SUBJECT: MAGNETIC COMPASS

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 THE COMPASS

The simplest form of compass consists of a magnetised needle free to rotate in a

horizontal plane. Such a needle tends to settle in the magnetic meridian.

PIVOTED NEEDLE FORMS

SIMPLE COMPASS

This simple arrangement is unsatisfactory aboard ship. The needle would tend to
oscillate and provide an unsteady compass and it would be difficult to make
efficient correction on all headings for the disturbing effect of the ship's magnetic
field. The mariners' compass must therefore be specially designed.

THE DRY CARD COMPASS

Consists of a system of short magnetised needles suspended by silk threads from a

light aluminium ring. Usually 6, 8 or 10 needles are employed, symmetrically
disposed so that their poles lie on the circumference of a circle and the mean of the
angles subtended at the centre between pairs of like poles is 60.

The aluminium ring is suspended from a centre piece into which is set a sapphire
bearing. The bearing rests on a hard iridium point, thus forming an almost
frictionless pivot. The card is maintained nearly horizontal by arranging that the
centre of gravity of the card and needles is below the pivot. The weight of the card
is contained largely in the aluminium ring at its circumference and it therefore
possesses a large moment of inertia in comparison with its weight. This fact, in
association with an appropriate magnetic moment for the system of needles,
produces a stable card and no external damping is necessary.

Dry cards are usually made 10 inches in diameter, and the degree markings are
then large enough to be easily read. These markings are printed on rice paper
divided into segments so as to prevent any extensive error due to distortion of the
paper.

THE LIQUID CARD COMPASS

Has greater stability than the dry card compass. The effect of the liquid is to
quickly damp out any oscillations which the card may tend to develop, giving the
card what is sometimes termed a "dead beat" action. The liquid card is generally
smaller than a dry card (often 6 inches in diameter). It is made of a mica scale
mounted on a hollow float containing the sapphire bearing. The magnetic system
is enclosed and attached below the card; it may consist of separate needles or a
single magnet in the form of a ring.

The liquid in the compass bowl is distilled water to which ethyl alcohol is added so
that the viscosity of the mixture is lower than that of pure water and the freezing
point is -30C. This liquid has a small coefficient of expansion, but since its volume
changes slightly with change of temperature a flexible corrugated plate or an
expansion chamber is fitted to the bowl.

Part of the weight of the card and magnets is supported by buoyancy and part by
an iridium point fitting into the sapphire bearing. As in the dry card compass, the
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point of support is above the centre of gravity of the card so that the card will
remain substantially horizontal in all latitudes.

LIQUID CARD

From Below In Section

Upper edge of
card carries graduation

Float

Ring magnet in case

below float

TESTS FOR COMPASS CARDS

Both dry and liquid cards may be tested for pivot friction by deflecting the compass
card a few degrees. If the pivot is in good condition the card should return to and
settle in its original position with no sign of sticking or jerkiness.

THE BINNACLE

A compass card is contained in a brass bowl and this is slung by means of gimbals
in a binnacle. Binnacles are constructed of wood, brass or plastic, and in addition
to housing the gimbals they also hold the various correctors.

Care should be taken when using the magnetic compass and the relevant Marine
Guidance Notices should always be consulted especially if any magnetic material
Is placed in the vicinity.

Different types of magnetic compass include – Standard Compass, Steering

Compass, Projector Compass, Reflector Compass and Transmitting Magnetic
Compass.

Transmitting Magnetic Compasses are fitted with off course alarms. A separate off
course alarm unit is used for other magnetic compasses.

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TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

The earth is surrounded by an irregular magnetic field. This field is conveniently

imagined to be caused by a short magnet at the centre of the earth.

MAGNETIC POLES

The area of the earth's surface (about 50 miles square) on the magnetic axis of the
imaginary short magnet at the centre of the earth. The north magnetic pole is in
the Hudson Bay area approximate position Latitude 75.5 North, longitude 100°W
and the South magnetic pole in Latitude 67.5°South, longitude 140 East. The lines
of force are vertical at the Pole.

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EARTH'S TOTAL FORCE

This varies all over the earth being generally greatest near the Magnetic Poles.
The direction of the earth's total force is that taken up by a freely suspended
magnetic needle when under the influence of the earth field alone.

Earth’s Horizontal Field ‘H’

+ ve Dip Earth’s
Vertical
Field
‘Z’

Total Field
‘T’

The earth's total field is represented by T.

The horizontal component of the earth's total field is represented by H.
The vertical component of the earth's total field is represented by Z.

Magnetic Foci: Are areas in the northern and southern hemisphere where
the earth's total force or field strength is at a maximum.

Dip: Is angle between the earth's total force and the horizontal.

Variation: Is the angle between the vertical plane through the earth's
total force and True North.

The Magnetic field at any position is constantly changing both in intensity and
direction.

Secular Change: This is the gradual change in variation marked on charts.

Solar Change: Regular daily changes of almost constant amplitude

throughout the year which also have an 11 year cycle
associated with sun spot activity.

Lunar Change: Regular diurnal change which is probably related to

atmospheric tides. There is also a relatively large annual
range.

Irregular Changes in Magnetic Storms are probably due to emissions from the
sun. They occur all over the world at the same time and increase the value of H
and decrease the value of Z. These changes are of no significance to a navigator.

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Local Anomalies: Are due to ferro-magnetic substances in the sea bottom or in
mountains near the coast. These areas are marked on the chart
i.e. Madagascar, West Coast of Scotland, North Australia, and the
compass should be checked frequently in these regions.

Magnetic Equator: Is a wavy curve joining all places where the dip is zero.

