Chapter 3:
Atomic Structure
Introduction to Atomic Models:
Scientists developed different atomic models over time.
These models help us understand how atoms behave and their structure.
Every new model improved our knowledge about atomic structure.
Dalton's Atomic Model (1803)
John Dalton (British Chemist) gave the first scientific theory of matter called
Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
Main Postulates (Important Points):
Matter is made of tiny particles called atoms that cannot be divided.
Atoms of the same element are identical in: Mass, Size, Volume
Atoms combine, separate, or rearrange in simple ratios to form
compounds during chemical reactions.
Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
Importance of Dalton's Model:
Explained many chemical laws like: Law of Multiple Proportions and Law
of Conservation of Mass
Helped in understanding chemical combinations.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model (1911)
Ernest Rutherford performed an experiment to understand the structure of
atom.
Rutherford's Experiment:
Used alpha particles (He²⁺ nuclei) from polonium.
These were bombarded at a very thin gold foil (0.00004 cm thick).
Expected particles to pass straight through the foil.
Observations:
Most alpha particles passed through without deflection.
A few were deflected at small angles.
Very few were deflected at large angles (over 90°).
Conclusions from Rutherford's Experiment:
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Most of the atom is empty space (because most particles passed through
undeflected).
Deflected alpha particles show there is a dense, positively charged center
→ called the nucleus.
Alpha particles are not deflected by electrons because electrons are too
small and light.
Resulting Model – Rutherford's Atomic Model:
Called the planetary model of atom.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus just like planets revolve around the
sun.
Atom has a dense nucleus with positive charge (protons).
Defects in Rutherford’s Model:
Electron Collapse: According to classical physics, revolving electrons
should lose energy and spiral into the nucleus, collapsing the atom.
Continuous Spectrum Expected: Energy loss should emit a continuous
spectrum, but atoms emit line spectra (e.g., hydrogen).
Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913)
Postulates:
Fixed Orbits (Energy Levels): Electrons revolve in specific orbits with
fixed energy (no energy loss).
Energy & Distance: Farther orbits = Higher energy.
Quantized Angular Momentum:
L = nh\2π where n = orbit number h = Planck’s constant
Energy Absorption/Emission:
Absorption: Electron jumps to higher orbit (gains energy).
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Emission: Electron falls to lower orbit (releases energy as light).
Energy difference: ∆E = E2 – E1
Line Spectrum Explained:
Only specific energy transitions → discrete lines (e.g., hydrogen spectrum).
Limitation:
Works only for hydrogen-like atoms (single-electron systems).
Quantum Mechanical Model (Modern Atomic Model)
Key Features:
Electrons as Wave-Particles: Electrons have dual nature (particle +
wave).
Orbitals (Probability Clouds): No fixed orbits; electrons exist in orbitals
(3D regions where electrons are likely found).
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: Impossible to know exact position
& momentum of an electron simultaneously. Example: Observing an
electron changes its path.
Visualization:
Think of orbitals as "fuzzy clouds" (not circular orbits).
Summary Table
Model Key Idea Drawback
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Rutherford Nucleus + orbiting electrons Electrons should collapse
Bohr Fixed energy levels Only for H-atom
Quantum Orbitals (probability regions) Complex math, no exact paths
Subatomic Particles
Particle Charge Mass (amu) Location
Proton +1 ~1 Nucleus
Neutron 0 (neutral) ~1 Nucleus
Electron -1 ~1/1836 Electron shells
Behaviour in Electric Fields:
Protons: Deflect toward negative plate.
Electrons: Deflect toward positive plate (more sharply due to lower mass).
Neutrons: No deflection (neutral).
Nuclear Force
Protons repel each other (like charges), yet the nucleus is stable. Strong Nuclear
Force binds protons and neutrons:
Stronger than electrostatic repulsion.
Acts between proton-proton, neutron-neutron, proton-neutron.
Charge Neutrality & Atomic Number (Z)
Atoms are neutral because:
# Protons = # Electrons (e.g., Carbon: 6 protons, 6 electrons).
Atomic Number (Z):
Determines the element’s identity (e.g., Z=6 → Carbon).
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Arranges elements in the periodic table.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with same protons (Z) but different neutrons (→
different mass numbers).
Hydrogen Isotopes:
Protium (¹H): 0 neutrons.
Deuterium (²H): 1 neutron.
Tritium (³H): 2 neutrons (radioactive).
Carbon Isotopes: ¹²C (stable), ¹⁴C (radioactive).
Impact on Dalton’s Theory:
Dalton assumed all atoms of an element are identical, but isotopes
disproved this.
Radioactivity
Unstable Nuclei: Decay to achieve stability (emit particles/energy).
Example: Carbon-14 → Nitrogen-14 (used in carbon dating).
Uranium-238 → Lead-206 (over billions of years).
Relative Atomic Mass (amu)
Standard: Carbon-12 atom = exactly 12 amu.
Examples:
Hydrogen: 1.008 amu. Oxygen: 15.9994 am
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with same protons (Z) but different neutrons (→
different mass numbers).
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Examples:
Hydrogen Isotopes:
Isotope Protons Neutrons Symbol Natural Abundance
Protium 1 0 ¹H 99.99%
Deuterium 1 1 ²H 0.0015%
Tritium 1 2 ³H Rare (radioactive)
Carbon Isotopes: ¹²C (98.8%, stable), ¹³C (1.1%), ¹⁴C (0.009%, used in carbon
dating).
Chlorine Isotopes: ³⁵Cl (75.77%), ³⁷Cl (24.23%).
Uranium Isotopes: ²³⁴U (0.006%), ²³⁵U (0.72%, nuclear fuel), ²³⁸U (99.27%).
Key Points:
Same chemical properties (same protons/electrons).
Different physical properties (e.g., density, melting point).
Calculating Relative Atomic Mass
Formula:
The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated from the relative masses
of its isotopes and their relative abundance
Calculate Relative Atomic Mass of Carbon
Uses of Isotopes
Isotope Application
¹⁴C Carbon dating (age of fossils).
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¹³¹I Diagnosing thyroid disorders.
⁶⁰Co Cancer treatment (radiation therapy).
²⁴Na Detecting blood flow obstructions.
Cations & Anions
Cations (+ve ions): Formed when atoms lose electrons (metals).
Example:
o Na → Na⁺ + e⁻ (loses 1 electron).
o Mg → Mg²⁺ + 2e⁻ (loses 2 electrons).
Anions (-ve ions): Formed when atoms gain electrons (non-metals).
Example:
o O + 2e⁻ → O²⁻ (gains 2 electrons).
o F + e⁻ → F⁻ (gains 1 electron).
o
Key Rule: Ions achieve noble gas configuration (stable octet).
Electronic Configuration
Shells (n):
K (n=1), L (n=2), M (n=3), etc. → Higher n = higher energy.
Subshells:
Subshell Max Electrons
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14
Order of Filling (Aufbau Principle):
1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → ...
Example for Oxygen (Z=8):
1s2, 2s2, 2p4
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