Upon completion of this Topic, you should be able to:

• Define what is learning and cognition

• Trace the origin of psychology
• Compare philosophy and psychology in explaining human learning
• List the branches of psychology
• Compare the various research methods in psychology
• Identify the differences between the teacher as theorist and teacher as
practioner-researcher
• Compare the various definition of learning

1.1 WHAT IS LEARNING?

The moment a human is born he or she is learning until death. Human are
learning machines who are continuously learning all sorts of things such as learning the
alphabet, learning to dance, learning a foreign language or trying to remember
someone’s name. If you were to ask someone What is learning? you are likely to get
different replies. Saljo (1979) asked a number of students what they understood by
‘learning’. There were so many different responses and he classified them into the
following five categories:

1. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge ‘knowing a lot’

2. Learning is memorising; storing information that can be reproduced.
3. Learning is acquiring facts, skills and methods that is retained and used when
necessary.
4. Learning is making sense or extracting meaning; involves relating parts of
subject matter to each other and to the real world.
5. Learning is interpreting, understanding and re-interpreting knowledge.

You will notice that statements 1, 2 and 3 imply that learning is the acquisition of a
body of knowledge or content. It is like going to the supermarket, when you go out to
buy knowledge and it becomes you property. This has been referred to as the product
of learning. Statements 4 and 5 define learning as something the learner does with the
information. This has been referred to as the process of learning.

a) Learning as a Product
Learning is seen as an outcome or the end product of some process which can
be recognised. Learning is defined as a change in behaviour. Prior to learning the
organism is not able to perform a particular task, but after learning the organism is able

1
to perform the task. In other words, learning has taken place and there is a change in
behaviour. For example, before the lesson, students did not know about the formation
of a tsunami, but after the lesson students know about the formation of a tsunami. The
overt change in behaviour is observed when students express their understanding of the
formation of a tsunami either orally or in an essay.

Product

LEARNING

Process

Figure 1.6 Learning as a Product and Process

b) Learning as a Process
When learning is seen as a process, the focus is on what happens when learning
takes place. Are people conscious of what is going on when they are learning
something? Are they aware that they are engaged in learning? Can they identify the
processes involved when learning something? For example, to understand the facts
relating to the policies of Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tun Abdul Razak Hussein, learners
could use the process skill of comparison to deepen their understanding of the subject
matter. Most disciplines or subject areas have their own process skills and when
appropriately applied by learners, enhances their acquisition of the facts, concepts and
principles of the respective content.

c) Definitions of Learning by Scholars

The following are some definitions of learning by scholars in the field:

• Jerome Bruner: Learning is an active process in which learners construct new

ideas or concepts based on current and past knowledge.

• B.F. Skinner: Learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. The

probability of learning occurring is enhanced when there is reinforcement.

• Albert Bandura: Learning occurs when individuals observe and imitated

other’s behaviour.

• Lev Vygotsky: Learning is determined by interaction with the surrounding

culture and people such as parents, peers and significant others.

• Howard Gardner: People learn and understand the world through at least
seven ways: verbal-linguistic, visual-spatial, logical-mathematical, body-
kinaesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal and intrapersonal.

2
 • Jean Piaget: Learning occurs through the process of assimilation and
accommodation with one’s schemas and constantly seeking equilibrium
between these processes.

• David Ausubel: Learning occurs when new material is related or subsumed

with one’s existing cognitive structure.

• F. Craik and R. Lockhart: Information is processed at multiple levels. The

‘deeper’ the processing, the more that information will be remembered because
of its many associations with existing knowledge.

• W. Kohler: Problem solving is facilitated when an individual gets an insight

into the overall structure of the problem.

1.1 ACTIVITY
a) What is the difference between the product and process of
learning?
b) To what extent do the definitions of learning reflect what
you do as a teacher, instructor or trainer?
c) Ask a group of your colleagues about their definition of
learning?

1.2 WHAT IS COGNITION?

The term cognition is from the Latin word cogito which means to think. It has
been variously defined. In a wider sense it means the act of knowing or knowledge, and
may be interpreted in a social or cultural sense to describe the emergent development
of knowledge and concepts that culminates in both thought and action. More precisely
in psychology it refers to the mental processes of an individual, The mind has internal
mental states such as beliefs, desires and intentions which interacts with the knowledge,
skills and values gained through comprehension, thinking, knowing, remembering,
judging, and problem solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and
encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning (Wagner, 2008).
Cognition is the process or result of recognizing, interpreting, judging, and
reasoning and according to Vernon (2006), it is concerned with being able to understand
what is going on around oneself and being able to adapt and improvise accordingly. It
implies an ability to understand how things might possibly be, not now but at some
future time, and take this into consideration. Remembering what happened at some
point in the past can help in anticipating future events, so memory is important too:
using the past to predict the future 3 and then assimilating what does actually happen to

3
adapt and improve the system's anticipatory ability in a virtuous cycle that is embedded
in an on-going process of action and perception (see illustration).
Cognition has also been defined in the most basic terms cognition is the action
of the brain or mind to understand the world around and to determine an appropriate
action. Cognition requires the adoption of many activities. For example, you need to
perceive the world around you, remember past events to compare present events to,
select the important parts of the world to attend to, store what has been learned from
the current experience for later use, understand and transmit language and so forth [We
will discuss in more depth about cognition in Chapters 3 and 4]. The following are some
general definitions of cognition:
• The Ohio State University Medical Centre: - Cognition involves mental
functions such as the ability to think, reason, and remember.
• Boston Children’s Hospital – Cognition is the act of perceiving,
thinking, reasoning and analyzing.
• Brain Tumour Foundation: Cognition is a generic term involving
perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, sensing, reasoning,
remembering and imagining.
• American Accounting Association: Cognition is the process by which a
person learns; it involves strategies for processing information, prior
knowledge about content, and problem-solving and thinking skills.
• Neuro Jargon: Cognition is the process or processes by which an
organism gains knowledge of or becomes aware of events or objects in
its environment and uses that knowledge for comprehension and
problem-solving.