Isogonic Lines: Join places where the variation has the same value and sign.

Agonic Lines: Join places where the variation is zero.

Isoclinic Line: Join all places where dip has the same value and sign.
Sometimes called Magnetic Latitude.

Aclinic Line: Is the line of no dip or magnetic equator.

Isodynamic Lines: Join places of equal force, horizontal or vertical.

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MAGNETIC COMPASS

DEVIATION

If a magnetic compass could be placed on a ship so that it will be acted upon only
by the earth's field the North point on the compass card would indicate the
direction of the Magnetic Meridian and the graduation of the compass card against
the lubber line would indicate the ships magnetic course. Local magnetic fields in a
ship may cause the resultant field at the compass position to lie in a different
direction from the earth’s field alone. The compass indicates the direction of this
resultant field by pointing to Compass North. The angle between Compass
North and Magnetic North at the compass position is known as Deviation. It is
named Westerly if Compass North is to the West of Magnetic North and Easterly if
Compass North is to the East of Magnetic North.

A ship is built largely of mild steel and this material may be thought of
magnetically as an alloy of hard iron and soft iron. It is convenient to deal with
these two components separately. When a ship is built, its structure becomes
magnetised by induction from the earth's field. After the ship is launched, the
hard iron component will be permanent and will remain constant whatever
the direction of the ships head; however the soft iron component will vary with
the direction of the ships head.

The overall effect of the permanent magnetism on board is known as the directive
force.

The earth’s horizontal field will decrease as latitude increases. Therefore for the
same directive force on board the ship the deviation will increase.

‘H’
½H

Deviating Force (df)

In order to analyse and correct the factors which cause deviation, the hard iron
and soft iron elements of a ship magnetic can be sub-divided into hard iron
components and soft iron components. These sub divisions can then be
grouped according to the way in which the deviation they cause varies with the
direction of the ship's head. The effect of each group is expressed as a co-efficient.

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SHIPS MAGNETISM

When iron or steel is placed in a magnetic field it becomes a magnet, and when the
field is removed it tends to lose its magnetism. The lag between cause and effect
is termed 'hysteresis'. In some alloys of iron the lag may be small; in others it may
be relatively large.

SOFT IRON

Is the name given to a magnetic substance which is instantly magnetised when

placed in a magnetic field and is instantly de-magnetised when removed from the
field. The magnetism of soft iron is termed 'induced magnetism'.

HARD IRON

Is the name given to a magnetic substance which offers considerable resistance to

magnetic change, i.e. the substance is difficult to magnetise and also difficult to de-
magnetise. The magnetism of hard iron is referred to as 'permanent magnetism'.

All magnetic substances exhibit both hard and soft iron characteristics.

By convention lines of force emanate from the north end of a magnet and enter at
the blue end so that when a piece of iron is magnetised by induction a blue or
south pole is induced where the lines of force enter and a red or north pole is
induced where they leave.

A ship lying in the earth's field at the builders is subject to considerable heating
and vibration and therefore becomes a permanent magnet. Where possible a
vessel is placed in the fitting-out basin with her head in the opposite direction to
that of the building berth.

Ship Built Heading South in Northern Hemisphere DIP 50.

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 Ship Built Heading West in Northern Hemisphere DIP 65.

The permanent magnetism of the ship magnet which is acquired on the building
berth is resolved into the following three components.

P Force: The fore and aft component of permanent magnetism acting at the
compass position. +P an attraction towards the bow. -P an attraction
towards the stern.

Q Force: The athwartship component of permanent magnetism acting at the

compass position. +Q an attraction towards the starboard side. -Q an
attraction towards the port side.

R Force: The vertical component of the permanent magnetism acting at the

compass position. +R an attraction towards the keel. -R a deflection
away from the keel.

The vessel built in a northern hemisphere heading south in a dip of 50 with the
compass aft will therefore have a +P, zero Q and +R forces. The vessel heading
west in a northern hemisphere in a dip of 65 will have zero P, -Q and +R.

Consider these three forces and the effect they have on the compass when the
vessel is upright.

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The fore and aft component of permanent magnetism is called a P force and is
termed a +P if the attraction is to the bow and a -P if the attraction is to the stern.

+P FORCE
COEFFICIENT +B

North

East

South

West

The deviation is zero (0) on north and south as the P force is in line with the
compass needle. The deviation increases as shown on the graph as the P force
moves off the line of the compass needle and reaches a maximum when the P
force is at right angles to the compass needle. The maximum value occurs on east
or west by compass and its value on these courses is called hard iron coefficient B.
As the deviation has the same name through 180 it is called semi circular
deviation.

As the above curve is a sine curve the deviation due to a P force varies as the sine
of the compass course.

Deviation = B Sine Compass Course

The value of coefficient B (total) is found by steadying the vessel on east and west
by compass and taking the mean of the deviation on east and west by compass
after reversing the sign of the deviation on west.

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-P FORCE
COEFFICIENT - B

North

East

South

West

Sine curve

Coefficient B is corrected by steadying the vessel on east or west by compass and

removing the deviation caused by force P with fore and aft magnets.

It is obvious that if the deviating force, that is the P force is increased the
deviations will be increased, i.e. the deviations vary directly as the deviating force.

It can also be seen that if the deviating force is kept constant and the directive
force, i.e. H is increased the deviation will be reduced, i.e. the deviation will vary
inversely as the directive force.

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The athwartship component of permanent magnetism is called a Q force and is
termed a +Q if the attraction is to the starboard side and a -Q if the attraction is to
the port side.

