bitcoin’s success are
known as altcoins.
 Some of the well-known altcoins are as follows:
1. Litecoin
2. Peercoin
3. Namecoin
4. Ethereum
5. Cardana

India and Cryptocurrency

 2009: The first cryptocurrency, Bitcoin launched in 2009 by Satoshi Nakamoto.

 2018: RBI banned banks and other regulated entities from supporting crypto
transactions.
 2019: Inter-ministerial committee recommended banning all private
cryptocurrencies.
 2020: SC struck down the ban on the trading of cryptocurrency as unconstitutional.
 2021: Cryptocurrency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2021
introduced.
 Under this, a plan to ban private digital currencies favours RBI-backed currency.
 A 3-6 month exit period prior to banning the trading, mining, and issuing of cryptos.
 Finally, Cryptocurrencies, though unregulated, are not illegal in India.

RBI and Digital Currency

 RBI exploring DLT (Distributed Ledger Technology) based Central Bank Digital
Currency.
1. Under DLT, details are recorded in multiple places at the same time.
2. For ex: Blockchain is just one type of distributed ledger.
 Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC): It will be a legal tender.
1. Can be converted / exchanged at par with similarly denominated cash.

NET NEUTRALITY

 The system of net neutrality is in place since the beginning of the internet and is
followed in time and in different parts of the world. It stands for:
 Equal access to all sites
 Same data cost to access a site(there should be no price differential )
 No zero-rating (Read about it below)
Zero-Rating Platform

 Zero-rating platforms (ZRP) offer free access to a limited number of sites through
select telecom providers.
 Those who wanted unrestricted access to the entire internet would still have to pay,
but the poor would have access to a few useful sites offered by them.
 Facebook’s Free Basics is an example.
 The TRAI last year ruled to end the Free Basics in India.

Net Neutrality in India

 The DoT accepts TRAI’s recommendations in favour of net neutrality which:

1. Bars telcos from discriminatory treatment on the web, based on content,
sender, receiver, protocols or equipment.
2. Penalises for violation of license rules on net neutrality.
3. Includes exceptions for critical services such as remote healthcare
diagnostics, self-driving cars, etc.
4. Exempts content delivery networks, which do not use public Internet from
open web rules.
5. Applies equally to 5G technology as well because the principles are
technology-neutral.
 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

CONTENT

 Introduction
 Electro Magnetic Spectrum
 ICT in Everyday life
 Processing Speed
 Memory
 Super Computer
 Mobile technology
 Wi-Fi
 Li-Fi
 1G 2G ….. 5G… 6G
 ICT terms we use in Everyday life
 Near Wireless Technology
 Wearable Technology
 Artificial Intelligence

INTRODUCTION

 Information technology (IT) is the use of computers

to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, or
information, often in the context of a business or
other enterprise.
 IT is considered to be a subset of information and
communications technology (ICT).
 Under ICT we generally focus on, Computer
Technology, Telecommunications, Optical Communications & Satellite
communications

ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM

 The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation.

 Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes – the visible light that
comes from a lamp in your house and the radio waves that come from a radio
station are two types of electromagnetic radiation.
 The other types of EM radiation that make up the electromagnetic spectrum are
microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma-rays.
 Radio: Your radio captures radio waves emitted by radio stations, bringing
your favourite tunes. Radio waves are also emitted by stars and gases in
space.
 Microwave: Microwave radiation will cook your popcorn in just a few
minutes, but is also used by astronomers to learn about the structure of
nearby galaxies.
 Infrared: Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light emitted by our skin
and objects with heat. In space, infrared light helps us map the dust between
stars.
 Visible: Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies, light bulbs, and stars all emit
visible light.
 Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by the Sun and is the reason skin
tans and burns. "Hot" objects in space emit UV radiation as well.
 X-ray: A dentist uses X-rays to image your teeth, and airport security uses
them to see through your bag. Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.
 Gamma-ray: Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see inside your body. The
biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe.

ICT IN EVERYDAY LIFE

 Examples of ICT in everyday life :

 E-mail – Refers to ICT in online communication
 E-commerce – /Refers to ICT in business
 Online Banking – Refers to ICT in banking
 E-government – Refers to ICT in governance
 E-learning – Refers to ICT in learning
Computer

Processing Speed

 Although the computing power has grown exponentially, the basic architecture of
computer chips, such as central processing
units (CPUs), hasn’t changed much during the
past 65 years.
 The basic rule is that with more transistors, a
processor can perform increasingly more
complicated instructions than before.
 That in turn results in several benefits, such as
faster processing speeds and increased
memory capacity.
Moore’s Law

 Moore's Law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles about
every two years, though the cost of computers is halved.
 In 1965, Gordon E. Moore, the co-founder of Intel, made this observation that
became known as Moore's Law.

MEMORY

 Memory in modern devices is implemented as

a semiconductor memory or magnetic memory,
where data is stored within memory cells built
from MOS transistors and other components
on an integrated circuit.
 There are two main kinds of semiconductor
memory
1. Volatile: Dynamic random-access
memory, Static random-access
memory (SRAM) etc
2. Non-volatile : Flash drive memory,
ROM, EPROM etc
 A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive,
or fixed disk is an electromechanical data
 storage device that stores and retrieves digital data using magnetic storage and one
or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic material.
 The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on a moving actuator
arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces.
 Data is accessed in a random-access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data
can be stored and retrieved in any order.
 HDDs are a type of non-volatile storage, retaining stored data even when powered
off.

SUPER COMPUTER

 A computer with a high level of computing performance compared to a general-

purpose computer and performance measured in FLOPS (floating-point operations
per second).
 Great speed and great memory are the two prerequisites of a supercomputer.
 The performance is generally evaluated in petaflops (1 followed by 15 zeros).
 Memory is averaged around 250000 times of the normal computer we use on a daily
basis.
 Housed in large clean rooms with high airflow to permit cooling.
 Used to solve problems that are too complex and huge for standard computers.
 Most of the computers on the market today are smarter and faster than the very
first supercomputers and
hopefully, today’s
supercomputers would turn
into future computers by
repeating the history of
innovation.
 The first supercomputer
was built in 1957 for the
United States Department
of Defence by Seymour Cray
in Control Data Corporation
(CDC) in 1957.
 CDC 1604 was one of the
first computers to replace
vacuum tubes with
transistors.
 In 1964, Cray’s CDC 6600
 replaced Stretch as the fastest computer on earth with 3 million floating-point
operations per second (FLOPS).
 The term supercomputer was coined to describe CDC 6600.

RADIO V CELLULAR COMMUNICATION

 Cellular and radio networks are wireless networks that allow machinery, and
systems, to communicate with each other.
 Radio is an older technology.
 Radio networks exist in two forms:
1. One-to-many broadcast networks
2. Two-way radio networks
 Radio networks utilize radio wave signals radiated through the atmosphere or
free space to communicate with
one another.
 The problem with such a process
is the concept of free space.
Another issue with radios is the
possibility of interference.
 Cellular networks are the
newer, more efficient ways of
communication.
 A cellular network divides the
area it covers into different
“cells”, with one transceiver in the middle of each piece of the network.
  In order to avoid interference, radio’s biggest flaw, each individual tower
operates on a slightly different frequency, never using the same as an adjacent
“cell”.

Wi-Fi

 Wi-Fi has become an integral part

of our fast-paced everyday lives.
 Thanks to Wi-Fi, we no longer
have to be tethered to the
Internet with cables.
 Wi-Fi also uses radio waves to
transmit information between
your device and a router via
frequencies.
 Two radio-wave frequencies can
be used, depending on the
amount of data being sent: 2.4
gigahertz and 5 gigahertz.