1.2 ACTIVITY
Examine the different definitions of cognition and extract
the common words describing the concept. Do you agree
with the various definitions?

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 The human being (Homo sapiens) is an unattractive smelly and aggressive creature that
walks upright, grumbling and bellowing. It is one of many species that lives on this
planet and emerges among the worst adapted. Its’ young is helpless compared to other
species. It has lost most of its bodily hair and what is left is little protection against
the cold. Its eyesight is weaker that that of many other species, and its sense of smell
responds only to the strongest odours. If pursued, it can only run a very short distance,
that also very slowly. It is remarkably unskilled at climbing trees or digging holes. It
cannot live under water and it swims with less grace than almost any other animal. It
is heavy and awkward and cannot fly. It can’t even jump very high. It is unequipped by
nature with weapons either for defence or killing for food. It is absolutely remarkable
and utterly fascinating that the species has survived at all.
[source: adaptation of Guy R. Lefrancois, Psychology for Teaching, 1982. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Publishing Company. p.6]

Yes, it is truly remarkable that we have survived all these years. The humorous
description by Lefrancois is something to think about. How has the physically inferior
human being survived? It has survived because of its God-given capacity to THINK.
This capacity to think has enabled the human being to overcome its many deficiencies.
For example, the human who is not naturally endowed with weapons invented spears,
bows and arrows to hunt animals for food. Human eyesight is inferior compared to other
species and it invented the telescope. Humans are less strong than many other species
and invented the pulley and lever to lift heavy things. The capacity to think has
enhanced our ability to survive which simply means learning to cope with the world.
Bruner (1960) sees human survival as a process of amplifying capacities and
reducing inadequacies. Humans began with amplification of motor capabilities with the
invention of simple machines (wheel, pulley) followed by amplification of sensory
capacities with the invention of telescopes, radio and television, and culminating in the
amplification of intellectual capacities with the invention of theory. Humans used their
intellectual capacities to propose concepts, principles, theories and laws to explain and
understand various phenomena in their environment. Among the many phenomena
humans are attempting to unravel is to understand their own behaviour (and the
behaviour of other species). This gave birth to the discipline called psychology.

a) Definition of Psychology

5
 ‘Psychology’, an ancient Greek word made up of psyche which is the mind or
the soul while logy means study. Simply put, psychology is the study of the mind or the
soul. Many psychologists prefer to focus on the mind and leave the issue of the soul to
theology and the great religions of the world. Though it is largely concerned with the
study of humans, the behaviour of animals is also studied. In fact, many of the earlier
theories of psychology originated from studies conducted with rats, pigeons, cats,
monkeys and dogs. These theories have been used to describe human behaviour and
have influenced educational practice.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines psychology as the scientific study of the
human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behavior in a given context.
The American Heritage Dictionary defines psychology as the science that deals with
mental processes and behavior. It also includes the study of the emotional and
behavioral characteristics of an individual or group. In short, psychology may be
defined as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. There are 3 key word
and phrases in these definitions, namely; scientific, behaviour and mental processes.

• The first is the term scientific which means studies using the scientific method.
The scientific method proposed by Dewey (1922) comprises the following
steps:
1. A statement of the problem and identification of the hypotheses to be tested.
2. The design of the study and employment of data collection techniques to
answer the research question or hypothesis.
3. The collection and analysis of data.
4. Report of the findings and decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis.

• The second term is behaviour which relates to whatever activity (by a human or
animal) that can be observed, measured and recorded. Behaviour is also
observed to occur when individuals speak or write something. For example, a
person who records his or her fear or attitude is a manifestation of behaviour.

• The third term is mental processes include all processes involved in thinking,
memory, learning, attitudes, emotions and so forth. This has become the focus
of many psychologists but the problem is that these processes cannot be
observed and are difficult to record and measure accurately. [This is an issue
that will be discussed later in the chapter].

b) The Psychologist and the Scientist

Both the psychologist studying human behaviour and the scientist studying the
physical word use the scientific method. However, for the psychologist, humans
possess neither the simplicity nor the predictability of the physical world. Even the
behaviour of a cat or dog is unpredictable! The physicist, the chemist and even the
biologist, employing the scientific method has been able to discover great theories and
laws explaining the behaviours of physical matter, molecules, cells and so forth. These
explanations are more stable, precise and replicable. The psychologist is still struggling
with having to discover a single, precise and magnificent law explaining the behaviour
of a human or even a rat.
Even though the scientific method is widely used in psychology, researchers
have to make various kinds of inferences and interpretations. Why? This is because the
subjects studied are humans. Compared to cells or chemicals studied by scientists,
humans are comparatively less stable (see Figure 1.1). Studying the behaviours of

6
humans is more complicated because of the influence of extraneous variables that are
difficult to control. Oftentimes it requires researchers to make inferences or
interpretation because the data is comparatively less clear-cut.

