SCAFFOLDING
ANNE WEST (THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA), JANET SWANSON, AND LINDSAY LIPSCOMB
What is Scaffolding?
The term ‘scaffolding’ comes from the works of Wood, Bruner and Ross
(1976). The term ‘scaffolding’ was developed as a metaphor to describe the
type of assistance offered by a teacher or peer to support learning. In the
process of scaffolding, the teacher helps the student master a task or concept
that the student is initially unable to grasp independently. The teacher offers
assistance with only those skills that are beyond the student’s capability.
Of great importance is allowing the student to complete as much of the task
as possible, unassisted. The teacher only attempts to help the student with
tasks that are just beyond his current capability. Student errors are expected,
but, with teacher feedback and prompting, the student is able to achieve the
task or goal. When the student takes responsibility for or masters the task,
the teacher begins the process of “fading”, or the gradual removal of the
scaffolding, which allows the student to work independently.
“Scaffolding is actually a bridge used to build upon what students
already know to arrive at something they do not know. If scaffolding is
properly administered, it will act as an enabler, not as a
disabler” (Benson, 1997).
Many different facilitative tools can be utilized in scaffolding student learning.
Among them are: breaking the task into smaller, more manageable parts;
using ‘think aloud, or verbalizing thinking processes when completing a
task; cooperative learning, which promotes teamwork and dialogue
among peers; concrete prompts, questioning; coaching; cue cards or
modeling.
Others might include the activation of background knowledge, giving
tips, strategies, cues and procedures. Teachers have to be mindful of
keeping the learner in pursuit of the task while minimizing the learner’s
stress level. Skills, or tasks too far out of reach can lead a student to his
frustration level, and tasks that are too simple can cause much the same
effect.
Each facilitative method used is chosen as an individually tailored
instructional tool. Teachers have to have open dialogue with the students to
determine what and how they are thinking in order to clear up
misconceptions and to individualize instruction.
Crucial to successful scaffolding is an understanding of the student’s prior
knowledge and abilities. The teacher must ascertain what the student already
knows so that it can be “hooked”, or connected to the new knowledge and
made relevant to the learner’s life, thus increasing the motivation to learn.
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
Inherent in scaffolded instruction is Lev Vygotsky’s (1978) idea of the zone of
proximal development. Vygotsky suggests that there are two parts of a
learner’s developmental level: the “actual developmental level” and the
“potential developmental level”. The zone of proximal development is “the
distance between the actual developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration
with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).
The zone of proximal development (ZPD) can also be described as the
area between what a learner can do by himself and that which can be attained
with the help of a ‘more knowledgeable other’ adult or peer. The ‘more
knowledgeable other’, or MKO, shares knowledge with the student to
bridge the gap between what is known and what is not known. Once the
student has expanded his knowledge, the actual developmental level has been
expanded and the ZPD has shifted. The ZPD is always changing as the student
expands and gains knowledge, so scaffolded instruction must constantly be
individualized to address the changing ZPD of each student.
It was Vygotsky’s belief that “good learning” occurs in the child’s zone of
proximal development. Important to teaching in the ZPD is the determination
of what the student can manage on his own and to allow the student to do as
much as possible without any assistance. “Fading” is the process of gradually
removing the scaffolding that was put into place for the child until it is
completely gone. Eventually, the child internalizes the information and
becomes a self-regulated, independent learner.
Until students can demonstrate task mastery of new or difficult tasks, they are
given more assistance or support from a teacher or a more knowledgeable
other (MKO). As the learner moves toward mastery, the assistance or support
is gradually decreased in order to shift the responsibility for learning from the
MKO to the learner (Larkin, 2002). Zhao and Orey (1999) summarize,
“scaffolding is a metaphor to characterize a special type of instructional
process which works in a task-sharing situation between the teacher and the
learner.” The authors further delineate this basic idea into two key aspects (or
rules):
“(a) help the learner with those aspects of the task that the learner cannot
manage yet; and
(b) allow the learner to do as much as he or she can without help” (p. 6).