Li-Fi

 LiFi is a Visible Light Communications system transmitting wireless internet

communications at very high
speeds.
 The technology makes a LED light
bulb emit pulses of light that are
undetectable to the human eye
and within those emitted pulses;
data can travel to and from
receivers.
 Then, the receivers collect
information and interpret the
transmitted data.
 This is conceptually similar to
decoding Morse code but at a
much faster rate – millions of times
a second.
 LiFi transmission speeds can go over 100 Gbps, 14 times faster than Wi-Fi.
1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, 6G
6G

 6G (sixth-generation wireless) is the successor to 5G cellular technology.

 6G networks will be able to use higher frequencies than 5G networks and provide
substantially higher capacity and much lower latency.
 One of the goals of 6G internet will be to support one microsecond-latency
communication.
 The 6G technology market is expected to facilitate large improvements in imaging,
presence technology, and location awareness.
 Working in conjunction with artificial intelligence (AI), the computational
infrastructure of 6G will autonomously determine the best location for computing to
occur; this includes decisions about data storage, processing, and sharing.

NEAR WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY

 RFID Bluetooth NFC
•RFID stands for Radio Frequency •Regular Bluetooth operates in the •NFC stands for Near Field
Identification. frequency range 2400-2483.5 Communication, these devices
MHz through one of the too work on the Radio waves
•Typically one can see these designated 79 Bluetooth technology.
implemented in shopping malls channels. Traditionally it is used •It works by the principle of
as tags that are attached to for transferring a lot of data induction. It transmits at 13.56
items. These tags are used to continuously for a longer MHz with a max speed of 424
sound of the beeper at the exits duration in a short distance. It is kbps.
if the tags are not taken off typically used in short spurts of •Most tags are passive devices
indicating that it was not billed. data transfer and the energy that contain an antenna and a
consumption is very low. Regular microchip. The antenna is a coil
Bluetooth has a limit of 100m. and the NFC device picks power
from the magnetic field. This
power is used by the NFC tag to
transmit information.

WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY

 Wearable technology, also known as

"wearables," is a category of electronic devices
that can be worn as accessories, embedded in
clothing, implanted in the user's body, or even
tattooed on the skin.
 The devices are hands-free gadgets with
practical uses, powered by microprocessors and
enhanced with the ability to send and receive
data via the Internet.
 The rapid adoption of such devices has placed
wearable technology at the forefront of the
Internet of things (IoT).
 DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY

CONTENT

 Indian Defence Structure

 Central Armed Forces
 Defence Technology
 Indian Air force
 Tanks
 UAV

INDIAN DEFENCE STRUCTURE

 The Ministry of Defence (MoD) is charged with coordinating and supervising all
agencies and functions of the government relating directly to national security and
the Indian armed forces.
 The President of India is the ceremonial commander-in-chief of the armed forces of
the country.
 The Ministry of Defence consists of five Departments;
1. Department of Defence (DoD)
2. Department of Military Affairs (DMA)
3. Department of Defence Production (DDP)
4. Department of Defence Research and Development (DRDO)
5. Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare (DESW)
 The Defence Secretary of India functions as head of the Department of Defence and
is additionally responsible for coordinating the activities of the Departments in the
Ministry.
 The Department of Military Affairs is responsible for managing the armed forces of
India, namely, the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force.
 The Department of Defence Production, headed by the Defence Production
Secretary, the department was set up in November 1962.
 The Department of Defence Research and Development is headed by the Defence
Research and Development Secretary and ex-officio chairperson of Defence
Research and Development Organisation.
 The Department of Ex-servicemen Welfare (DESW) is headed by the Ex-Servicemen
Welfare Secretary. The department was set up in 2004 to look after veteran affairs.

CENTRAL ARMED FORCES

 Central Armed Police Forces were formerly referred to as Paramilitary Forces.

 Since 2011, the Government of India uses an unofficial definition that the
Paramilitary forces are the ones that assist the military forces and are headed by
Military officers, not by IPS officers.
 The list of Paramilitary Forces of India:
1. Assam Rifles
2. Border Security Force (BSF)
3. Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)
4. Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)
5. Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBF)
6. National Security Guard (NSG)
7. Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)
 The Assam Rifles was established in 1835, It is considered the oldest of all
paramilitary forces.
 The BSF is the border guard of the country and is called the ‘India’s First Line of
Defence’.
 Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) was established in 1969, it provides
integrated security cover to the Public Sector Undertakings, airports and SEZs on a
case to case basis.
  The Central Reserve Police Force was established by the enactment of the CRPF Act
in 1949, the primary mission of the Central Reserve Police Force is counter-
insurgency operations.
 The Indo-Tibetan Border Police was established on 24th October 1962 after the
1962 Sino-Indian conflict, it was created under the CRPF Act; it guards the Indo-
Tibetan border and the mountainous regions of the India-China border and monitors
the northern borders.
 The Sashastra Seema Bal was set up in March 1963; They guard Indo-Nepal and
Indo-Bhutan Borders.

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY

Ballistic Missile

 A ballistic missile follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver one or more warheads on a

predetermined target.
 A ballistic trajectory is the path of an object that is launched but has no active
propulsion during its actual flight.
  Consequently, the trajectory is fully determined by a given initial velocity, effects of
gravity, air resistance, and motion of the earth (Coriolis force).
 Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Longer-ranged intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) are launched on a sub-
orbital flight trajectory and spend most of their flight out of the atmosphere.
 Types of ballistic missiles based on the range
1. Short-range (tactical) ballistic missile (SRBM): Range between 300 km and
1,000 km.
2. Medium-range (theatre) ballistic missile (MRBM): 1,000 km to 3,500 km.
3. Intermediate-range (Long-Range) ballistic missile (IRBM or LRBM): 3,500 km
and 5,500 km.
4. Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): 5,500 km +

Cruise missile

 A cruise missile is a guided missile (target has to be pre-set) used against terrestrial
targets.

 It remains in the atmosphere throughout its flight.

 It flies the major portion of its flight path at an approximately constant speed.
 Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high
precision.
  Modern cruise missiles are capable of traveling at supersonic or high subsonic
speeds, are self-navigating, and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-
altitude trajectory.
 Types of cruise missiles based on speed
1. Hypersonic (Mach 5): these missiles would travel at least five times the
speed of sound (Mach 5). E.g. BrahMos-II.
2. Supersonic (Mach 2-3): these missiles travel faster than the speed of
sound. E.g. BrahMos.
3. Subsonic (Mach 0.8): these missiles travel slower than the speed of
sound. E.g. Nirbhay.

Differences between Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile

Ballistic Missile Cruise Missile

 It is propelled only for a brief duration  Self-propelled till the end of its flight.
after the launch.
 Similar to a rocket engine.  Similar to a jet engine.
 Long-range missiles leave the earth’s  The flight path is within the earth’s
atmosphere and reenter it. atmosphere.
 Low precision as it is unguided for most of  Hits targets with high precision as it is
its path and its trajectory depend on constantly propelled.
gravity, air resistance, and Coriolis force.
 Can have a very long-range (300 km to  The range is small (below 500 km) as it
12,000 km) as there is no fuel needs to be constantly propelled to hit
requirement after its initial trajectory. the target with high precision.
 Heavy payload carrying capacity.  Payload capacity is limited.
 Can carry multiple payloads (Multiple  Usually carries a single payload.
Independently targetable Re-entry
Vehicle)
 Developed primarily to carry nuclear  Developed primarily to carry
warheads. conventional warheads.
 E.g. Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II, and  E.g. BrahMos missiles
Dhanush missiles.