The Scientific Method used

in chemistry and psychology. I don’t
I go it! get it!

Figure 1.1 The Scientific Method used by the Scientist and the Psychologist

SELF-CHECK 1.1
a) Trace the origin of the word ‘psychology’?
b) Explain the 3 key attributes of the definition of psychology.
c) Discuss the main issue concerning the scientist studying
physical phenomena and the psychologist studying human
behaviour?

1.3 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

a) The Roots of Psychology

Psychology is interested in the nature of humans and how human beings
function. However, psychology is by no means the only field of inquiry that seeks
answers to the puzzles of human nature. The roots of psychology can be traced to the
ancient philosopher based on their early records to understand psychology. The earliest
roots of modern psychology can be traced to two different approaches to human
behaviour: philosophy and physiology (see Figure 1.2). Philosophy explores and
attempts to explain human nature through introspection or self-examination of one’s
experiences. Through a process of self-questioning and asking others questions,
philosophers have attempted to unravel how we think, how we learn, how we gain
knowledge and how we use our experiences. Physiology is the study of the human body

7
and through observation early Greek scholars attempted to understand the workings of
the human body.

Philosophy Physiology

PSYCHOLOGY

Figure 1.2 Roots of Psychology

The First ‘Psychological Experiment”

An ancient King of Egypt, as far back as the seventh
century B.C., can be considered the first psychology
experiment. The king wanted to test whether or not
Egyptian was t he oldest civilization on earth. His idea was
that, if children were raised in isolation from infancy and
were given no instruction in language of any kind, then the
language they spontaneously spoke would be of the original
civilization of man – hopefully, Egyptian.

The experiment, itself, was flawed, but the king deserves credit for his idea
that thoughts and language come from the mind and his ambition to test
such an idea. While the experiment failed to support the king’s hypothesis,
Morton Hunt (1993) suggests that it does illustrate perhaps the first evidence
in written history that as long as 2700 years ago there was at least one
individual who had the “highly original notion” that mental processes could
be systematically investigated and studied.

[source: Morton Hunt, The Story of Psychology, 1993, p.1]

Early philosophers were most concerned with nature of

knowledge or epistemology. In epistemology you ask such
questions as: What is knowledge? What are the origins of
knowledge? What does it mean to know?

• Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), known as the father of modern

medicine argued that there was a close connection between the
mind and the body. He proposed that mental illness was not
caused by demons but caused by physical malfunctions. By Hippocrates
dissecting human cadavers and operating on living organisms, 460-377 B.C
he concluded that the mind controlled the human body. He was
the first to suggest that the mind resides in the brain.

8
• Plato (427-347 B.C.) who lived at about the same time also subscribed to
Hippocrates’ view that the mind and body were separate and the mind was located
in the brain.
➢ He believed that reality did not lie in concrete objects but are represented in
abstract form in our minds. In other words, when we see a chair, the ‘real’
chair exists in our minds. Plato reasoned that the head is the seat of the mind.
➢ Plato was a rationalist who believed that knowledge is gained through
thinking and analysing in an effort to understand the world and people's
relationship to it.
➢ The mind and body interact with one another but they are essentially
different. The mind is superior to the body. Truth is found in our thoughts
(via introspection) not through our senses (via observation).
➢ Plato's view formed the foundation for theorising about psychological
processes, an activity that may or may not lead to subsequent empirical
investigation.

• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) who was Plato’s student disagreed with him on many
points. He argued that the mind and body were NOT separate and felt that the mind
and body are one and the same.
➢ He believed that we understand the mind by studying the body and that we
rely on observation of concrete objects and actions rather than on our own
thoughts (introspection) to discover truth.
➢ He argued that that reality lies only in the concrete world of objects that we
apprehend through our senses.
➢ Aristotle was an empiricist who believed that knowledge is gained by
experience, observation and experimentation. Aristotle's view formed the
foundation for the methods of empirical psychological research.

• Ibn Sina (980-1037), a Muslim philosopher famous for his works on medicine
viewed the human being as consisting of both hidden (sirr) and open (alin)
elements. The hidden part consists of the powers of the mind
while the open part is the human body and its organs (Abd al-
Rahman al Naqib, 1993). The powers of the mind or mental
faculties are classified into three groups:
➢ First, the group of vegetative faculties, in which humans
and plants both share. They are concerned with the
survival of the human being, growth through nutrition,
and preservation of the species through reproduction.
They comprise 3 faculties: feeding, growth and
reproduction. Ibn Sina
➢ Second, the group of faculties shared by humans and 980-1037
animals. They comprise two faculties. One is the
perceptive faculty of the exterior world though the five senses – sight,
hearing, smell, taste and touch. The other faculty is directed from within, by
way of common sense, imagination, memory and reflection.
➢ Third, the group of faculties which distinguish human beings from animals.
They comprise two faculties: an active faculty directing the human’s
practical conduct, and a cognitive faculty directing his or her intellectual
conduct. The first is practical and the second is contemplative.