Characteristics and Critical Features of Scaffolded Instruction
Lange (2002) states that there are two major steps involved in instructional
scaffolding: (1) “development of instructional plans to lead the students from
what they already know to a deep understanding of new material,” and (2)
“execution of the plans, wherein the instructor provides support to the
students at every step of the learning process.”
In an appropriate scaffolding process, there will be specific identifiable
features that are in place to allow facilitation of assisting the learner in
internalizing the knowledge until mastery occurs. Applebee and Langer
(1983), as cited by Zhao and Orey (1999), identify these five features as:
Intentionality: The task has a clear overall purpose driving any separate
activity that may contribute to the whole.
Appropriateness: Instructional tasks pose problems that can be solved
with help but which students could not successfully complete on their own.
Structure: Modeling and questioning activities are structured around a
model of appropriate approaches to the task and lead to a natural
sequence of thought and language.
Collaboration:The teacher’s response to student work recasts and
expands upon the students’ efforts without rejecting what they have
accomplished on their own. The teacher’s primary role is collaborative
rather than evaluative.
Internalization: External scaffolding for the activity is gradually
withdrawn as the patterns are internalized by the students (p. 6).
Larkin (2002) states, “Scaffolding is one of the principles of effective
instruction that enables teachers to accommodate individual student
needs.”
In keeping with this theory, it can be seen that instruction must also be
tailored around “contingent instruction”, which is a term identified by
Reichgerlt, Shadbolt, Paskiewica, Wood, & Wood (1993) as cited by Zhao and
Orey (1999).
The teacher or MKO realizes that the amount of instructional support
given is dependent upon the outcome of the previous assistance.
If a learner is unable to complete a task after an intervention by the MKO,
then he or she is immediately given a more specific directive.
Equally, if the learner is successful with an intervention, then he or she is
given a less explicit directive the next time he or she needs assistance.
Next, the instructor or MKO must recognize that the instructional
intervention must be specific to the task the learner is currently
attempting to complete.
Finally, the teacher must keep in the forefront of the process that the
student must be given ample time to apply the directive or to try a new
move him/herself before additional intervention is supplied.
Six General Elements of Scaffolded Instruction
1 – Sharing a Specific Goal
It is the teacher’s responsibility to establish the shared goal. However, the
learner’s interests must be recruited or enlisted through the teacher’s ability
to communicate with the learner and achieve intersubjectivity (sharing
intentions, perceptions, feelings and conceptions) (Zhao & Orey, 1999). The
teacher must do some pre-assessment of the student and the curriculum.
Achievement of curriculum objectives is planned as the teacher considers the
needs of each student. The teacher must be considerate of some of the
unique, unusual, and often ineffective problem-solving techniques that
children use. Allowing input from the student on the shared goal will enhance
intrinsic motivation.
It will also help control the frustration level of the learner as he or she will
feel that their interests have been validated. It will assist the learner in
establishing a desire to master the goal where success is contingent upon
one’s own ability in developing new skills. In this manner, the process of
learning itself is esteemed, and the attainment of mastery is seen as being
directly correlated with the effort put forth.
2 -Whole Task Approach
In the Whole Task Approach, the focus is on the overall goal to be attained
throughout the entire process. Consequently, the task is learned as a whole
instead of a set of individual sub-skills. Each feature of the lesson is learned
as it relates to the whole task. This approach lessens the amount of passive
knowledge on the part of the learner and the need for transfer is not as great.
It must be noted that this approach is only effective if the learner does not
experience extreme difficulty with any of the component skills needed to
complete the whole task. Imagine how difficult it would be to scaffold a child
in telling time if they could not identify the numbers 1 through 12.