Indian Missiles

 Types of Important Indian Missiles

1. Surface-To-Air Missiles – SAM
2. Air-to-air missiles AAM
 3. Surface-to-surface missiles
4. Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD)/Interceptor Missiles
5. Cruise Missiles
6. Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles
7. Anti-Tank Missiles

Missile Features
Astra  Astra is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile (AAM).
In terms of size and weight, the Astra is the smallest missile developed by the DRDO.
It was envisaged to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft at supersonic speeds.
Active radar seeker to find targets.
Electronic counter-measure capabilities.
Trishul  Used as anti-sea skimmer (to fly low to avoid radar) from ships against low-flying
attacks.
Short-range, quick reaction, all-weather surface-to-air missile designed to counter a
low-level attack.
Has necessary electronic counter-measures against all known aircraft jammers.
Akash  It has the capability to “neutralize aerial targets like fighter jets, cruise missiles, and
air-to-surface missiles” as well as ballistic missiles.
Medium-range, surface-to-air missile with multi-target engagement capability.
Multiple warheads capable.
High-energy solid propellant and ram-rocket propulsion system.
PAD  Anti-ballistic missile developed to intercept incoming ballistic missiles outside the
atmosphere (exo-atmospheric).
Nag  3rd generation anti-tank ‘fire and forget’ guided missile (lock-on before launch
system) where the target is identified and designated before the weapon is launched.
Developed indigenously as an anti-armor weapon employing sensor fusion
technologies for flight guidance.
HELINA (Helicopter Launched NAG) is the air-to-surface version of the NAG integrated
into Dhruv Helicopters.
Prahaar  India’s latest surface-to-surface missile with a range of 150 km.
High maneuverability, acceleration, and accuracy.
Primary objective is to bridge the gap between the unguided Pinaka multi-barrel
rocket launcher and the guided Prithvi missile variants.
BrahMos  It is a supersonic cruise missile developed as a joint venture between Indian and
Russia.
It is the fastest supersonic cruise missile in the world.
It is the world’s fastest anti-ship cruise missile in operation.
Nirbhay  Subsonic missile which is ancillary (providing necessary support) to the BrahMos
range.
Capable of being launched from multiple platforms on land, sea and air.
A terrain hugging, stealth missile capable of delivering 24 different types of warheads
depending on mission requirements.
Can reach up to 1,000 km.
K-15  It forms the crucial third leg of India’s nuclear deterrent vis-à-vis its submarine-
Sagarika launched ballistic missile (SLBM) capability.
It was subsequently integrated with India’s nuclear-powered Arihant class
submarine.
Dhanush  It is capable of carrying nuclear warheads.
Sea-based, short-range, liquid-propellant ballistic missile.
Dhanush missile is also known as Prithvi-III.
Naval version of Prithvi II.
Maximum range 350 km.
Shaurya  Surface-to-surface ballistic missile (SSM) variant of the K-15 Sagarika.
The nuclear capability of the missile enhances India’s second-strike capability.
It reduces the dependence on the K-15 which was built with Russian assistance.

INTEGRATED GUIDED MISSILE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (IGMDP)

 IGMDP was the brainchild of renowned scientist Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam.
 It was intended to attain self-sufficiency in the field of missile technology.
 After keeping in mind the requirements of various types of missiles by the defence
forces, the program recognized the need to develop five missile systems.
 The IGMDP formally got the approval of the Indian government on July 26, 1983.
 It brought together the country’s scientific community, academic institutions, R&D
laboratories, industries, and the three defence services in giving shape to the strategic,
indigenous missile systems.
 The missiles developed under IGMDP are:
1. Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile – Prithvi
2. Intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile – Agni
3. Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile – Trishul
4. Medium-range surface-to-air missile – Akash
5. Third-generation anti-tank missile – Nag
Agni I
 Single-stage, solid fuel, Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM).
 Using solid propulsion booster and a liquid propulsion upper stage.
 Range of 700-800 km.
Agni II
 Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM).
 Range more than 2000 km.

Agni III
 Two-stage IRBM
 Support a wide range of warhead configurations.
 Strike range of more than 2,500 Km

Agni IV
 Two-stage missile powered by solid propellant.
 Can fire from a road-mobile launcher.
 The range is more than 3,500 km.
 Equipped with indigenously developed ring laser gyro and composite rocket motor.

Agni V
 Three-stage solid-fueled, indigenous Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM).
 Capable of carrying 1.5 tonnes of nuclear warheads.
 The latest and most advanced variant in terms of navigation and guidance, warhead
and engine.
 After induction in the military, India will join an exclusive club of countries like the
US, Russia, China, France, and Britain which have intercontinental ballistic missile
capability.
 Canister launches missile system for operational flexibility.
 The range is more than 5,000 km.

Prithvi
 First indigenously built ballistic missile under IGMDP.
 Surface-to-surface battlefield missile.
 Demonstrates higher lethal effects and high-level capability with field
interchangeable warheads.
 Range from 150 km to 300 km.

BRAHMOS

 The name BrahMos is a portmanteau formed from the names of two rivers, the
Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of Russia.
 Supersonic cruise missiles can be launched from submarines, ships, aircraft, or land.
  It is a two-stage (solid propellant engine in the first stage and liquid ramjet in
second) air to surface missile with a flight range of around 300 km.
 However, India’s entry into the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) has
extended the range of the BRAHMOS missile to reach 450 km-600km, a shade above
its current MTCR capped range of 300 km.
 Manufactured by BrahMos Aerospace Limited, a joint venture between the Defence
Research and Development Organisation and Russia’s Military Industrial Consortium
NPO Mashinostroyenia.
 The multi-platform cruise can strike from various types of platforms.
 Among the world’s fastest supersonic cruise missiles with speeds ranging between
Mach 2.5 – 2.8.
 BrahMos is the heaviest weapon to be deployed on Su-30 MKI fighter aircraft, with a
weight of 2.5 tonnes.
 A ‘fire and forget’ weapon i.e. requiring no further guidance from the control center
once the target has been assigned.

ARTILLERY

Dhanush
 Dhanush is a 155 mm towed howitzer manufactured by Advanced Weapons and
Equipment India Limited.
 The gun was approved for service in 2019.

Sharang
 Sharang is the 130mm artillery gun ‘up-gunned’ to 155mm, 45 calibres.
 The gun’s range has now gone from 27km to over 36km with the recent upgrade

M777
 M777 howitzer is a towed 155 mm artillery piece.
 It is used by the ground forces in India. The M777 will be assembled by U.S.A.’s BAE
Systems in partnership with Mahindra Defence.

K-9 Vajra
 The K9-Vajra is a self-propelled howitzer that weighs 50 tonnes and can strike enemy
targets 50 kilometres away.
 These howitzers can also turn around at zero radiuses, basically at the same place
where they are standing.
 The first K-9 has been imported from South Korea.

Pinaka - Multiple Barrel Rocket Launchers

 Pinaka is a multiple rocket launcher produced in India and developed by the DRDO.
  The system has a maximum range of 40 km for Mark-I and 60 km for Mark-I
enhanced version, and can fire a salvo of 12 HE rockets in 44 seconds.

INDIAN AIRFORCE

 Indian Air Force (IAF) is the fourth largest air force in the world.
 It also has over 1,850 aircraft.

MiG-21
 MIG stands for Mikoyan-Gurevich.
 MiG is a product of the Soviet Union which entered into the service in 1959.
 India inducted the MiG-21 in 1963 and got full technology transfer and rights to
license-build the aircraft in the country.
 It is the first supersonic fighter aircraft of the Indian
Air Force.
 Russia stopped producing the aircraft in 1985, while
India continued operating the upgraded variants.
 In the upcoming India-Russia Bilateral summit, India is
likely to gift 3 MiG fighter jets to Russia.
 MiG-21 fighter jets will be phased out of service by
2021-22.
 Tejas, an indigenous fighter aircraft will replace the aging MiG-21.

Mirage-2000
 Dassault Mirage 2000 is a multi-role fighter aircraft manufactured by Dassault
Aviation.
 India had placed an order of 36 single single-seater
and four twin-seater Mirage 2000 jets in 1982.
 A contract was inked with France in 2011 to upgrade
the existing Mirage 2000 jets to Mirage 2000-5 Mk.
 Mirage-2000 played a critical role in major operations
such as the Kargil war and the 2019 Balakot airstrikes.