9
There seems to be consensus among these early philosophers that the mind and body
relationship is important is determining human behaviour. Most psychologists today
agree that the concept of mind and body have merit. But, more important is to provide
empirical evidence to confirm the relationship between mind and body (The History of
Psychology, 2006).

b) The Beginnings of Modern Psychology

• Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a French mathematician and philosopher, took up the

viewpoint that introspection and reflection are investigatory methods superior to
observation. Descartes revived the Platonic ideas of mind-body dualism and
innate (versus acquired) knowledge.
➢ He said that what separates humans from animals is that humans have a non-
material, spiritual mind and a material body. The human mind and its
powers were supreme.
➢ He is known for coining the famous phrase "Cogito ergo sum" (I think
therefore I am).
➢ Though he gave supremacy to the mind, he agreed that the body could
influence the mind. He viewed the mind as superior to the body, and that
there is a two way interaction between mind and body

• John Locke (1632-1704), an Englishman, believed that the interaction between

mind and body is an equal relationship between two aspects of the same unified
phenomenon.
➢ He argued that the mind depends on the body through the senses for its
information while the body depends on the mind to process and store
sensory experiences for later use.
➢ He was also an empiricist and believed that humans are born without
knowledge, which is subsequently acquired through experience and
empirical observation. He proposed the term tabula rasa (blank slate) to
describe this condition. Life and experience, according to Locke, "write"
knowledge on each of us.

• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a German philosopher,

began the process of trying to reconcile or synthesize the
competing viewpoints of mind and body. He redefined
the mind-body question by asking how the mind and body
are related rather than whether the mind is in control.
➢ Kant proposed that humans have a set of faculties
or mental powers - senses, understanding, and
reasoning. These faculties working together
control and provide a link between mind and body
thus integrating the two. Immanuel Kant
➢ Kant believed that to understand the mental faculties 1724-1804 we
must use both rationalistic and empirical approaches.
➢ He believed that there were two types of knowledge: experiential which he
called a posteriori knowledge – meaning from afterward (after the fact) and

10
 a priori (from beforehand) or general knowledge that exists regardless of
one's experience.
➢ An example of the latter type of knowledge would be our knowledge of
time. He argued that understanding requires both types of knowledge; a
priori knowledge permits us to make use of a posteriori knowledge.
➢ For example, with respect to time, we link together our fleeting sensations
into a seemingly continuous stream of existence in which one event precedes
and causes another event (cause and effect relationships). Understanding
involves both nature (innate concepts and abilities) and nurture (knowledge
gained through experience).

The issues confronted by philosophers, physicians, and psychologists are so

intertwined that when psychology was starting out as a field of study in the late 1800's
it was viewed by some as a branch of philosophy and by others as a branch of medicine.
Gradually the psychological branches of philosophy and medicine broke away from
their parent disciplines and psychology increasingly became a distinct, unified scientific
discipline focused on the study of the mind and behaviour.
Contemporary psychology continues to wrestle with the same issues that
philosophers and physiologists wrestled with. As you explore the field you will hear
this continuing debate. Most philosophers agree that human behaviour and mental
processes synchronise to adapt to the environment. Charles Darwin in his theory of
natural selection suggested that only those organisms that adapt well to their
environment thrive. Humans, thus far, both as a species and as individuals have adapted
and thrived.

SELF-CHECK 1.2
a) Discuss some the main issues philosophers were concerned
about with regards to learning.
b) What are some of the commonalities in their arguments about
how humans learn?
behaviour?

c) The Birth of Modern Psychology

The year 1879 is generally regarded as the year in which psychology as a formal
science was officially born. A German scholar named Wilhelm
Wundt (1832-1920), who was trained in both philosophy and
medicine, had written in his first book on sense perception in
1862 that psychology could become science only if it
employed the experimental method in studying the workings
of the mind. In a subsequent publication in 1873, he announced
that that he intended to make psychology a science and he
established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany in 1879. Others in both North America and Europe
were also doing psychological research at this time but
Wundt's laboratory was the first to be formally established and
to have its research results published in a scholarly journal. Wilhelm Wundt
These are among the reasons that he is credited as the primary 1832-1920
founder of the modern discipline of psychology.

11
 Many of America's early psychologists received their training in Wundt's lab.
The focus of research in the Leipzig Laboratory was on sensation, perception, imagery
and attention Wundt doubted that more complex processes could be studied
experimentally. One of Wundt's favourite research methods was "trained
introspection." Wundt and his associates and students trained research subjects to
carefully observe and analyse their own mental experiences – including sensations,
mental images, and emotional reactions - under controlled conditions. The training of
subjects in introspection was rigorous and exhaustive. Wundt hoped that by providing
such training he could produce reliable, verifiable, objective results. In the long run,
however, it proved to be impossible to use introspection to produce reliable results and
the approach was abandoned as a research technique by other psychologists

• Structuralism and Functionalism

In the early days of psychology there were two dominant theoretical
perspectives. Structuralism was the name given to the approach pioneered by Wundt.
The term originated from Edward Titchener, an American psychologist who had been
trained by Wundt. Structuralism relied on trained introspection, a research method
whereby subjects related what was going on in their minds while performing a certain
task. However, it proved to be unreliable method because there was too much individual
variation in the experiences and reports of research
subjects (Wade & Tavris, 2002).
An American psychologist named William James
(1842-1910), developed a competing approach,
which came to be known as functionalism. He
argued that the mind is constantly changing and it
is pointless to look for the building blocks of
experience. Instead, focus should be on how and
why an organism does something (Levin, 2004). It
was suggested that psychologists should look for
the underlying cause of behaviour and the mental
the processes involved. This emphasis on the
‘Introspection’: Looking into causes and consequences of behaviour has influenced contemporary
ourselves and describing psychology.
how we think
• Psychoanalysis
Another early theory in psychology was developed by the Austrian physician,
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Originally trained as a neurologist, Freud became
interested in how psychological factors might contribute to some of his patients'
problems. He became convinced that many of his patients' symptoms had mental rather
than physical explanations. In particular, he believed that early experiences such as
conflicts and traumas had caused such distress for his patients as children that the
memory of them was extremely threatening and therefore the patients were unable to
consciously recall these events.