3 – Immediate Availability of Help
Frequent success is important in scaffolding, especially in helping control
frustration levels of the learner. Student successes may be experienced more
often if the MKO provides assistance in a timely and effective manner so as to
enable the learner to proceed with the task. These successes, in turn, help to
increase motivation through a positive self-efficacy and make the learner’s
time and effort more productive. This procedure directly corresponds to the
first rule of scaffolding as defined by Zhao & Orey (1999), which is to assist
the learner with those tasks he/she is not yet able to carry out on his/her own.
4 – Intention-assisting
It is central to the scaffolding process to supply assistance to the learner’s
present focus, thereby helping the learner with his/her current difficulties. In
providing this immediate help with the current task at hand, a more
productive learning environment is fostered because information has been
related and conferred according to the learner’s focus keeping the learner in
pursuit of the task.
However, it is often necessary to redirect the intentions of the learner if they
do not represent an effective strategy for completing the task. The teacher or
MKO must be cognizant that there are numerous ways of accomplishing a
certain task. If the learner’s current path is effective, it should be accepted as
it is the essence of scaffolding to help the learner proceed with the least
amount of assistance as possible. If the MKO finds him/herself consistently
helping a learner with low level intentions, it may be a good idea to turn to
coaching as a strategy to help the learner progress. This is beneficial in that it
helps the learner examine the task from a different perspective so as to
encourage higher level thinking skills.
5 – Optimal Level of Help
What the learner is able to do should be matched with the level of assistance
provided. The learner should be given just enough help to overcome the
current obstacle, but the level of assistance should not hinder the learner
from contributing and participating in the learning process of that particular
task. In other words, the assistance should only attend to the areas of the task
that he/she cannot accomplish on his/her own. No intervention should be
made if the current task is within the learner’s capabilities. However, if the
learner lacks the necessary skills, a demonstration is needed.
6 – Conveying an Expert Model
An expert model can provide an explicit example of the task as the expert way
of accomplishing the task. The techniques for accomplishing the task are
clearly expressed. In an implicit demonstration, the information is outlined
around the expert model.
Methods of Instructional Scaffolding
Lange (2002) states that based on the work of Hogan and Pressley (1997)
there are five different methods in instructional scaffolding: modeling of
desired behaviors, offering explanations, inviting students to participate,
verifying and clarifying student understandings, and inviting students to
contribute clues. These techniques are used to direct students toward self-
regulation and independence.
The first step in instructional scaffolding is usually modeling. Lange
(2002) cites Hogan and Pressley (1997) as defining modeling as, “teaching
behavior that shows how one should feel, think or act within a given
situation.” There are three types of modeling. Think-aloud modeling gives
auditory substance to the thought processes associated with a task. For
example, a teacher might verbalize her thought processes for breaking an
unfamiliar word down into its parts so that it can be read.
Talk-aloud modeling involves verbalizing the thought process or problem-
solving strategy while demonstrating the task. An example would be a teacher
verbally describing her thought processes as she demonstrates the correct
way to subtract two-digit numbers on the board. Lastly, there is performance
modeling. Performance modeling requires no verbal instruction. For example,
a baseball coach might show one of his players how to get under a ball to
catch it (Lange, 2002).
As well as modeling, the instructor needs to offer explanations. These
explanations should openly address the learner’s comprehension about what
is being learned, why and when it is used, and how it is used (Lange, 2002).
At the beginning, explanations are detailed and comprehensive and repeated
often. As the learner progresses in his knowledge, explanations may consist of
only key words and prompts to help the learner remember important
information.
For example, when teaching children how to identify adjectives in a sentence,
the teacher will need to lead the children through learning the detailed
definition of an adjective in the beginning. The instructor may have to repeat
or rephrase this thorough explanation many times during guided practice. As
the students gain experience, the teacher might just prompt the students with
words like “what kind”, “which one” and “how many.”