+Q
COEFFICIENT + C

North

WEST
East

EAST
South

West

Cosine Curve

The deviation is zero on east and west as the Q force is in line with the compass
needle. The deviation increases as shown on the graph as the Q force moves off
the line of the compass needle and reaches a maximum when the Q force is at
right angles to the compass needle, i.e. on north by compass. The maximum value
occurs on north or south by compass and its value on these courses is called hard
iron coefficient C.

As the deviation retains the same name through 180 it is also called semi-circular,
deviation due to a Q force varies as the cosine of the compass course.

As the curve is a cosine curve the deviation due to a Q force varies as the cosine of
the compass course.

Deviation = C cosine compass course.

The value of coefficient C is found by taking the mean of deviations on north and
south by compass after reversing the sign of the deviation on south.

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Sketch the effect of a -Q force in the space below.

North

EAST
East

WEST

South

West

Cosine Curve

Coefficient C is correct by steadying the compass on north or south by compass

and removing the deviations caused by force Q with athwartship magnets.

The deviations due to a Q force are affected in the same manner as the deviations
due to a P force.

Directly as the deviating force and inversely as the directive force.

FORCE R

When a vessel is upright the vertical force R will be acting at right angles
to the compass card and will therefore cause no deviation.

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SUMMARY

Soft Iron - magnetic state changed with ease.

Hard Iron - magnetic state changed with difficulty.
+P is an attraction towards the bow.
-P is an attraction towards the stern.
+Q is an attraction towards the starboard side.
-Q is an attraction towards the port side.
+R is an attraction towards the keel.
-R is a deflection away from the keel.

P forces cause hard iron coefficient B.

A +P causes a +B coefficient.

Hard iron coefficient B = mean of hard iron deviations on east and west by
compass with the name changed on west.

The deviation due to P varies as the sine of the compass course.

The deviation due to P varies inversely as H
Deviations due to P are corrected by fore and aft permanent magnets.

Q forces produce hard iron coefficient C.

A +Q causes a +C coefficient.
Hard iron coefficient C = the mean of the hard iron deviations on north and south
by compass with name changed on south.

The deviation due to a Q force varies as the cosine of the compass course.
The deviation due to a Q force varies inversely as H.
The deviations due to Q forces are corrected by permanent athwartship magnets.

Force R causes no deviation when the ship is upright.

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SHIPS INDUCED MAGNETISM

The magnetism of the soft iron in a ship will vary continuously as the vessel sails
from port to port.

If the intensity of the total force varies, the strength of the ship magnet will vary.

If the dip varies the proportions of H and Z will vary.

If the vessel alters course the ship magnet will vary.

A vessel heading northwest in a northern hemisphere where the dip is + 50 will
have induced magnetism as follows:

Blue on deck; Red at the keel; Blue to port; Red to starboard; Blue aft; Red forward.

Consider a vessel in the following positions and indicate the polarity of the induced
magnetism, vertical, fore and aft and athwartships.

Course Dip Deck Keel Port Starboar For'd Aft

d
SW - 30 RED BLUE BLUE RED BLUE RED
S - 60 RED BLUE BLUE RED
E + 40 BLUE RED RED BLUE
E 0 RED BLUE
S 0 BLUE RED
NW +90 BLUE RED

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"a" rod The vessel is a continuous piece of steel under the compass an "a" rod
effect exists. A “- a" rod is normal, indicating the continuous fore and aft
structure of the vessel.

"c" rod Most of the body of the vessel is abaft and below the compass so that a
“- c" rod is normal.

"e" rod A - "e" rod is normal, indicating continuous transverse structure of the
ship.

"g" rod Since the vessel normally extends further aft from the compass than it
does forward a - "g" rod is normal.

"k" rod The vessel is mostly below the compass we can expect to find a + "k" rod
effect.

"b”, “d, "f" and "h" rods are normally absent because the vessel is symmetrical
about the fore and aft vertical plane through the compass.

To summarise we can say that in a merchant ship with the compass in the fore and
aft centre line of the vessel and about one third of the length from the bow, the
only soft iron effects we will have to consider in the ship will be represented by -a, -
c, -e,
-g and + k rods.

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THE CO-EFFICIENTS

A B C D E

EAST W E
EAST W E W
E WEST W
E E
W

COEFFICIENT A:

Consists of those elements which give rise to a deviation which is constant in

value and sign for all directions of the ships head.

It may be caused by a combination of fore and aft soft iron to one side of the
compass with one induced pole abreast of it, and athwartships soft iron either
forward of abaft the compass with one induced pole in the fore and aft line. Any
horizontal soft iron which is unsymmetrically disposed about the compass position
will have components which give rise to a co-efficient A.

Co-efficient A is not amenable to correction but it may be avoided by setting

the compass in a position on the centre line of the ship so that the horizontal soft
iron will be symmetrically disposed on either side. If Co-efficient A is present, it
may easily be allowed for since it does not vary with either change of course or
change of latitude. On most ships the value of Co-efficient A is usually negligible or
very small.

CO-EFFICIENT B:

Consists of those elements which give rise to a deviation varying as the sine of
a vessel's compass course. This may be caused by fore and aft hard iron or by
vertical soft iron in the fore and aft plane with an induced pole level with the
compass. The distribution of steel in most ships is such that both these
components are present.

PERMANENT B:

The permanent magnetism in the hard iron of a ship will, in general have a
component in the fore and aft line. This will create a constant attraction of the
North end of the compass needle either towards the bow or the stern.