Sepecat Jaguar
 The SEPECAT Jaguar is a fighter jet developed together by
British Royal Air Force and French Air Force.
 The SEPECAT Jaguar has been upgraded and is known as
Shamsher and serves IAF as primary ground attack
aircraft.
  Indian Jaguar is quite different from the RAF’s Jaguar and is built locally by HAL
under a license agreement.
 The only problem with the Jaguar is its inability to fly at high altitudes with a heavy
load on board.

Sukhoi Su-30MKI
 Sukhoi Aircraft was developed by Russia.
 The license for building it was given to Indian Air Force in the past 2 decades.
 It is a twin-finned, twin-jet multi-role aircraft capable of attaining speeds of Mach 2
at high altitudes.
 It can carry guns, missiles, bombs, rockets, and other weaponry.
 In 2000, India inked a deal with Russia to manufacture 140 Su-30 fighter jets.
 The first Russian-made Su-30MKI variant was
inducted into the IAF in 2002, while the first Su-30MKI
assembled in India entered service with the IAF in
2004.
 Sukhoi 30 jets have been modified to carry BrahMos
air-to-surface missiles with a range of nearly 300 km,
giving them the capacity to conduct long-range
precision strikes.

Rafale
 Rafale is a twin-engine aircraft manufactured by Dassault Aviation of France.
 Rafale fighter Jets will be operated by Indian Air
Force, a deal was signed for 36 Rafale Fighter Jets.
 The deal was signed in 2016.
 It is intended to perform air supremacy, interdiction,
aerial reconnaissance, ground support, in-depth
strike, anti-ship strike and nuclear deterrence
missions.
 After Sukhoi jets, Dassault Rafale is India's first major acquisition of fighter planes in
23 years.

Tejas
 The Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) programme was started by the Government of India
in 1984.
 It replaced the ageing Mig 21 fighter planes.
 Designed by: Aeronautical Development Agency under the Department of Defence
Research and Development.
  Manufactured by: State-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
 Features:
1. The lightest, smallest and tailless multi-role supersonic fighter aircraft in
its class.
2. Designed to carry a range of air-to-air, air-to-
surface, precision-guided, weapons.
3. Air to air refuelling capability.
4. The maximum payload capacity of 4000 kg.
5. It can attend the maximum speed of Mach 1.8.
6. The range of the aircraft is 3,000km
 Variants of Tejas
1. Tejas Trainer: 2-seater operational conversion trainer for training air
force pilots.
2. LCA Navy: Twin- and single-seat carrier-capable for the Indian Navy.
3. LCA Tejas Navy MK2: This is phase 2 of the LCA Navy variant.
4. LCA Tejas Mk-1A: This is an improvement over the LCA Tejas Mk1 with a
higher thrust

C-130J Super Hercules

 The Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military
transport aircraft.
 India is one of the 17 countries to whom the US has sold its C-130J Super Hercules
aircraft.
 The Indian Air Force currently operates a fleet of five C-130J-30s.
 India has placed an order for an additional six C-130J-30s Super Hercules aircraft.

C-17 Globemaster
 The Boeing C-17 Globemaster is a large military transport aircraft.
 It was developed for the United States Air Force (USAF)by McDonnell Douglas.
 The C-17 commonly performs tactical and strategic airlift missions, transporting
troops and cargo throughout the world.
 It can also perform medical evacuation and airdrop duties.
 The C-17 is capable of strategic delivery of up to 170,900 pounds of personnel
and/or equipment to main operating bases or forward operating locations.
 Today the IAF has a fleet of 11 C-17 Globemasters.

Apache Helicopters
 Apache is the most advanced multi-role heavy attack helicopter in the world.
 Its modern capabilities include fire-and-forget, anti-tank missiles, air-to-air missiles,
rockets, and other ammunition.
 It also has modern electronic warfare capabilities to provide versatility in network-
centric aerial warfare.
 The Radar systems in the helicopter will enhance the capability of the IAF in
providing integrated combat aviation cover.
  It is day/night, all-weather capable, and has high agility and survivability against
battle damage.

Kamov Ka-226T
 Kamov 226T is a lightweight, twin-engine multi-role chopper that offers services for
both military and civilian purposes.
 It will replace India’s ageing fleet of Cheetah and Chetak.
 The military version is capable of working in extreme and difficult weather
conditions such as hot climate, marine areas, and high mountains.

S-400 Triumf MDS

 In 2018, India signed a 5.43 billion USD deal with Russia for the S-400 Triumf missile
system.
 The S-400 Triumf is a mobile, surface-to-air missile system (SAM) designed by
Russia.
 S-400 is an advanced MLR SAM which is considered much ahead of the US-
developed Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system (THAAD).
 The system can engage all types of aerial targets including aircraft, unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAV) and ballistic and cruise missiles within the range of 400km, at an
altitude of up to 30km.
 The system can track 100 airborne targets and engage six of them simultaneously.
 MDS of Different Countries
 India – PAD/AAD. We also bought S-400 Triumpf
 USA – THAAD - Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
 EU – PAAMS - Principal Anti Air Missile System
 Russia – S-300, S-400 , S-500
 Israel – Arrow (Iron Dome) missile defence
 China – Fan Ji ABM system
 Taiwan – Sky Bow

Aircraft Carriers
 INS Vikrant (decommissioned): Beginning with INS Vikrant which served India
from 1961 to 1997.
 India acquired the Vikrant from the United Kingdom in 1961, and the carrier
played a stellar role in the 1971 war with Pakistan that led to the birth of
Bangladesh.
 In 2014, INS Vikrant was broken down in Mumbai.
 INS Viraat (decommissioned): INS Vikrant was followed by the Centaur-class
carrier HMS (Her Majesty's Ship) Hermes, which was rechristened in India as INS
Viraat and served in the Indian Navy from 1987 to 2016.
 INS Vikramaditya:
  It is the Indian Navy’s largest aircraft carrier and warship converted from
the Russian Navy’s decommissioned Admiral Gorshkov/Baku.
 INS Vikramaditya is a modified Kiev-class aircraft carrier that was
commissioned into service in November 2013.
 INS Vikrant:
 In order to commemorate the legacy of INS Vikrant (decommissioned),
the First IAC will be named as INS Vikrant.
 It is built at Cochin Shipyard Limited.
 It is currently undergoing sea trials and is likely to be commissioned in 2023.

TANKS

UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE (UAV)

 Supplied by Israel & are already in service

1. Heron
2. Searcher
3. FireFly
  Under development phase
1. Idea Forge
2. Raphe
3. Sky Striker
4. Tapas
5. Rustom
Rustom
 Rustom is a medium altitude long endurance unmanned aerial vehicle developed
by DRDO.
 For the Indian Army, Indian Navy, and the Indian Air Force for intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance operations.
 It will replace the Heron UAVs of Indian armed forces.
 Rustom UAV will be able to enter 250 km inside the enemy territory and can carry a
variety of cameras and radars for surveillance.
 Rustom-H variant is a multi-altitude long-endurance UAV that has twin-engine for
carrying out surveillance and reconnaissance missions.