12
 He believed that even more important than our
conscious thoughts in determining how we react and
respond to events are forces that operate unconsciously.
Such unconscious material as repressed wishes, conflicts,
guilty secrets, yearnings and desires exert a powerful
influence on our behaviour and emotional reactions. Freud
gradually developed his ideas into a broad theory of human
psychological functioning and a method for treating
patients with psychologically based disorders. Both the
theory and the treatment method became known as
psychoanalysis.

• Behaviourism
A very different approach to psychology emerged in the early 1900s. The work
of several scholars contributed to the development and growth of this approach but one
of them, the American John B. Watson (1878-1958) is typically credited as the “father
of behaviourism.” Behaviourism is a theoretical perspective that is based on the premise
that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour. In 1913, he
published an article that has since become known as “The Behaviourist Manifesto”. In
it he argued that psychology should altogether abandon the study of consciousness
(mental processes) and attend only to directly observable and, therefore verifiable,
behaviour [We will discuss further in Chapter 2: Behavioural Learning Theories].
A strict empiricist, Watson proposed a revolutionary re-definition of
psychology. He argued that mental processes were not a proper subject of study for a
scientific discipline because there are private events that cannot be examined by an
impartial observer. He proposed that psychology should instead be the science of
behaviour. Watson’s ideas and the works of Thorndike and B.F. Skinner became the
dominant theoretical perspective in much of psychology from the 1920’s to the 1960’s.

• Cognitivism
The 1960s saw the rejection of behaviourism and the emergence of the cognitive
revolution. The movement composed of psychologists who challenged the prevailing
behaviourist model of human functioning and insisted that focus should shift towards
studying the “interior” mental processes. Using the computer as an analogy, researchers
provided important clues and directions in understanding the human brain how it
perceives, stores and organises information, how information is used to make decisions
and solve problems.
Among the prominent scholars who developed various theories explaining
human cognition were Miller (1956), Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968), Bartlett (1932),
Festinger (1957) and many others [We will discuss further in Chapter 3: Cognitive
Learning Theories and Chapter 4: Information Processing Model]. A broad array of
disciplines such cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence, semiotics,
neuroscience, anthropology and philosophy have contributed to the emergence of what
we now call “cognitive science”.

13
 SELF-CHECK 1.3
a) What is the main difference between structuralism and
functionalism?
b) State one difference between psychoanalysis, behaviourism and
cognitivism?

1.4 BRANCES OF PSYSCHOLOGY

As mentioned earlier, psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental

processes. Psychology as a discipline aims to describe behaviour, explain behaviour,
predict behaviour and control or modify some behaviour. Psychology does not have a
single unifying theoretical perspective. Rather, it is a discipline comprising various
theoretical viewpoints. Sometimes it seems that these perspectives are competing with
each other, but many psychologists tend to agree that the various perspectives
complement each other.

BRANCHES RESEARCH FOCUS

Developmental Psychology The study of changes that accompany age throughout the
life-span of human. These persons are called developmental
psychologists, child psychologists, gerontologists and life-
span psychologists.

Physiological Psychology The study of the biological basis of behaviour focusing on

neuropsychology, psychobiology, genetics and heredity.

Experimental Psychology The study of basic psychological processes involving

learning, memory, perception and emotion.

Personality Psychology The study of differences among individuals, development of

personality types and measurement of personality traits.

Social Psychology The study of how people influence one another and group
behaviour focusing on communication, political behaviour
and the formation of attitudes.

Industrial & Organisational The study of selection and training of personnel,

Psychology improvement of productivity, working conditions, stress and
other worker problems.

Clinical & Counselling Clinical psychology: diagnosis, cause and treatment of

Psychology psychological disorders as well as development of
(Applied Psychology) programmes for the prevention of emotional illness.
Counselling psychology: ‘normal’ problems of adjustments in
life and coping with the problems of daily life.

Evolutionary Psychology The study of the evolutionary origin of behaviours and

characteristics, their adaptive value, how they change over
time to meet the demands of the environment

Cognitive Psychology The study of human intelligence and how people think.

14
 Educational Psychology The study of efforts to improve teaching methods and
materials, solve learning problems, and measurement of
learning ability and educational progress.
Abnormal Psychology The study of behaviour disorders and disturbed individuals
such as the causes of violent or self-destructive behaviour or
the effectiveness of procedures in treating emotional
disturbances.