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INDUCED B:

Is due to the induction of the vertical soft iron ("C" rod) so that an effective pole is
level with the compass in the fore and aft line through the compass with its acting
pole immediately forward or abaft the compass. It is clear that the deviation
caused depends upon the direction of the ships head, the same way as permanent
B (i.e. varies as the sine of the compass course) so that the deviation is maximum
on East and West, zero on North and South.

TOTAL CO-EFFICIENT B:

Is a combination of permanent and induced components. Since permanent B and

induced B vary according to different rules total B may be split into its component
parts mathematically, provided its value is observed in two places of different
magnetic latitude.

CO-EFFICIENT C:

Consists of these elements which give rise to deviation varying as the cosine of
a vessels compass course. This may be caused by hard iron in the horizontal
athwartships plane or by soft iron with an induced pole level with the compass in
the athwartships plane.

CO-EFFICIENT D:

Consists of those elements which give rise to deviation which varies as the sine
of twice the compass course. It is due to an arrangement of horizontal soft iron
which has fore and aft and athwartships components symmetrically disposed about
the compass position. The components may be continuous through the compass
position or divided on either side, but the usual effect aboard ships is that of both
fore and aft and athwartships continuous soft iron, the latter being more effective
because its poles are nearer the compass.

CO-EFFICIENT E:

Consists of these elements which cause a deviation that varies as the cosine of
twice the compass course. Horizontal soft iron which lies in a line from four
points on one bow to four points on the opposite quarter gives rise to co-efficient E.
The soft iron may be continuous or divided about the compass position. In a
normal ship with the compass carefully sited on the centre line there should be no
unbalanced diagonal soft iron component and consequently no co-efficient E.

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Coefficient A:

Is the constant deviation caused by induction in unsymmetrical horizontal soft iron

(unusual on most ships).

Coefficient A: Is positive when there is a constant easterly deviation.

Coefficient A: Is negative when there is a constant westerly deviation.

The value of coefficient A is found by taking the mean of the deviations on all
cardinal and inter-cardinal points of the compass.

Unsymmetrical horizontal soft iron which crosses the vessel at any direction other
than fore and aft athwartships or 045 will cause both coefficient A and coefficient
E.

Coefficient A and E are caused by the unsymmetrical distribution of soft

iron about the compass.

APPARENT COEFFICIENT A

The coefficient A mentioned above is due to the magnetic effect of unsymmetrical

soft iron. However other factors may give an apparent "A" which is not due to
magnetic effects. Some of these are listed below.

1. Lubber line not on the fore and aft line.

2. Magnetic axis of needles not in line with north south line of compass card.
3. Error in magnetic bearing. (Variation)
4. Swinging ship too rapidly in one direction (Gaussin error).
5. Azimuth mirror distorted.

If a coefficient A is found the following checks should be made:

a) check azimuth mirror.

b) Check variation used.
c) Check the hour angle used.
d) Check true bearings used.
e) Check lubber lines.
f) Check gyro setting.
g) Check alignment of card and needles.

If the coefficient A still appears after these checks have been made it must be due
to unsymmetrical horizontal soft iron.

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-C ROD NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

Co-efficient Induced B

Is due to induction in vertical soft iron so that an effective pole is level with the
compass in the fore and aft line through the compass, and in most ships the grater
proportion of soft iron will be aft of the compass position. In the Northern
hemisphere a blue pole will be induced at the top of the vertical soft iron and the
deviation produced as shown above.

The deviation caused depends on the direction of the ships head in the same way
as permanent B (i.e. it varies as the sine of the compass course - a sine curve) and
as with permanent B the deviation due to induced B will vary inversely as H i.e.
Deviation  1/H.

In addition the magnetism induced in the vertical iron will depend on the value of
the earth’s vertical field Z and this also varies with change of magnetic latitude. If
the value of Z is doubled the strength of the magnetism included in the vertical
iron is also doubled and provided only small angles are involved the deviation will
also be doubled.
 Deviation due to induced B varies directly as Z
Deviation Z
When a vessel changes its magnetic latitude the value of both H and Z will alter
and combining these two effects.
Deviation  Z
H

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At a position on the magnetic equator the value of Z is zero and there is no
induction in vertical soft iron. It follows that in this position there will be no
deviation due to induced B. In the Southern hemisphere the polarity is reversed
to that in the Northern hemisphere. On similar courses the deviation caused will
therefore be opposite in the name in the two hemispheres.

The two parts of coefficient B can be identified and corrected as follows:

a) Observe coefficient B at or near the magnetic equator and correct deviation by

magnets.
Deviations which appear in higher magnetic latitudes should then be removed by
Flinders Bar.
OR
b) Observe the coefficient in two widely separated latitudes. Form two equations
involving hard iron B and induced B and solve for each with simultaneous
equations.

Correction of co-efficient induced B is achieved by securing a vertical bar of soft

iron (the Flinders Bar) to the binnacle so that it lies in the vertical fore and aft
plane through the compass position so that the pole induced at the top of the bar
causes a horizontal field at the compass position. Where the compass is sited
forward of amidships the length of Flinders bar should be attached forward of the
binnacle to counteract the effect of the ships vertical iron. Where the
predominance of vertical iron is forward of the compass position the Flinders bar
should be attached to the after side of the binnacle.

The Flinders bar is contained in a brass case attached to the binnacle, the soft iron
being supplied in lengths of 12", 6", 3", 1½" and two lengths of ¾". To achieve the
required horizontal field at the compass position when a length of 12" or 6" is used
the top end of the bar should be level with the compass. When less than 6" is used
the top end of the bar should be lower than the compass. This is achieved by
fitting wooden spacing pieces in the lower part of the brass tube.