Other Developments in the UAVs sector in India

 DRDO is developing other unmanned aerial vehicles like DRDO Abhyas, DRDO
AURA, DRDO Imperial eagle, DRDO Lakshya 1 and Lakshya 2, DRDO Netra, and DRDO
Nishant for meeting the different specific needs of the Indian armed forces.
 Other UAVs used by India include Gagan UAV from Israel, Pawan UAV, Heron, Harpy,
Searcher, NAL Slybird, Dhaksha etc.
 India is also planning to import surveillance Drone SeaGuardian unmanned aerial
vehicle UAVs and Predator Avenger UAVs from the US.
 CELL BIOLOGY

CONTENT -
 What are Cells
 Meaning of Cell Organelles
 Structure and Component of a cell
 Comparison between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Cell Organelles – Complete coverage
Timeline (A brief overview) -
Robert Hooke First discovered and coined the term cell in
1665.
Robert Brown He discovered the Cell Nucleus in 1831.
Scleiden & Schwann Cell theory - All the plants and animals are
composed of cells and that the cell is the
basic unit of life.
Gregor Mendel In 1860s he laid the foundations of Genetics
Electron Microscope 1940 – It helped in observing and
understanding the complex structure of the
cell and its various organelles.

Cell -
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
 All the living organisms are made up of cells.
 Cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
Type of Organism - (based on cell)
 Unicellular Organisms – The organisms that consist of a single cell such as Amoeba.
 Multicellular Organisms – The organisms which contain various cells that perform
different functions in the organism example plants, fungi and animals.
Shape of a cell
 The shape of the cell varies depending upon the type of function they perform in an
organism.
 Cells can change their shape. For example, the white blood cells and amoeba can
change shapes on their own.
Cells perform distinct functions in an organism though Organelles.
Organelles -
 A cell contains specific components which are called Organelles. (As Human contains
organs to function similar is the case with a cell)
  Each organelle in the cell performs different functions such as making new cells or
clearing the waste of the cell.
 Organelles allow cell to perform several kinds of activities in an organism.
Structure and component of a cell -
A cell contains 3 features -
 The Plasma Membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
Plasma Membrane
 It is like an envelope which covers the whole cell. Thus, a cell gets separated from the
external environment because it has a plasma membrane.
 Plasma membrane decides which materials will enter or leave the cell, and which will
not. This is the reason it is called a ‘Selectively Permeable Membrane.’
Movement In a cell - (How substances move in and out)
Gaseous exchange between the cell and its external environment
 Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the cell is carried out by means of
diffusion.
 Gaseous substances move from areas of higher concentration to areas where their
concentration is less. This movement is known as the ‘process of diffusion’.
Movement of water between the cell and its external environment:
 It is carried out by the means of osmosis.
 Osmosis is a process in which water moves from the region of high concentration to one
where its concentration is low through a semi permeable membrane.
Cell Wall -
 The cell wall is an outer hard covering of maintains the shape of the cell.
 The cell wall is generally made up of cellulose.
Nucleus -
  Nucleus is a prominent, organelle present in cell which is the ‘controlling center’ of all
activities of cell.
The Structure of the Nucleus -
 A nucleus has a ‘nuclear membrane’ which covers it all around.
 There are pores present on the nuclear membrane that allow movement of substances
in and out of the nucleus.
 It has chromosomes - rod-shaped structure present in the nucleus which contain
‘genetic information’.
The chromosomes contain two types of things -
 DNA - This is responsible for organizing and constructing new cells
 Proteins - These help in packaging and condensation of DNA.
Chromatin
 Chromatin is thread-like material present in a cell. The chromatin organizes itself into
chromosomes whenever the cell is about to divide.
Nucleolus
 It is called as the ‘brain of the Nucleus.’
 It comprises of 25% of the volume of the nucleus.
 It consists of proteins and ribonucleic acids (RNA).
 It helps in formation of ribosomes which help information of proteins inside the cell.
Nuceloid
 Sometimes cells do not have a well-defined nucleus because they lack a nuclear
membrane. Such a nucleus with no definite nuclear boundaries is called a Nucleoid.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Organisms whose cells do not have a definite cell membrane are called ‘Prokaryotes.’
Organisms whose cells contain a well-defined nuclear membrane are called
‘Eukaryotes.’
Comparison of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes -

Cytoplasm
 The plasma membrane has a fluid like substance in it which is called the cytoplasm.
 The cytoplasm contains several organelles that can perform distinct functions of the cell
Functions of Cytoplasm
 It supports and suspends the cell organelles and molecules.
 The cellular processes occur in cytoplasm such as formation of proteins.
 It allows movement of substances in the cell such as ‘hormones.’
 It dissolves cellular wastes.
The Cell Organelles -
 In the case of Eukaryotic organisms, the cells contain organelles that have their own
membranes apart from the overall cell membrane of the cell.
The cells perform several functions. The organelles are useful because they allow separation of
different functions that are being performed by the cell.
Significance of organelles in a cell -
Organelles carry out important activities in a Cell
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Mitochondria
 Plastids
 Vacuoles
 Centrioles
  Ribosomes
 Peroxisomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) -
The structure of the ER is quite like that of the plasma membrane. It is a network-like structure
which consists of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.
Two types of ER – Rough ER Smooth ER
 Rough ER contains ribosomes that are responsible for the manufacturing of proteins in
the cells. They give a rough texture to the cell.
 The smooth ER manufactures fats or lipids in the cell which allow the functioning of the
cell
Functions of lipids and proteins -
 Proteins and lipids synthesized on ER are used for making cell membrane. The
process is known as ‘Membrane Biogenesis.’
 Proteins can act as an enzyme
 Both protein and lipids act as ‘hormones.
Functions of ER
 Transportation of material between various parts of the cytoplasm and between the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Folding of proteins which are synthesized by ribosome on RER.
 Detoxifying poisons and drugs out of the cell is the function of SER
Golgi Apparatus -
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
 Golgi apparatus carries materials synthesized by the ER to different parts of the cell. The
material is stored and packaged in vesicles.
 Formation of complex sugar.
 Formation of lysosomes.
Lysosomes -
 Single membrane vesicles - They are responsible for cleaning the cell. They can digest
any foreign material such as food or bacteria and even the worn-out cell organelles.
 Lysosomes can digest any foreign material that enters the cell because they have
digestive enzymes in them. These enzymes break the materials and digest them.
 These enzymes are synthesized by RER and packaged into lysosome by Golgi bodies.
 ‘Suicide bags’- Lysosomes are known as the suicidal bag of the cell because it is capable
of destroying its own cell in which it is present.
Mitochondria -
 It is a double membrane organelle which has its own DNA and that is why often called
‘Semi-Autonomous Organelle.’
 Powerhouse of the cell - The cell requires energy to carry out several activities. This
energy is generated by mitochondria.
  Cellular Respiration - Mitochondria are site of cellular respiration. They use oxygen from
air to oxidize the carbohydrates and thereby release energy.
 The Mitochondria generates ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) which are energy giving
molecules of the cell that are often called as their ‘Energy Currency.’
Plastids
 Just like mitochondria it is also double membraned organelle which has its own DNA and
ribosome.
 Plastids exist in plant cells only. Depending upon the type of function they play in the
cell they can be classified as –

Chloroplasts -
 Chloroplasts are cell organelles that conduct photosynthesis in plants.
 Chloroplast is derived from two Greek words ‘Chloro’ and ‘Plasts’ which means green
and plants, respectively.
 Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigments called ‘Chlorophyll’ along with lipids,
carbohydrates, minerals, DNA, RNA, grana, thylakoids and stroma.
Main functions of chloroplasts are -
 Conducting photosynthesis in plants.
 Protein synthesis
 Releases oxygen
 Storage of Starch
Vacuoles
 Vacuoles are the places where cells can store the liquids and solids. They are present in
both plants and animals, but the plant vacuoles are ‘bigger’ in size than the animal
vacuoles.
Plants vs Animal Cell -
Ribosomes -
 They are cell organelles responsible for ‘protein synthesis’.
 Ribosomes can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes because the synthesis of
proteins is important in both.
 In prokaryotes, the ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.
 In eukaryotes, they can be found floating in the cytoplasm or they are often attached to
the endoplasmic reticulum.
 The ribosomes attached to the ER synthesize proteins that are to be exported out of the
cell while the ribosomes floating inside the cell synthesize proteins that are used inside
the cell.
Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are small vesicles found in the cells.
 These enzymes are used to break the toxic materials inside the cell.
 They digest the fatty acids of the cell as well as amino acids by carrying out oxidation
reactions in the cell
 They are also responsible for digestion of alcohol in the human body. Hence, the liver
contains many Peroxisomes.
MICROORGANISMS