Figure 1.3 The Different Branches of Psychology and Research Focus

A more complete and accurate picture of human behaviour and mental processes
is better understood by integrating these various perspectives. That being said, it
remains true that individual psychologists tend to specialise in and emphasize a
particular theoretical perspective. Because it considers the mental, attitudinal,
motivational, and behavioral characteristics of individuals, psychology has many
subdivisions and areas of specialization and is a more complex field than many realise.
Among the major branches within psychology is show in Table 1.1. At times
psychologists blend particular combinations of these theoretical perspectives together.
For example, some psychologists are interested in studying how abnormal behaviour is
related to various brain structures. These psychologists might combine perspectives
from physiological psychology and abnormal psychology. Other psychologists might
combine cognitive psychology and social psychology to study how thinking and racial
attitudes and call the perspective social cognition. Still other psychologists might
describe themselves as eclectic in their orientation which means that they draw upon
several theoretical perspectives in their work.
You will notice that ‘learning’ is seldom considered a separate branch of
psychology but is studied specifically within cognitive psychology, educational
psychology, experimental psychology, developmental psychology and counselling
psychology. Learning is also studied indirectly within personality psychology,
abnormal psychology and social psychology. Besides the branches of psychology
listed, there are also newer branches of psychology, each giving a somewhat different
emphasis. Some of these newer branches are; environmental psychology, health
psychology, forensic psychology, race psychology and neuropsychology. As society
becomes more modern and complex, one can expect the emergence of newer branches
of psychology attempting to understand and explain human behaviour is these
environments.

1.5 RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is the study of the mind and behaviour, but not all questions about
the mind or behaviour can be answered in psychology. Psychology, for the most part,
has adopted the scientific method which means that it only studies questions that can be
tested in a precise, objective, publicly verifiable manner. The first step in doing
psychology scientifically is learning to ask testable question. Which of the following
questions can be tested scientifically? Do these questions have to be rewritten to make
them more precise?

Example #1: Do university students remember information longer after

preparing for essay exams than for multiple-choice exams?
Answer: The question is testable but needs to be more precise. What types of
memory? What age group? Are memory tests biased towards one age group over
another?
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Example #2: Are some people born evil?
Answer: This question is not testable because there is no way to measure evilness
 The key in doing research in psychology is science. Science is a way of asking
and answering questions through careful observation and rigorous analysis.
Psychological science attempts to describe and explain human nature. To achieve its
goals, psychology uses a number of methods such as experiments, observation, surveys,
correlational methods and cases histories.

a) EXPERIMENTS
The experimental method is used by psychologists inside the laboratory as well
as outside. Experiments take place in laboratories because the researcher is able to
carefully control conditions and take measurements accurately using various kinds of
instruments such as computers. However, it is not essential that all psychological
problems be brought into the laboratory for study. To show the effects of certain
treatments and procedures in real-world settings, experiments are conducted outside the
laboratory.
An experiment is a research method used to determine the effectiveness of a
particular action or treatment on a single or group of organisms. To show that a
particular treatment has an effect or brings about a particular change, the researcher has
to control all other factors that might influence the occurrence of the particular change.
The experimental method is the best method to show effectiveness of a particular
treatment (eg. teaching method, curriculum innovation). Experiments are ideally suited
for the task of causal analysis (claim to show "cause and effect"). No other method of
scientific inquiry permits the researcher to say with confidence that "X (praising young
learners) caused Y (to repeat the task) to happen". Hence, it is important that you use
the word "effectiveness" carefully, as it only applies if you are using the experimental
method.

PRETEST TREATMENT POSTTEST

(science test) (Teaching using analogies) (science test)

extraneous variable X extraneous variable Z

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 extraneous variable Y

Figure 1.4 A Simple Experiment in Psychology

See Figure 3.1 which shows a simple experiment to determine whether teaching
young learners using analogies (e.g. blood circulation is like a river and its tributaries)
"causes" them to perform better academically in science ("effect"). The experiment
involves administering a treatment (Independent Variable) such as teaching science
using analogies. A pretest (Dependent Variable) is given before the experiment and the
same test or equivalent test is given after the experiment. The differences between
pretest scores and posttest scores will determine whether teaching using analogies
improves performance in science.
A key problem in conducting experiments is establishing suitable control, so
that any change in behaviour can be attributed only to the treatment introduced by the
researcher. Control means ruling out other possible causes for the changes in the
behaviour of subjects (see Figure 3.1). There are many extraneous variables (irrelevant
or unrelated or unconnected factors) that need to be controlled so that they do not
contaminate or interfere with the findings of the study. Once an extraneous variable
creeps into an experiment, the researcher can no longer draw any conclusion regarding
the causal relationship that exists between the independent and the dependent variable
(Christensen, 1988).
In experiments conducted outside the laboratory in natural settings many factors
not related to the treatment may influence performance in the posttest. With reference
to Figure 1.4, some students may have discussed with their friends at home concerning
the science topic, while others may have viewed a programme on the topic on TV. So,
improved performance on the posttest may not be attributed to the treatment but due to
the influence of other factors. Therefore, it is necessary to control for the influence of
these outside factors or variables in order to attain internal validity.
Some experiments have both an experimental group and a control group. An
experimental group consists of subjects who are exposed to the treatment. For example,
a particular counselling technique is used for a group of juvenile delinquents. The
control group consists of subjects who do not receive the treatment (i.e. they are not
‘treated’ with the counselling technique). Comparison between the experimental group
and the control group determines the effectiveness of the counselling technique. In
some experiments there may be more than one experimental group; subjects treated
with two or three different methods or techniques or procedures are compared with the
control group who do not receive any of the treatments. You can also compare the
effectiveness of different treatments on the dependent variable.

b) OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
The observational method of research concerns the planned watching, recording
and analysis of observed behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting. To achieve this aim,
precautions must be taken to avoid interfering with the behaviour. Such precautions
usually include concealment of the observation team and their equipment. For example,
in studying how young children interact socially in preschool situation, investigators
may videotape their behaviour through a one-way mirror so that the children are
unaware that they are being observed. You can well imagine that the children’s
behaviour might change if the investigators were to intrude openly into the situation.