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INDUCED COEFFICIENT C

As a compass is usually placed on the fore and aft line the magnetic effects to port
and starboard are usually equal. However, if the compass is not on the fore and aft
line or the magnetic material is not symmetrical to port and starboard then there
will be an 'f' rod.

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

‘f’ rod
F.B. effect

F.B. ‘f’ rod

effect

INDUCED COEFFICIENT C

This is the maximum semi circular deviation caused by an athwartship attraction

due to induced magnetism in vertical soft iron (f rod). This deviation will be:

(1)maximum on north and south by compass, zero on each and west.

(2)on intermediate headings proportional to the cosine of the compass course.

To correct for induced coefficient B and induced coefficient C the Flinders bar
should be slewed so that:

Tan angle of slew = ‘f’ rod or Ind Coeff C

‘c’ rod Ind Coeff B

This correction once properly made will, for the reasons explained above, hold
good in all magnetic latitudes.
Correct for
Correct for Ind. B only
Ind. B & C

F.B
.

Correct for
Ind. C only

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COEFFICIENT D

Induced magnetism in symmetrical fore and aft and athwartship soft iron causes
Coefficient D.

Consider the effect of continuous horizontal athwartship’s soft iron (-e rod).

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Consider the effect of continuous horizontal fore and aft soft iron (-a rod).

The two conditions above are those most commonly found.

Coefficient D: Is positive when the deviations are easterly in the northeast and
southwest quadrants.

Coefficient D: Is negative when the deviations are easterly in the northwest and
southeast quadrants.

The value of coefficient D is found by taking the mean of the deviations on

northeast southeast northwest and southwest after reversing the sign on southeast
and northwest.

Deviation varies as sine of twice the compass course.

Deviation = coefficient D x sine twice the compass course.

The deviation due to horizontal soft iron will remain unchanged as the vessel
changes her magnetic latitude because the force which causes the induced
magnetism in the HSI and hence the deviating field is also the directive force. As
the deviating field and the directive are both caused by the horizontal component
of the earth's field they will both change in proportion and hence there will be no
change in the vessel's deviation when she alters her magnetic latitude.

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The value and sign of coefficient D remains unchanged in any magnetic latitude
and a sign of coefficient D depends entirely on the arrangement of the horizontal
soft iron.

As the normal ship has continuous fore and aft (-a rods) and continuous
athwartships (-e rods) soft iron the deviation curves due to symmetrical soft iron
will be as shown:

North

(- e Rod)
(-a Rod) Larger deviation due to
Smaller deviation due to effective poles being
effective poles being nearer compass
further from compass

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Sketch the diagram for:

(a) Interrupted horizontal athwartship soft iron (+e rod).

CORRECTION OF COEFFICIENT D

Coefficient D is caused by induced magnetism in symmetrical fore and aft and

athwartships horizontal soft iron. In the normal ship the continuous fore and aft
and athwartships iron has the predominant effect at the compass position. The
continuous athwartships iron gives a plus D coefficient and the continuous fore and
aft iron gives a minus D coefficient; as these two effects partially cancel each other
adjustment is made by reducing the plus D effect and increasing the minus D
effect.

Coefficient D is corrected by soft iron spheres placed athwartships. They should be

moved inwards for + D and outwards for -D. The spheres have the effect of
increasing the fore and aft (-a rod) component and decreasing the effect of
the continuous athwartships soft iron (-e rod) by introducing continuous fore
and aft horizontal soft iron and interrupted athwartship soft iron.

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COEFFICIENT E

Consider the effect of horizontal soft iron running diagonally across the vessel from
the port bow to the starboard quarter at 45 to the fore and aft line.

+E

Similar effects to the above "magnet" could be produced by the fore and aft and
athwartships soft iron. A "b" rod is horizontal athwartships soft iron that has its
acting pole either for'd or abaft the compass. A "d" rod is fore and aft horizontal
soft iron that has its acting pole abeam of the compass. (b and d rods, of equal
value and same sign.)

Coefficient E: Is positive when the deviations are easterly in the north and south
quadrants and westerly in the east and west quadrants.

Coefficient E: Is negative when the deviations are westerly in the north and south
quadrants and easterly in the east and west quadrants.

The value of coefficient E is found by taking the mean of the deviations on north,
south, east and west after reversing the sign on east and west.

Deviation varies as cosine twice the compass course.

i.e. deviation = E cos twice the compass course.

As coefficient E is caused by horizontal soft iron it will not change in different

magnetic latitudes as the deviating field is caused by the directive field.

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CORRECTION OF COEFFICIENT E

Coefficient E is caused by induced magnetism in unsymmetrical horizontal soft iron

and is compensated for by slewing the spheres.

Tan 2M = Coeff. E (where M is the angle of slew)

Coeff. D

The angle of slew is from the athwartships line if there is a plus D coefficient. The
angle of slew is from the fore and aft line if there is a minus D coefficient. When
the sign of both the coefficients is the same the spheres are rotated clockwise.
When the sign of both the coefficients is different the spheres are rotated anti-
clockwise.

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APPROXIMATE AND EXACT COEFFICIENTS

If the courses used in calculating the coefficients are the magnetic courses then the
coefficients are known as the exact coefficients and are written with the bar thus:
_ _ _ _ _
A B C D E

In practice it is more convenient to use the compass courses and the coefficients
then obtained are called the approximate coefficients and are written A B C D E
etc.

COMBINATION OF CO-EFFICIENTS:

The deviation on any particular heading of a ship is due to a combination of

effects from all the Co-efficients.

Co-efficient A gives rise to a constant deviation whatever the heading.