CONTENT -
 About Microorganism
 Understanding – Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses.
 Diseases caused by Microorganisms
 Benefits of Microorganism
Microorganisms -
About Microorganism -
 Microorganism or microbe is an organism that is microscopic.
 The study of microorganisms is called microbiology.
 Types - Microorganisms can be bacteria, fungi (yeasts and molds), algae, protozoa.
 The term microorganisms technically does not include viruses.
 Viruses are classified as non-living (They need a host).
BACTERIA -
 Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that are found in millions.
 They are seen in every environment, both inside and outside other organisms.
 Bacteria - First organisms to appear on earth.
 The oldest known fossils are of bacteria-like organisms.
 The earth is estimated to hold at least 5 nonillion bacteria, and much of the earth’s
biomass is thought to be made up of bacteria.
 Some bacteria are harmful, but most serve a useful purpose.
 Uses of Bacteria - They support many forms of life, both plant and animal, and they are
used in industrial and medicinal processes.
 Shape of Bacteria - Most bacteria come in one of three basic shapes: coccus, rod, or
bacillus, and spiral.
AEROBIC BACTERIA ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
Need oxygen to survive Do not require oxygen to survive
Produce more energy Produce less energy

Bacteria are seen on the surface of liquid Bacteria are settled at the bottom of the
liquid.

Ex: Mycobacterium tuberculosis Ex: Clostridium

Fungi -
 Fungus is any of the 1.5m known species of organisms of the Kingdom Fungi.
 Kingdom Fungi - This includes the yeasts, rusts, smuts, mildews, molds, and mushrooms.
Types of Fungi -
 Type – Fungi are 1) Free-living in soil or water 2) parasitic 3) Some have symbiotic
relationship with plants or animals.
 Breaking down of organic matter - Bacteria, Fungi (Both) are responsible for breaking
down organic matter and releasing carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus into the
soil and the atmosphere.
 Uses of Fungi - Fungi are essential to many household and industrial processes, notably
the making of bread, wine, beer, and certain cheeses.
Virus
 Virus is an infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply only
in living cells.
 Viruses occupy a special taxonomic position: they are not plants, not animals, or
prokaryotic bacteria.
 They are placed in their own kingdom.
 Viruses should not even be considered organisms, as they need a host which can be an
animal, plants or even in a bacteria.
 Problem with understanding Virus - The study of viruses has mostly confined or
exclusive to humans, however, this has posed the formidable problem of finding a
susceptible animal host.
Zoonotic disease – (Knowing it becomes important due to coronavirus)
 It refers to diseases which are transmitted from animals to humans. A zoonosis
(zoonotic disease) is an infectious disease that is transmitted between species from
animals to humans (or from humans to animals).
Below diagram mentions all the major zoonotic diseases - (which impacted humans adversely).

Diseases caused by Microorganisms - (List for factual question in upsc)

Disease Bacteria
AIDS HIV virus (Human Immuno Deficiency virus)
Acne Vulgaris Propionibacterium acnes
Anthrax Bacillus Anthraces
Plague Yersinia Pestis
Cholera Vibrio Cholerae
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diptheriae
Tuberculosis: Mycobacterium Tuberculiosis
Typhoid Salmonella Typhi
Chicken Pox Varicella virus
Smallpox Variola Virus
 Chikungunya Chikungunya virus
Dengue Flavi virus
Influenza Rhino Virus
Ebola, Hepatitis. Polio, Nipah, Coronavirus Viruses have the same name as the disease

Fungal Diseases: Candidiasis, Aspergillosis, Ringworms etc.

Other diseases caused by protozoans -
Protozoa are one-celled organisms, like bacteria. But they are bigger than bacteria and contain a nucleus
and other cell structures, making them more like plant and animal cells.
Disease Protozoan
Ameobasis Entameaba Histolytica
Dysentery (Kala Azar) Leichmania
Malaria (Not caused by bacteria) Plasmodium
Sleeping Sickness Trypansonama

Microorganisms are both harmful and beneficial to Humans -

Benefits
 Used as Antibiotics - example Penicillin.
 Used as chemicals & enzymes – example Lactobacillus used for curding process.
 Fermentation - Saccharomyces cerevisiae is extensively used in alcohol production
 Bioremediation - Bioremediation employs the use of living organisms, like microbes and
bacteria, in the removal of contaminants, pollutants, and toxins from soil, water, and other
environments.
 Nitrogen fixation - Any natural or industrial process that causes free nitrogen (N2), which is (an
inert gas) to combine chemically with other elements to form more reactive nitrogen
compounds such as ammonia, nitrates, or nitrites.
 Bio fertilizers - Biofertilizers are living microbes that enhance plant nutrition by either by
mobilizing or increasing nutrient availability in soils. Various microbial taxa including beneficial
bacteria and fungi are currently used as biofertilizers.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Plant Physiology
CONTENTS -
 Different parts of Plants
 Root System
 Stem
 Leaf
 Flower
 Fruit
 Process of Photosynthesis
 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
Parts of a Plant
The Root -
Main functions of the root system are 1) Absorption of water and minerals from the soil 2) Providing a
proper anchorage to the plant parts 3) Storing reserve food material 4) Synthesis of plant growth
regulators.
Types of Root system – Comparison between Monocot vs dicot –
  Adventitious Roots - The roots which arise from other parts of plant beside radicle are called
adventitious roots. Example- Grass, Banyan tree, Maize, etc.
 Thus, main function of root systems are 1) Absorption of water and minerals from soil, 2)
Providing proper anchorage to the plant parts 3) Storing reserve food materials. (Carrot, Ginger
etc.).
To transport the water, mineral, food etc. Plants have tissues – We will look at a comparison below of 2
major tissues -
XYLEM PHLOEM
Xylem carries water from roots to leaves Phloem carries food from leaves to growing
parts and storage organs.
Made up of dead cells Made up of living cells

Carries water in a unidirectional manner, from Carries food bidirectionally from leaves to
roots to apical parts of the plant. storage parts and from storage part to growing
part.
Cell wall is thick Cell wall is thin

Passive transportation of water and mineral Active transportation of sugar and other
occur. metabolites occur.
Stem
 A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root.
 Supporting role of the Stem - Stem supports 1) leaves, flower and fruits 2) transports water and
dissolved substances between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem 3) Stores
nutrients 4) Produces new living tissue.
 Nodes - The region of the stem where leaves are born are called nodes.
 Some stems also perform the function of storage of food, support, protection and of vegetative
propagation.
 Underground stems of potato, ginger, turmeric etc. are modified to store food in them.
 Stem tendrils develop from axillary buds which help in plant climbing.
 Axillary buds of stems may also get modified into woody, straight and pointed thorns.
Leaf
 Leaf develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later develops into a
branch.
 A typical leaf consists of three main parts: leaf base, petiole and lamina
Flower - Reproductive unit of a Plant
 The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms.
 It is meant for ‘sexual reproduction’.
 Androecium and gynoecium are reproductive organs.
 When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual.
 A flower having either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.
Gymnosperm vs Angiosperm
Androecium
 Androecium is composed of ‘stamens’.
 Each stamen which represents the male reproductive organ consists of a stalk or a filament and
an anther.
 Anthers have pollen sacs. The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs.
Gynoecium
 Gynoecium is the ‘female reproductive part’ of the flower and is made up of one or more
carpels.
 A carpel consists of 3 parts - stigma, style and ovary.
 After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit.