Lange (2002) next addresses inviting student participation, especially in
the early stages of scaffolding. This technique will heighten student
engagement and ownership in the learning process. It will also provide the
instructor with an opportunity to emphasize or correct understandings of the
task. This leads us to verifying and clarifying student understandings. As
students become familiar with new material, it is key for the teacher to
evaluate student understanding and provide positive and corrective feedback.
Points to Consider When Implementing Instructional Scaffolding:
Larkin (2002) suggests that teachers can follow a few effective techniques of
scaffolding:
Begin by boosting confidence. Introduce students first to tasks they can
perform with little or no assistance. This will improve self-efficacy. Provide
enough assistance to allow students to achieve success quickly. This will help
lower frustration levels and ensure that students remain motivated to advance
to the next step.
This will also help guard against students giving up due to repeated failures.
Help students “fit in.” Students may actually work harder if they feel as if they
resemble their peers. Avoid boredom. Once a skill is learned, don’t overwork
it. Look for clues that the learner is mastering the task.
The scaffolding should be removed gradually and then removed
completely when mastery of the task is demonstrated.
Applications of Scaffolding
Scaffolding is used in a very wide range of situations. Mothers naturally
employ this approach as they teach their children how to live in and enjoy
their world. Teachers, from Pre-K to Adult Education appreciate the necessity
and increased learning afforded by the use of these techniques.
Non-traditional educational settings, such as business training scenarios and
athletic teams, also use these methods to assure the success of their
employees and/or members. Teachers and trainers can even use the
techniques and strategies of scaffolding without even knowing the name of
this useful method. It is a very natural approach to ensure the learning of the
student.
Pre – School (Toddlers)
Morelock, Brown and Morrissey (2003) noted in their study that mothers
adapt their scaffolding to the perceived abilities of their children. The mothers
scaffold interactions at play by modeling or prompting behaviors which they
see demonstrated by their child or just beyond the level demonstrated. For
instance, the very young child is playing with blocks by stacking them on top
of each other.
The mother attracts the child’s attention and models how to “build” a wall or
bridge by stacking them in a different way and using a toy person or truck to
climb the wall or ride over the bridge. She then watches and assists as
needed until the child appropriates the skill or loses interest and moves on to
something else. She will try again the next time the child is playing with the
blocks or try another construction which she feels will be more attractive to
the child.
The study further suggested that the mother will adapt her scaffolding
behavior to the needs of her child. If she sees that the child is imaginative and
creative, she will then scaffold beyond the apparent skill level exhibited.
Conversely, if she perceives that the child is less attentive or exhibits
behaviors which are not easy to decipher, she will then demonstrate new
skills instead of extensions to the skills already present. The authors suggest
that this could be a possible early indicator of giftedness.
Pre-K through Grade 5 (Elementary School)
An elementary math teacher is introducing the addition of two-digit numbers.
She first solicits the students’ interest by using a “hook” such as an
interesting story or situation. Then she reduces the number of steps for initial
success by modeling, verbally talking through the steps as she works and
allowing the students to work with her on the sample problems.
An overhead projector is a great tool for this activity because the teacher is
able to face the class while she works the problems. She can then pick up
non-verbal cues from the class as she works. The students’ interest is held by
asking them to supply two-digit numbers for addition, playing “Stump the
Teacher”. She takes this opportunity for further modeling of the skills and
verbally presenting the process as she works through these problems.
The students are then allowed to work several problems independently as the
teacher watches and provides assistance where needed. The success rate is
increased by providing these incremental opportunities for success. Some
students may require manipulatives to solve the problems and some may
require further “talking through” the procedures. These strategies may be
applied individually or in small groups.
More challenging problems can then be added to the lesson. Further explicit
modeling and verbalization will be required. Some students will be able to
work independently while some will require more assistance and scaffolding.
She will begin to fade the scaffolding as soon as she is sure that the students
can effectively function alone.