The effect of co-efficient B varies as the sine of the compass course.
The effect of co-efficient C varies as the cosine of the compass course.
The effect of co-efficient D varies as the sine of twice the compass course.
The effect of co-efficient E varies as the cosine of twice the compass course.

ANALYSIS:

The value of the five co-efficients may conveniently be calculated if the deviation is
observed with the ships head on eight equidistant points of the compass including
compass North.

A) All the co-efficients except A give rise to deviation on headings which can be
grouped in pairs so that for each pair of headings the deviations are equal in
value but opposite in name (e.g. the deviation due to B on NE is equal and
opposite to that on SW). Co-efficient A may thus be found by adding all the
deviations and dividing the sum by eight.

B) Co-efficient B has maximum deviation on East and West by compass but the
name on West is opposite to the name on East. Co-efficients A and E, which
also cause deviation on East and West by compass, are of the same name on
each course. The value of co-efficient B may thus be calculated by reversing
the name of the deviation on West, adding this figure to the deviation on East
and dividing the sum by two.

C) Co-efficient C may be calculated similarly be reversing the name of the

deviation on South, adding the figure to the deviation on North and dividing
the sum by two. It may be noted here that, if the vessel has a constant angle
of heel during the swing, the co-efficient found this way includes heeling error
as well as C.

D) Co-efficient D by noting the deviations on the intercardinal points the value of

co-efficient D may be calculated by taking the deviations on NE and SW,
reversing the name of the deviations on SE and NW adding them together and
dividing the sum by four.

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E) Co-efficient E by noting the deviations of N, E, S and W, co-efficient E may be
calculated by taking the deviations on N and S reversing the name of the
deviations on E and W, adding them together and dividing the sum by four.

This method of finding the separate co-efficients from an observed set of

deviations is best carried out in a form of tabulation.

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HEELING ERROR

May be divided into permanent and induced components. Permanent heeling error
is due to the vertical component of a ships permanent magnetic field. This causes
no deviation when the vessel is upright, but when a vessel is heeled the field is
carried out of the vertical and a deviation may be caused. If the original vertical
field is directed toward the keel, the resulting deviation when the vessel heels will
be towards the high side - If the original vertical field is directed upwards, the
resulting deviation when the vessel heels will be towards the low side. +

The greater the angle of heel, the further the original field will be taken from the
vertical and for small angles the value of the deviations caused can be taken to
vary directly as the angle of heel.

Deviation  I (where I = angle of heel)

If a vessel with a constant angle of heel is swung through 360, and the vertical
component of the ships permanent magnetic-field is directed towards the keel, the
deviations caused will be illustrated by the sketch.

HIGH SIDE HEELING ERROR - CO-EFFICIENT - J

FORCE R

when vessel heels blue pole is carried out to the

high side

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Masterclass1 /21/07/2025 Page 32 of 44
The deviation is zero on East and West, and maximum on North and South by
compass. The deviation curve is a cosine curve so that deviation due to heeling
error may be said to vary as the cosine of the compass course. In this respect
heeling error is similar to co-efficient C which is also caused by an athwartship
effect.

As with the deviation due to other hard iron the effect on permanent heeling error
will vary inversely as H.

Induced Heeling Error in a well placed compass is due mainly to two causes:

1. Induction in vertical soft iron gives rise to a similar effect to that described
above, but since the magnetism induced in the vertical iron is due mainly to the
vertical component (Z) of the earth's field, the deviation due to this cause varies
directly as Z as well as inversely as H. i.e. directly as the tangent of the angle of
dip.

A permanent or induced pole vertically below the compass when vessel is upright
but carried to one side when vessel heels.

+ ‘k’ rod
Compass Needle
attracted to High
Heading North Side

2. Induction by H in athwartships horizontal soft iron gives rise to coefficient D

when a vessel is upright.

When a vessel is heeled, this iron becomes inclined to the horizontal and acquires a
vertical component in which magnetism is induced by Z.

The greater the angle of heel, the greater is this induction and the greatest
deviation due to this cause will occur when the angle of heel is 45. For small
angles, it can be taken that the deviation varies directly as the angle of heel.

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Induction by Z in athwartships soft iron when vessel heels on N’ly courses.

-‘e’ rod

3. A third type of induced heeling error is caused by a horizontal fore and aft soft
iron component with an effective pole immediately below the compass position.
The effect of this is usually small and not taken into account of when correction
is made.

As with permanent heeling error, the deviation due to induced heeling error is zero
on East and West and maximum on North and South by compass. The deviation
varies as the cosine of the compass course. To summarise, it may be taken that
heeling error due to a ship's permanent magnetism varies directly as the angle
of heel, inversely as H and directly as the cosine of the compass course.

The deviation due to a ships induced heeling error varies directly as the angle of
heel, directly as Z, inversely as H and directly as the cosine of the compass
course.

The effect of heeling error is to cause a steady deviation when a vessel has a
constant angle of heel and is on a particular course. It also has the effect of
causing an unsteady compass when a vessel is rolling in a seaway, because the
deviation changes its name as the vessel changes her heel from port to
starboard.

CORRECTION OF HEELING ERROR

The deviation due to heeling error is corrected by introducing permanent magnets

set vertically in a holder (or bucket) beneath the compass. This arrangement
introduces a vertical field at the compass position. The field may be varied by
raising or lowering the bucket or by varying the number of magnets used.

Whatever the number of magnets used, they should be arranged symmetrically.

Since an entirely permanent magnetic field is used to correct a combination of

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 permanent and induced components, the correction of heeling error does not
remain effective when a vessel's magnetic latitude changes.