Aestivation - The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other
members of the same whorl is known as aestivation.
Fruit
 The fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants. Fruit is a mature or ripened ovary,
developed after fertilization.
 If a fruit is formed without fertilization of the ovary, it is called a parthenocarpic fruit. (In news
due to research in it – seedless Fruits).
 The seeds are the ovules after fertilization.
Process of Photosynthesis -
  Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves
called ‘stomata’.
 Water and minerals are transported to the leaves by the vessels which run like pipes throughout
the root, the stem, the branches and the leaves.
 The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll.
 ‘Mesophyll cells’ have large chloroplasts which helps leaves to capture the energy of the
sunlight.
 This energy is used to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water
 Photosynthesis not just takes place in leaves, but it also takes place in other green parts of the
plant in green stems and green branches.
Different Plastids impact the color of the leaves.
Plastids are responsible for manufacturing and storing of food. These often contain pigments that are
used in photosynthesis and different types of pigments can change the colour of the cell.
Colour of the leaves Plastids
Green Chlorophyll
Yellow Carotenoids and Flavinoids
Orange Carotenoids
Red Anthocyanins and Carotenoids
Factors affecting Photosynthesis -
 Light Intensity – More the light, more will be the rate of Photosynthesis ( But only upto a limit as
explained in the lecture). Similarly, low rate of Photosynthesis will lead to a low rate of
Photosynthesis.
 The concentration of CO2 – A higher CO2 concentration also accelerates the photosynthesis
process. The required amount of CO2 is 300-400 PPM. (Remember excessive/too much CO2 is
counterproductive for Photosynthesis).
 Temperature – If the temperature is between the range of 25 to 35 degree celsius,
photosynthesis takes place effectively.
 Excess water leads to water stress which causes the stomata to close. Besides, water stress also
makes leaves wilt reducing metabolism.
 Water logging also reduces air supply to roots eventually leading to death of the plant.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY

CONTENT

 Biotechnology
 Genetic Engineering
 Chromosomes
 Bloodgroups
 Recombinant DNA
 DNA Fingerprinting
 DNA Profiling
 Genome
 Gene Editing – CrispR
 Gene Therapy
 Stem Cell Research
 Mitochondrial DNA
 Gene Cloning
 Genetically Modified Crops
 Biotechnology Institutions in India
 Biotechnology Regulation in India

BIOTECHNOLOGY

 Biotechnology is the branch of applied science that uses living organisms and their
derivatives to produce products and processes.
 These products and processes feature in healthcare, medicine, biofuels, and
environmental safety.
 For example, a simple process of making bread using yeast can also be categorized
as Biotechnology.
 However, in modern-day parlance with the emergence of genetic engineering in the
1970s, new possibilities have emerged.
 Today, biotechnology deals with industrial-scale production of biopharmaceuticals
and biological using genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants, and animals.
 The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically
modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment,
energy production, etc.
 Food
Bioinformatics
processing

Genetic Bioremediatio
engineering n

Waste
Diagnostics
treatment

Energy
Therapeutics Biotechnology
production

GENETIC ENGINEERING

 Genetic engineering involves the

techniques to alter the chemistry of
genetic material (DNA and RNA) and
thus change the phenotype of the
host organism.
 Asexual reproduction preserves
genetic information, while sexual
reproduction permits variation.
 Traditional hybridisation procedures
used in plant and animal breeding,
very often lead to the inclusion and
multiplication of undesirable genes along with the desired genes.
 There are three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism —
 Identification of DNA with desirable genes;
 Introduction of the identified DNA into the host;
 Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its
progeny.
 Stem Cell
therapy
Gene
Gene transfer
Mathematics

Cloning Biostatistics

Recombinant Genetic
DNA Bio Physics
technology engineering

CHROMOSOMES

 Chromosomes are thread-like structures present in the nucleus.

 These are nothing but DNA tightly coiled
around a protein called histone.
 Chromosomes exist in pairs. Human cells
contain 23 such pairs or 46 chromosomes.
 Each chromosome is comprised on one
super-long DNA molecule.
 Notice how the DNA is coiled around histone
and then many such histones are packed
together to form a chromosome.
Mendel Laws of Inheritance

 Inheritance is defined as the process of how a progeny receives genetic information

from the parent.
 The whole process of heredity is dependent upon inheritance and it is the reason
that the offsprings are similar to the parents.
 Mendel was the first to study this phenomenon systematically.
 While studying the pattern of inheritance in pea plants of contrasting characters,
Mendel proposed the principles of inheritance, which are today referred to as
‘Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance’.
 He proposed that the ‘factors’ (later named as genes) regulating the characters are
found in pairs known as alleles.

Law of Independent
Law of Dominance Law of Segregation
Assortment

•This is Mendel’s first law of •The law of segregation states •Also known as Mendel’s second
inheritance. that during the production of law of inheritance, the law of
•According to law of gametes, two copies of each independent assortment states
dominance, hybrid offsprings hereditary factor segregate so that a pair of trait segregates
that offspring acquire one independently of another pair
will only inherit the dominant
factor from each parent. during gamete formation.
trait in the phenotype.
•In other words, allele •As the individual heredity
•The alleles that are suppressed (alternative form of the gene) factors assort independently,
are called as the recessive pairs segregate during the different traits get equal
traits while the alleles that formation of gamete and re- opportunity to occur together.
determine the trait are known unite randomly during
as the dormant traits. fertilization. This is also known
as Mendel’s third law of
inheritance.
 BLOODGROUPS

 In 1900-1902, K. Landsteiner classified human

blood into four groups A, B, AB, and O.
 The cells of these groups contain
corresponding antigens – A, B, and AB except
O.
 That is why O is donated to any of the groups
and so is known as a Universal donor.
 AB group is known as Universal recipient
because it can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
groups.

Rh factor

 It is a blood antigen discovered in 1940 by Landsteiner and A.S Weiner and played
an important role during a blood transfusion.
 The Rh factor is an agglutinogen found in RBC of most people called Rh+.
 It was initially found in the rhesus monkey and later in man.
 People who do not have this antigen in their blood are called Rh-.
 The Rh- blood does not carry anti- Rh antibodies naturally but could synthesize them
if synthesized through blood transfusion of Rh+ blood.
 RECOMBINANT DNA

 Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory

methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning).
 To bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that
would not otherwise be found in the genome.
 Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the
same chemical structure.

 They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure.
 In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal
phenotypes. That is, their appearance, behavior, and metabolism are usually
unchanged.
 The cutting of DNA at specific locations became possible with the discovery of the
so-called ‘molecular scissors’- restriction enzymes.
 Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases. These are
of two kinds
1. Exonucleases
2. Endonucleases
 Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA whereas; Endonucleases
make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.
 The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the plasmid DNA. These plasmid DNA act
as vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached to it.
 You probably know that mosquito acts as an insect vector to transfer the malaria
parasite into the human body.
 In the same way, a plasmid can be used as a vector to deliver an alien piece of DNA
into the host organism.
 The linking of the antibiotic
resistance gene with the
plasmid vector became
possible with the enzyme
DNA ligase, which acts on
cut DNA molecules and joins
their ends.
 This makes a new
combination of circular
autonomously replicating
DNA created in vitro and is
known as recombinant DNA.
 When this DNA is transferred into Escherichia coli, a bacterium closely related to
Salmonella, it could replicate using the new host’s DNA polymerase enzyme and
make multiple copies.
 The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic resistance genes in E. coli was called
cloning of antibiotic resistance genes in E. coli.