Upper Grades (6-12)
Banaszynski (2000) provides another example of instructional scaffolding in
his article about a project in which a group of eighth-grade history students in
Wisconsin examined the Revolutionary War from two points of view—
American and British. He began by guiding his students as they undertook a
sequential series of activities in order to thoroughly investigate the opposing
reactions to causes of the war. Then students contributed to a class timeline
which detailed causes, actions and reactions. Banaszynski describes how
work continued:
“After the timeline was completed, the students were arranged in groups, and
each group did a critical analysis of primary-source material, focusing on the
efforts each side made to avoid the war. This started students thinking about
what the issues were and how each side handled them. The next step was to
ask a question: Did the colonists have legitimate reasons for going to war
against Great Britain? [I] asked each group to choose either the Patriot or
Loyalist position and spend a day searching the Internet for primary sources
and other materials to support their positions.”
The instructor continued scaffolding by interviewing the groups to probe for
misconceptions, need for redirection, or re-teaching. Students later compared
research and wrote essays that were analyzed and evaluated by fellow
students using rubrics; groups then composed essays that included the
strongest arguments from the individual works.
The project, Banaszynski says, was an enormous success; students began the
unit working as individuals reliant upon him for instruction. As work
proceeded, the feedback framework was altered so that students were
guiding each other and, in turn, themselves. Banaszynski’s role in guiding the
research and leading the reporting activities faded as the project continued
and requirements became more complicated. As a result, students were able
to appreciate their mastery of both materials and skills.
Challenges and Benefits of Scaffolding
As with any other learning theory or strategy, there are challenges and
benefits to scaffolding. Understanding and comparing both will assist the
educational, professional or trainer in their assessment of the usefulness of
the strategies and techniques as well as allow for comprehensive planning
before implementation. The challenges are real but can be overcome with
careful planning and preparation.
Challenges:
Very time consuming
Lack of sufficient personnel
Potential for misjudging the zone of proximal development; success hinges
on identifying the area that is just beyond but not too far beyond the
students’ abilities
Inadequately modeling the desired behaviors, strategies or activities
because the teacher has not fully considered the individual student’s
needs, predilections, interests, and abilities (such as not showing a student
how to “double click” on an icon when using a computer)
Full benefits not seen unless the instructors are properly trained
Requires the teacher to give up control as fading occurs
Lack of specific examples and tips in teacher’s editions of textbooks
When assessing the benefits of scaffolding, it is necessary to consider the
context in which you wish to implement the strategies and techniques.
Additionally, you must know the learners and evaluate their particular needs
first.
Benefits:
Possible early identifier of giftedness
Provides individualized instruction
Greater assurance of the learner acquiring the desired skill, knowledge or
ability
Provides differentiated instruction
Delivers efficiency – Since the work is structured, focused, and glitches
have been reduced or eliminated prior to initiation, time on task is
increased and efficiency in completing the activity is increased.
Creates momentum – Through the structure provided by scaffolding,
students spend less time searching and more time on learning and
discovering resulting in quicker learning
Engages the learner
Motivates the learner to learn
Minimizes the level of frustration for the learner
Scaffolding vs. Differentiation
As a general instructional strategy, scaffolding shares many similarities
with differentiation, which refers to a wide variety of teaching techniques and
lesson adaptations that educators use to instruct a diverse group of students,
with diverse learning needs, in the same course, classroom, or learning
environment. Because scaffolding and differentiation techniques are used to
achieve similar instructional goals—i.e., moving student learning and
understanding from where it is to where it needs to be—the two approaches
may be blended together in some classrooms to the point of being
indistinguishable.
That said, the two approaches are distinct in several ways. When teachers
scaffold instruction, they typically break up a learning experience, concept, or
skill into discrete parts, and then give students the assistance they need to
learn each part. For example, teachers may give students an excerpt of a
longer text to read, engage them in a discussion of the excerpt to improve
their understanding of its purpose, and teach them the vocabulary they need
to comprehend the text before assigning them the full reading.