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ARRANGEMENT OF HEELING ERROR MAGNETS

RED ENDS UP NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

ORDER OF PLACING CORRECTORS

The several correctors which have been mentioned should be placed in position in
the correct order. This is necessary because there is an interaction between the
correctors, and certain correctors produce small effects apart from their
designed function. A proper sequence is therefore essential.

The following established procedure should be adhered to:

Soft Iron correctors: 1. Flinders Bar

2. Spheres
3. Heeling Error Magnets
4. Horizontal Magnets

1. a) Flinders Bar because of its dimensions produces "a", "e" and "k" rod
effects. With F.B. in position first, these effects are corrected by the spheres,
when they are shipped.
b) The spheres contain a "-k" effect which is corrected by the HE magnets.
Also the "e2" rod exists only after the spheres are in position, and "e 2" rod
value is a factor of 2 from which the ship's multiplier is obtained for use in
correct HE with the V.F.I.
2. The vertical H.E. magnet corrects for the R, -kZ, -e 2 Z of the ship and also for the
"k" rod effect in F.B. and in the spheres.
The HE magnets also induce magnetism into F.B. which, because it is permanently
induced, produces a P and R force. This P force factor will subsequently be
corrected by the F.A. permanent magnets when total P force is corrected and
the R force will be corrected by the HE magnets which cause it.
3. The fore and aft and athwartships permanent magnets may now be inserted,
although no particular sequence is required, generally the larger coefficient is
corrected first.

Obviously, when the SI corrections are made first, then like is corrected with like.
Thus, when these correctors are shipped in the above sequence, they are not being
affected by induction from the F.A. and athwartships permanent magnets and the
compensation is good.

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UNCORRECTED HEELING ERROR AND AN UNSTEADY COMPASS

Uncorrected or overcorrected heeling error is a cause of unsteadiness in a

magnetic compass when the vessel is rolling. It is not the only cause, but
should be suspected if there has been a large change of latitude since heeling
error was last adjusted.

HEELING ERROR IS A MAXIMUM ON NORTH AND SOUTH COURSES

Unsteadiness of the magnetic compass card is likely to be a maximum on

northerly and southerly courses. When the unsteadiness is serious, it is
necessary to adjust the vertical magnets at sea to produce a compass card
steady enough to steer by. The north end of the compass is pulled to the high
side when there is a downward force at the compass (+R) and to the low side
when there is an upward force at the compass (-R).

The corrector bucket should now be raised or lowered as required very slowly
until the compass card is steady. It is possible that moving the corrector bucket
by itself is insufficient to steady the compass, in which case a magnet the
correct way up should be added or taken away.

The heeling error is then properly corrected.

When the HE corrector magnets are altered appreciably the correction of the
permanent part of the coefficient B is upset.

The two parts of coefficient B must be corrected separately, otherwise

deviations on E and W courses will appear with a change of latitude and HE will
appear on east and westerly courses.

Acceleration errors are produced in the magnetic compass of high speed craft
particularly when altering course. For this reason their use on such vessels is
not recommended.

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HEELING ERROR OR VERTICAL FORCE INSTRUMENT

This instrument was invented by Captain Creak RN to correct heeling error when
the vessel is upright. The instrument consists of a framework, which fits into the
compass binnacle, with a magnetised needle pivoted horizontally a little above
its centre of gravity so that in the absence of a magnetic field it would lie
horizontally. In the presence of a magnetic field the needle (in the N
Hemisphere) would tilt downwards and in the S Hemisphere tilt upwards. The
force causing the needle to tilt from the horizontal is the vertical component (Z)
of the earth’s field. The effect of the magnetic force affecting the needle may
be counteracted by sliding a weight along the needle to make it balance in a
horizontal position. The distance of the weight from the pivot is proportional to
Z and may be measured by reading the graduation of the needle against the
scale.

CORRECTION OF HEELING ERROR

The vertical force instrument is first levelled ashore in a position free from
disturbing magnetic fields and the scale reading noted. The V.F.I is then taken
back on board the vessel and placed in the compass binnacle preferably with
the vessel heading East or West. If the weight was left at the same graduation
position as was noted ashore, the needle will be found to lie inclined at an angle
to the horizontal since the effect Z will be increased or decreased by the vertical
permanent or induced magnetism of the ship's structure. The scale reading
which was noted ashore (say N) is multiplied by the ships multiplier 2 = 0.9 for
average ship.

The weight is set at the graduation on the instrument equal to the product of
the scale reading ashore and the ships multiplier (N x 2). With this setting and
the vertical force instrument in the compass position the heeling error magnets
are put in position to bring the needle horizontal again.

The value of 2 is determined by the ships horizontal soft iron as modified by the
spheres and this also causes the horizontal direction force at the compass
position to be reduced by a factor 2.

Numerically 2 = 2 (In practice it is 2 that is calculated).

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LAMBDA ()

This is the ratio of the mean directive force to magnetic North at the compass
position to the directive force ashore. The same ratio after the spheres have been
placed is called 2. The mean directive force is always less than 2 which is less the
directive force ashore because:

1) a ship usually has continuous horizontal soft iron causing a red pole to the North
of the compass.
2) the ship's structure has a screening effect on the compass.

Reasons for find  and 2 are:

1) to determine the best place for the compass.

2) to determine the value of the ship's multiplier.

 is found by using a horizontal vibrating needle ashore and then on board and
comparing the periods of oscillation. To carry out the experiment the horizontal
vibrating needle would be set up ashore about 3 feet above ground level at a place
free from unwanted magnetic effects. The needle should be deflected 15 and the
total time observed for a selected number of oscillations, e.g. 10. The needle
should then be taken on board and vibrated in the compass position with the ship's
head on each of the cardinal courses in turn and again observing the time interval
for the selected number of oscillations on each course.