DNA FINGERPRINTING

 DNA fingerprinting is a method used to identify an individual from a sample of DNA

by looking at unique
patterns in their DNA.
 Every cell in our body
contains our DNA. On
average, about 99.9
percent of the DNA
between two humans is
the same.
 The remaining 0.1%
percentage is what makes
us unique.
 No two humans have
identical DNA. (In some
cases, identical twins have
the same DNA)
 Every unique DNA has Minisatellites which are short sequences (10-60 base pairs
long) of repetitive DNA that show greater variation from one person to the next.
 This variation is exhibited in the number of repeated units or ‘stutters’.
  It is this Minisatellite Stutters that help in DNA fingerprinting.

Application of DNA Fingerprinting

1. Personal identification 5. Genome project

2. Criminal justice system 6. Understanding Mass
3. Understanding hereditary disasters
disorders 7. Historical analysis etc
4. Paternity testing

DNA PROFILING

 DNA profiling is the process of

determining an individual's DNA
characteristics.
 DNA profiling is the process
where a specific DNA pattern
(DNA Fingerprint) called a
profile, is obtained from a
person or sample of bodily
tissue.
 Through storing DNA data in
computer data banks, DNA
analysis can be used to solve
crimes without suspects.

GENOME

 A genome is all the genetic matter

that is present in an organism.
 Genome is basically defined as “an
organism’s complete set of DNA,
including all of its genes”.
 A genome contains all of the
information needed to build and
maintain that organism.
  In humans, an entire genome would probably lead to 3 billion DNA base pairs.

Genome India Project

 The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) initiated the ambitious Genome India

Project” (GIP) in 2020.
 It aims to collect 10,000 genetic samples from citizens across India, to build a
reference genome.
 Gene Mapping project involves 20 leading institutions of the country with the Centre
for Brain Research of the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore as the nodal
point.

IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project

 The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) concluded the six-month-
long exercise of conducting a “whole-genome sequence” of a 1,008 Indians that
belonged to diverse ethnicities.
 The project is part of a programme called “IndiGen” and is a precursor to Genome
India Project” (GIP).
 The project involved the Hyderabad-based Centre for Cellular and Molecular
Biology (CCMB) and the CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB).

Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium (INSACOG)

 It is a network of 10 laboratories established in December 2020.

 It aims at continuously monitoring the genomic changes of SARS-CoV-2 in India.
 Monitoring is done through Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS).
 Knowledge generated through this research consortium will assist in developing
diagnostics & potential therapeutics & vaccines in the future.

GENE EDITING – CRISPR

 The CRISPR is an acronym for Clustered Regularly

Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, developed in
the year 2012
 CRISPR has made gene editing very easy and simple,
and at the same time extremely efficient.
 The technology works in a simple way — it locates
the specific area in the genetic sequence which has
 been diagnosed to be the cause of the problem, cuts it out, and replaces it with a
new and correct sequence that no longer causes the problem.
 The technology replicates a natural defence mechanism in some bacteria that use a
similar method to protect it from virus attacks.

GENE THERAPY

 All concepts like Genome editing, Gene editing gene therapy, or CRISPR CAS9 are
interlinked.
 Gene therapy is a technique that involves the replacement of defective genes with
healthy ones.
 It is an artificial method that introduces DNA into the cells of the human body.
 Gene therapy can be employed on Somatic cells as well as Gametes.
 GT is mainly used in the replacement of genes that cause problems. (Genetic
Disorders).
 It can also be used to help the body to fight against diseases by adding genes to the
human body.

STEM CELL RESEARCH

 Special human cells that have the capability to develop into wide-ranging types of
cells in the human body, from muscle cells to brain cells, are called stem cells.
 2 unique properties of Stem Cells:
1. Split to form similar cells
2. Develop into different specialized cells that perform a distinct function.
 Classification based on Stem Cells formation at different times of human lives
1. Embryonic stem cells
2. Adult stem cells
3. Induced pluripotent stem cells or iPSC

Embryonic Stem cells

 These are the Stem cells that exist only during the earliest stage of development.

Adult Stem Cells

 These are the cells that can multiply when there is a need to repair adult organs and
tissues.
 These cells are present in almost all organs of the human body.

Pluripotent stem cells

  These cells are not found in the body but made in the laboratory from cells of the
body.
 The iPSC cells have properties similar to those of embryonic stem cells.
 Human iPSC’s were generated in 2007.

MITOCHONDRIAL DNA

 Mitochondrial DNA is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria

which are called the “powerhouse of the cell”.
 The peculiar thing about mitochondrial DNA is that it is passed almost exclusively
from mother to offspring through the egg cell.
 If we study, mitochondrial DNA, it is easier to track
across the maternal generations.

Mitochondrial DNA Disorders

 Mitochondrial diseases are long-term, genetic, often

inherited disorders that occur when mitochondria fail to
produce enough energy for the body to function
properly.
 One in 5,000 individuals has a genetic mitochondrial
disease.
 Common clinical features of mitochondrial disorders include external
ophthalmoplegia, proximal myopathy, and exercise intolerance, cardiomyopathy,
sensorineural deafness, optic atrophy, pigmentary retinopathy, diabetes mellitus,
etc.

Designer Baby

 A designer baby is a baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered, often
to include a particular gene or to remove genes associated with disease.

GENE CLONING

 Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a
complete organism.
 Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut
and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.
 They cloned successfully a sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born in 1996 and was the
first mammal to be cloned.
 Gene Cloning can be employed for
1. Therapeutic use
 2. Reproductive use
 It can be the artificial breaking of an embryo or using donor gametes and somatic
cells of the original organism.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

 Genetic engineering has been used in agricultural applications as well to produce GM

crops.
 GM crops are derived from plants whose genes are artificially modified, usually by
inserting genetic material from another organism, in order to give it a new
property, such as increased yield, tolerance to a herbicide, resistance to disease or
drought, or to improve its nutritional value.

GM Crops in India

 GM plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic modification has made crops
more tolerant of abiotic stresses.
 In some cases, it has reduced reliance on chemical pesticides.
 It has also increased the efficiency of mineral usage by plants and added the
nutritional value of food.
 In India, a few Bt variety of crops has been approved.
 Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis.
 Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects like
budworm, armyworm, beetles etc.
 Bt toxin protein exists as inactive protoxins but once an insect ingests the inactive
toxin, it is converted into an active form of toxin & kills the insect.
 Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to
provide resistance to insects without the need for insecticides. Examples include Bt
cotton, Bt corn, Bt rice etc.
 Bt Cotton-In India, for the time being, the only genetically modified crop that is
under cultivation in India is Bt cotton which is grown over 10.8 million hectares.
 Bt Brinjal-In 2007, GEAC recommended the commercial release of Bt Brinjal, which
was developed by Mahyco & Dharwad University of Agricultural sciences. It was
disallowed in 2021 after protests.
 GM-mustard-Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 or DMH-11 is a genetically modified variety
of mustard developed by the Delhi University. It is still under review to be approved.

GM Varieties in Action

 GM Corn is resistant to larval pests.

 GM soybeans that are resistant to weed-killers
  GM maize is used for animal feed. It’s resistant against pests.
 GM Cotton is resistant against Pink bollworm and has been approved by many
countries.
 GM Canola is used or oils & emulsifier in packaged foods

BIOTECHNOLOGY INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA

Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)

 It is a statutory committee & functions in the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and

Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
 As per Rules, 1989, it is responsible for the appraisal of activities involving large-scale
use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial
production from the environmental angle.
 The committee is also responsible for the appraisal of proposals relating to the
release of genetically engineered (GE) organisms and products into the environment
including experimental field trials.
 GEAC is chaired by the Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC and co-
chaired by a representative from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
 Presently, it has 24 members and meets every month to review the applications in
the areas indicated above.

BIOTECHNOLOGY REGULATION IN INDIA

 The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

 Rules for the Manufacture, Use/Import/Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro
Organisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells (Rules,1989)
 Genetic Engineering Approval Committee renamed as Genetic Engineering Appraisal
Committee in 2010.
 The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
 Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003
 Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006