Alternatively, when teachers differentiate instruction, they might give some
students an entirely different reading (to better match their reading level and
ability), give the entire class the option to choose from among several texts
(so each student can pick the one that interests them most), or give the class
several options for completing a related assignment (for example, the
students might be allowed to write a traditional essay, draw an illustrated
essay in comic-style form, create a slideshow “essay” with text and images, or
deliver an oral presentation).
The following examples will serve to illustrate a few common scaffolding strategies:
The teacher gives students a simplified version of a lesson,
assignment, or reading, and then gradually increases the
complexity, difficulty, or sophistication over [Link] achieve the
goals of a particular lesson, the teacher may break up the lesson into a
series of mini-lessons that progressively move students toward stronger
[Link] example, a challenging algebra problem may be broken
up into several parts that are taught successively. Between each mini-
lesson, the teacher checks to see if students have understood the concept,
gives them time to practice the equations, and explains how the math
skills they are learning will help them solve the more challenging problem
(questioning students to check for understanding and giving them time to
practice are two common scaffolding strategies). In some cases, the
term guided practice may be used to describe this general technique.
The teacher describes or illustrates a concept, problem, or process
in multiple ways to ensure understanding. A teacher may orally
describe a concept to students, use a slideshow with visual aids such as
images and graphics to further explain the idea, ask several students to
illustrate the concept on the blackboard, and then provide the students
with a reading and writing task that asks them articulate the concept in
their own words. This strategy addresses the multiple ways in which
students learn—e.g., visually, orally, kinesthetically, etc.—and increases
the likelihood that students will understand the concept being taught.
Students are given an exemplar or model of an assignment they will
be asked to complete. The teacher describes the exemplar assignment’s
features and why the specific elements represent high-quality work. The
model provides students with a concrete example of the learning goals
they are expected to achieve or the product they are expected to
[Link], a teacher may also model a process—for example, a
multistep science experiment—so that students can see how it is done
before they are asked to do it themselves (teachers may also ask a student
to model a process for her classmates).
Students are given a vocabulary lesson before they read a difficult
text. The teacher reviews the words most likely to give students trouble,
using metaphors, analogies, word-image associations, and other strategies
to help students understand the meaning of the most difficult words they
will encounter in the text. When the students then read the assignment,
they will have greater confidence in their reading ability, be more
interested in the content, and be more likely to comprehend and
remember what they have read.
The teacher clearly describes the purpose of a learning activity, the
directions students need to follow, and the learning goals they are
expected to achieve. The teacher may give students a handout with step-
by-step instructions they should follow, or provide the scoring guide
or rubric that will be used to evaluate and grade their work. When
students know the reason why they are being asked to complete an
assignment, and what they will specifically be graded on, they are more
likely to understand its importance and be motivated to achieve the
learning goals of the assignment. Similarly, if students clearly understand
the process they need to follow, they are less likely to experience
frustration or give up because they haven’t fully understood what they are
expected to do.
The teacher explicitly describes how the new lesson builds on the
knowledge and skills students were taught in a previous lesson. By
connecting a new lesson to a lesson the students previously completed, the
teacher shows students how the concepts and skills they already learned
will help them with the new assignment or project (teachers may describe
this general strategy as “building on prior knowledge” or “connecting to
prior knowledge”). Similarly, the teacher may also make explicit
connections between the lesson and the personal interests and
experiences of the students as a way to increase understanding or
engagement in the learning process. For example, a history teacher may
reference a field trip to a museum during which students learned about a
particular artifact related to the lesson at hand. For a more detailed
discussion, see the relevance. (Scaffolding, 2015)
References
Lipscomb, A. Swanson, J. & West, A.(2010) Emerging Perspectives on
Learning, Teaching, and Technology, Global Text, Michael Orey. Chapter 21.
Retrieved
from [Link]
[Link] (CC BY)