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c) SURVEY
Some problems are difficult to study by direct observation may be studied
through the use of survey questionnaires or interviews. What is a survey? Survey
research involves the studying of large and small
populations selecting and studying samples chosen from
the populations to discover the relative incidence,
distribution and interrelations of sociological and
psychological variables. It is a method of obtaining
information about a population from a sample of
individuals. Surveys can provide a quick, inexpensive
and accurate means of obtaining information from a
large group of people. If you want to know about the
opinions, attitudes and perceptions of respondents, the
survey is an appropriate method of collecting data.
Besides, surveys can also be used to explain the
relationship and differences between variables. The
term sample survey is often used because a sample
which is representative of the target population is used.
The survey method is widely used in psychology.
Basically, information is obtained by asking people
questions either orally or by responding to a written
paper or computer screen concerning: As I was saying…..we
should make a serious
• What they know? (Who was the first Prime effort to improve……..
Minister of Malaysia?) But, on the
As I was other hand, it
saying…..we
is also………
• What they believe? (Should students be given should make a serious
freedom to express themselves?) effort to improve……..
But, on the other hand, it
• What they expect? (Do you think you expect to is also………
be a famous person?)
• What they feel? (Do you think your father was
fair?)
• What they have done? (How often do you use the computer in a week?)
• What they plan? (Do you intend to continue studying or work?)

An adequate survey requires a carefully pre-tested questionnaire, interviewers trained

in its use, a sample of people carefully selected to ensure they are representative of the
population to be studied, and appropriate methods of data analysis, so that the results
can be properly interpreted.

d) CORRELATIONAL METHOD
The correlational method is the technique whereby two of more variables are
systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e. how much one can be
predicted from the other) is assessed. A positive correlation means when one variable
(e.g. stress) increases the other variable (e.g. illness) increases. However, because two
variables correlate, it does not mean that one thing cause the other. For example, stress
and illness correlate, but that does not mean stress causes illness. A negative correlation
means when one variable increase, the other associate variable decreases. For example,
the correlation between the number of cigarettes a person smokes and the number of
years a person can expect to live.

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e) CASE HISTORIES
Scientific biographies, known as case histories, are important sources of data
for psychologists, studying individuals. There can, of course, be case histories of
institutions or groups of people as well. Most case histories are prepared by
reconstructing the biography of a person on the basis of remembered events and
records. Reconstruction is necessary because the individual’s earlier history often does
not become a matter of interest until the person develops some sort of problem; at such
time, knowledge of the past is important to comprehension of present behaviour. The
retrospective method may result in distortions of events or oversights, but is often the
only method available.
Case histories may also be based on a longitudinal study. This type of study
follows an individual or group of individuals over an extended period of time, with
observations made at periodic intervals. The advantage of a longitudinal study is that it
does not depend on the memories of those interviewed at a later date.

SELF-CHECK 1.4
a) List the main differences between the different branches of
contemporary psychology.
b) Describe the research methods used in the study of human
behaviour?

1.6 LEARNING PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

The Teaching Profession and Psychology

What is the difference between a bomoh (medicine man) and a medial
practioner? For example, when approached by a person with high fever both will note
the symptoms and prescribe relevant remedies. The bomoh might suggest that the
patient chew the bark of the chinchona tree which contains quinine while the medical
practioner might prescribe a capsule containing quinine. The method of prescription is
not the issue. The essential difference is the reasons for the given treatment. The
medical practioner will rely on his network of knowledge and procedures based on
science. The bomoh might give a logical explanation stating that it worked in the past
and based on the inductive principle that ‘if such-and-such works for this ailment, it is
likely to work again. The cure rate by bomohs might not differ from your friendly
neighbourhood general practioner. Yet society regards the medical practioner as a
professional and the bomoh as not. What, then, is the difference between a profession
and a craft or trade? According to Telfer and Rees (1975), a profession requires a
licence to practice. It requires intensive education in the theoretical knowledge that
gives validity to the skills and expertise required to practice.
Is teaching a profession? In Malaysia, to be able to teach in government primary
and secondary schools, all teachers require evidence of credentials in education such as
a diploma in education, a certificate in education or a bachelor’s degree in education.
In obtaining these credentials, psychology as the scientific study of learning is taught
as well as various teaching methods.
Does that make teaching is a science? As mentioned by William James in 1899,
“Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art”. The question that arises is whether

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‘teaching as an art’ can use psychology as it underlying theories. Although teaching
may well be an art, there is theory behind the practice of that art, and that theory is
drawn from psychology. Teachers, of course, have to know their subject matter and
together with theoretical knowledge about the nature of learning can claim their art to
be a profession. An educator who does not have an in-depth understanding of
psychology will not appear convincing in explaining the underlying principles for his
or her action in the classroom. At the end of the day, most of what we do in education
is to ensure that THE LEARNER HAS LEARNED. Learning is the core business of
education, and obviously the educator has to know about how humans learn. Regardless
of whether you are an administrator, curriculum developer, counsellor or discipline
teacher, your main task is to ensure that all your actions lead to enhancing student
learning.