From the above data 1 or if the spheres are in position 2 may be found.

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CHANGES IN DEVIATION DUE TO CHANGE IN MAGNETIC LATITUDE

When a vessel changes her magnetic latitude the deviation due to hard iron will
change and the deviation due to soft iron may change.

HARD IRON

As the deviating field is constant, the deviation will vary inversely as H.

i.e. Deviation2 = H1
Deviation 1 H2

‘H
’ ½H

Deviating Force
(df)

VERTICAL SOFT IRON

a) As the vessel changes her magnetic latitude the vertical soft iron will be induced
more or less strongly with the changing intensity of the vertical component (Z)
or the earth's magnetic field. If Z is increased the vertical soft iron will be more
strongly induced, a stronger deviating field is produced and the deviation is
increased.
b) Also if H is increased the directive force is stronger and the needle is more
difficult to deviate and the deviation is decreased.

 Deviation varies directly as Z and inversely as H

but Z = tan dip.

H
 Deviation in vertical soft iron varies as Z or tan dip.
H
The most common vertical soft iron on a ship is a "c" rod and is corrected by a
Flinders Bar which is usually forward of the compass.

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HORIZONTAL SOFT IRON

In this case the horizontal soft iron is induced by H, and therefore the strength of
deviating field is directly proportional to H. However as the directive force is also
due to H, the deviation also varies inversely as H.

 Deviation due to H.S.I. varies as H a constant.

H
The deviation due to horizontal soft iron is therefore constant and will not vary as
the vessel alters her magnetic latitude.

‘H’
½H

Deviating Force (df)

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GAUSSIN ERROR

When a vessel is altering course to port or starboard, different parts of the vessel's
structure are cutting the Earth's magnetic field at different rates. E.M.F.'s induced
in the ship's structure cause electric currents to flow and the magnetic fields
associated with these 'eddy' currents may cause deviations to the compass. Lenz's
law states that the magnetic fields which develop will be such as to oppose the
motion causing them. Thus if a vessel is swinging to starboard, magnetic fields will
develop with a polarity which attempts to swing the ship to port and the compass
card will be deflected in that sense. For a ship swinging to port the compass card
would be deflected to the right.

Compass settles
quickly

Compass Needle
deflected to left (West)

Gaussin error is therefore Westerly for a vessel swinging to starboard from a

Northerly course.

While the swing continues the name of the deviation is constant thus giving a
similar effect to Co-efficient A. The eddy currents will die out and the error will
become zero within a few minutes of a vessel coming on to a steady course.

When a vessel is swung to adjust compasses it is necessary to keep the ship's head
steady on each heading for a few minutes before the deviation is observed to
ensure that it is not distorted by Gaussin error.

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RETENTIVE ERROR

When a vessel steers a steady course for some considerable time, the vibration of
the ship and the influence of the earth's magnetic field combine to cause a gradual
magnetic change in parts of a vessel's structure. If the vessel then changes
course, this change in the magnetism will initially be retained but will gradually
decay. Magnetism of this type is known as sub-permanent magnetism and the
error it gives 'rise' to is known as retentive error.

Compass takes
time to settle
quickly

Compass Needle
deflected to left (West)

Red Pole
develops

If as in the figure a vessel steers a steady northerly course for an extended period,
the vessel's sub-permanent magnetism will acquire a red pole forward. If the
vessel then alters course to starboard the red and blue poles will be temporarily
retained and will cause westerly deviation. The deviation caused in this way is
similar to that due to Gaussin error for alterations of course less than 180. The
difference is that Gaussin error is due to an unsettling of the ship's induced
magnetism due to the actual swerving of the ship in azimuth whilst retentive error
is due to sub permanent magnetism developed while the ship is steering a steady
course. The effect of Gaussin error is quickly lost when a vessel steadies on a new
course but the effect of retentive error is only lost over a much longer period of
time.

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REQUIREMENTS FOR A RELIABLE MAGNETIC COMPASS

It is required to indicate Magnetic North with reliability when on all courses in all
latitudes in all weathers.

It is required to maintain deviations at a minimum and that a 20º alteration of

course is a 20º compass heading change.

Compass performance should be monitored by frequently recording deviations

in a compass deviation book, this should highlight any unreliability of the
compass.

TENTATIVE METHOD OF ADJUSTMENT

This method may be used when the ship has already been in commission and has
had her compasses previously adjusted.

i) The existing amount of Flinders Bar is altered only if there is reason to believe
that a different length is necessary.
ii) The spheres are tested for any retained magnetism by turning them in position.
If they have not become magnetised, they are left in position.
iii) Using an estimated value of 0.8 or 0.9 for the ship's multiplier, correct for
Heeling Error with the vertical force instrument.
iv) On E or W compass remove the deviations by adjusting the F & A magnets.
v) On N or S compass remove the deviations by adjusting the athwartship
magnets.
vi) On any quadrantal heading by compass remove the deviation by adjusting the
spheres.

The adjustment made in vi) may upset those in iv) and v) so these should now
be repeated with the ship on the opposite headings and half the remaining
deviation, if more than 2, removed by adjusting the appropriate magnets.

These adjustments may in turn upset the setting of the spheres in vi) so that
with the ship on a quadrantal heading, half the remaining deviations if more
than 2, should be removed by adjusting the spheres.

vii) Swing for a table of residual deviations.

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