Teacher as a Theorist
You may be a teacher in a primary or secondary school. You may be an
instructor or lecturer in a tertiary organisation. You may be a trainer in a business or
industrial organisation. Essentially you are an educator and a professional. A
professional does his or her work based on a set of principles, theories and laws. Hence,
educators need to enhance with theories related to the psychology of learning (see
Figure 1.5)

Psychology of Learning

Teacher as
Teacher as Practioner-
Theorist Researcher

Figure 1.5 Teacher as Theorist & Practioner-Researcher

In this course you will be introduced to a pool of concepts, principles and

theories about human learning. As you read this material, think of yourself as a theorist.
Some teachers, lecturers, instructors or trainers may be of the opinion that theories are
a waste of time as they are ‘still theories’. It should be reiterated that most that is done
in the classroom or lecture hall is based on some theory or principle of human learning.
For example, the idea of giving immediate feedback is based on the theory that
informing students how they are performing motivates them to learn.
It is likely that you have a set of assumptions, beliefs or theories on what
constitutes effective teaching and what steps you have to take to be an effective teacher.
These beliefs and theories serve as your current theoretical base your actions in the
classroom. It would be beneficial if you were to compare your beliefs with the concepts
and theories on learning discussed in this course. Test the accuracy of your assumptions

20
about student learning as you examine the theories proposed by scholars in the field in
the last 100 years.
Perhaps, you may realise that some of your beliefs about student learning are
confirmed while others may be myths. For example, you may assume that low achievers
are not ‘intelligent’ when in fact they lack skills in learning from text material. Some
of our common sense beliefs about student learning may not be accurate in the light of
what we know about theory and research governing human learning. For example, we
may think that it is alright to ‘stream’ students according to ability, when in fact it can
prove destructive when low achievers are grouped together for the rest of their
schooling years.
As you proceed through this course, many of your personal beliefs and theories
about the teaching-learning process may find support, while others may be proven less
accurate. This awareness will help you develop a more accurate guide for your
professional development (Tan, Parson, Hinson & Sardo-Brown, 2001).

Teacher as a Practioner-Researcher
You would be concerned being treated by a doctor who is not aware of the latest
research in medicine. Imagine the consequences of a doctor prescribing a
pharmaceutical product that has since been banned in the United State! Similarly, as a
teacher, your students and society expect you to be well-informed about developments
in human learning and its application in the classroom. The material in this course
provides a source of practical ideas that may be used to enhance teaching or training.
The scientific information you acquire about human learning can be applied in specific
ways towards improving teaching. You may have been a teacher for many years and it
is likely that you may approach your profession differently after having been exposed
to the concepts, principles and theories of human learning. Some of this scientific
information you may already be familiar with, while others may be new to you. With
this store of information, you may be encouraged to analyse your present practice,
particularly its strengths and weaknesses.
The principles, suggestions and examples are intended to help you think about
how you can apply psychology to teaching. The rich source of ideas may encourage
you re-examine your teaching and find ways and means of improving what you do in
the classroom. Hopefully, the information provided will encourage you to see the
classroom differently and education in general. It is possible that you may have been
pre-occupied with some aspects of teaching and have ignored other facets of instruction.
Effective teacher are reflective teachers. The reflective teacher is one who
knows what he or she is doing, why he or she chooses to do it, and reviews the
effectiveness of what he or she has done. It is possible that some teachers may be
motivated to tryout some of the strategies in the classroom. To systematically tryout
strategies in the classroom, the method of action research is suggested. Action research
is a systematic method of data collection conducted by the teacher. For example, you
employ the techniques of action research to tryout the effectiveness of a particular
method of teaching mathematics.

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 SELF-CHECK 1.5
a) What is the difference between the teacher as theorist and the
teacher as practioner-researcher?
b) Teachers should conduct research to find out methods that
enhance student learning. Discuss.

REFERENCES:

• Abd al-Rahman al Naqib (1993). Ibn Sina. Prospects: The Quarterly Review of
Comparative Education. XXIII, 1 &2. vol. 93. 53-69.

• Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Boston: Wiley.

• Christensen, L. (1988). Experimental Methodology. San Francisco: Wiley.

• Dewey, J. (1922). Human Nature and Conduct. New York: Henry Holt and
Company.

• History of Psychology: A TimeLine of psychological ideas (2006). Marcos

Emanoel Pereira Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil.

• Hunt, M. (1993). The Story of Psychology, New York: MacMillan.

• Saljo, R. (1979). Learning in the learner's perspective: I. Some common-sense
conceptions. Reports from the Institute of Education. University of Gothenberg,
76.

• Lefrancois, GH. (1982), Psychology for Teaching, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

Publishing Company.

• Levin, J. (2004). Functionalism. Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.

[Link]

• Vernon, D. (2008). What is cognition? One view of cognitive systems. Khalifa

University of Science, Technology, and Research UAE

• Wade, C. & Tavris, C. (2002). Psychology (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

• Wagner, K (2008). What is cognition? [Link]: Psychology. The New York

Times Company.

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