CARREDO, RONNEL DELOS REYES
PA297 – Research Methods Mid-Term Exam
1. Differentiate a Discrete Random Variable from Continuous Random Variable.
Two key ideas in probability theory and statistics are discrete random variables and continuous random
variables. Their probability distributions and how they take on values are different. A discrete random variable
has a countable number of different possible values. There are gaps between these values, which are
frequently integers. For instance, a discrete random variable is the number of heads you get after flipping a
coin several times; it can have values of 0, 1, 2, etc. while a continuous random variable is one that has an
infinite range of possible values. These values may frequently be measured with high precision and are
genuine numbers. A continuous random variable is one that may take on any actual value within a given
range, such as a person's height.
2. Give at least 3 sampling methods and discuss each.
Simple random Sampling. Is a sampling technique used in statistics and research that includes
choosing a subset of individuals or things from a broader population so that each person or thing has
an equal and independent probability of being picked. In other words, there is an equal chance that
every member of the population will be picked for the sample. An example of this is when you have
100 classmates, and you use a sample you use a random sample generator to select 20 students from
this list. The simple random sampling is effective is effective and unbiased way to create a
representative sample, as it minimizes the risk of introducing any systematic or non-random errors
into your research.
Purposive sampling. Is a non-probability sampling approach used in research and statistics. It is also
known as judgmental or selective sampling. Purposive sampling, as opposed to simply random
sampling, in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen, includes
picking certain persons or things from the population with a specific goal or target in mind. When the
researcher feels that these specific persons or products are the most important to the investigation,
or when resources are limited, this strategy is frequently utilized. One of the common types of
purposive sampling is snowball sampling, this technique is often used in qualitative research,
specifically when it is challenging to identify or access certain groups of participants. The researcher
will use one or a few initial participants who meet the study criteria and then ask them to refer to
other potential and qualified participants.
Quota sampling is often faster and less resource-intensive than random sampling approaches, making
it appealing in some research scenarios. It does, however, have drawbacks, the most significant of
which being the possibility of bias if the researcher's selection of participants within each subgroup is
not fairly representative of that subgroup. As a result, quota sample findings may not be as
generalizable to the complete population as those from a randomly selected sample. When
evaluating and reporting the data, researchers should be open about the sampling strategy they
utilized and recognize its potential limitations. Quota sampling differs from random sampling in that
each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. It also varies from stratified
sampling, a probability sampling approach that seeks a similar balance of characteristics but does it
by random selection within each stratum.
3. Compute the Mean and Standard Deviation, and determine the Median and the Mode for the table below:
Table 1. Lengths of Butterfly Wings in Centimeters
46
48 media
n 41 47 49 44 45 51 48 52 46 46 49 42 49 47 43 42 48 44
47 44 46 50 43 50 41 44 48 40 43 45 42 48 41 50 47 44 42 46
46 45 46 49 43 39 47 49 46 47 43 49 46 45 40 47 42 46 43 51
44 45 47 48 44 48 42 45 45 44 49 48 44 43 42 45 47 45 43 45
39,40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52 N+1 45 + 46 =45.5
2 2
X = 39+ 40 + 41+42+43+44+45+46+47+48+49+50+51+52 = 637 = 45.5 or 46
14 14
S= √ (x – x)
N-1
√(39-46) + (40-46)
2 2
+ (41-46)2 + (42-46)2 + (43-46)2 + (44-46)2 + (45-46)2 +
(46+46)2 +(47-46)2 + (48-46)2 + (49-46)2 + (50-46)2 + (51-46)2 + (52-46)2
14-1
S= √(-7) + (-6)
2 2
+(-5)2 +(-4)2 + (-3)2 + (-2)2 + (-1)2 + (0)2 + (1)2 + (2)2 + (3)2 + (4)2
4.06
(5)2 + (6)2 =
13
4. Construct a Frequency Distribution Table and Histogram from Table 1.
N=80
Lower Class limit- 39
Frequency Relatively Frequency
39-39.9 1 1/42 = 0.03
# classes = √n
40-40.9 1 1/42 =0.03
√80 = 8
41-41.9 3 3/42 =0.08
Class width = range
# classes 42-42.9 7 7/42 =0.17
Range = 52- 39= 13 43-43.9 6 6/42 =0.15
44-44.9 8 8/42 =0.20
13 = 1.6 45-45.9 6 9/42 =0.15
8 46-46.9 10 10/42 =0.24
42 1.05
Histogram
Histogram
12
10
0
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
Column1
5. Interpret the descriptive results in “3” (Hint: use the Mean and Standard Deviation2 by approximating the
Histogram to the properties of the Normal Curve (Bell Curve).
Bell Curve
12
10
0
38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54
Column1
6. A rapid survey was conducted on voter’s preference with results tabulated in the Contingency Table below:
Table 2. Voters’ Preference for 2024 US Presidential Elections
TYPE OF VOTERS
CANDIDATE Total
Democratic Republican
Biden 363 156 519
Trump 125 338 463
Total 488 494 982
P(A) = 488 = 244 = 0.4969 = 49.69
982 491
7. Frame an appropriate research question or statement for the above Contingency Table and write the Null
Hypothesis (Ha) and Altenative Hypothesis (Ho).
(Ha)=proportion of the voters choose trump as candidate > 49.69
(Ho) =proportion of the voters choose trump as candidate < .49.69
8. Calculate the Expected Values (EVs) in each cell of the Contingency Table of EVs. Use the formula below:
Rn C n
Expected Value , ER ,C =
N
EV = 363 X 488
982
= 180.391 Biden and Demographic voters
EV = 156X488
982
= 77.523 Biden and Republican voters
125X494
EV = 982
= 62.8818 / 62.882 Trump and Democratic voters
338X494
EV =
982
=170.0325/ 170.033 Trump and Republican voters
9. Compute the Chi-Square (χ2) value using the formula below:
( Oi ,
χ2=∑
χ² = ((363 - ((488 X 519) / 982))^2 / ((488 X 519) / 982)) + ((156 - ((494 X 519) /
982))^2 / ((494 X 519) / 982)) + ((125 - ((488 X 463) / 982))^2 / ((488 X 463) /
982)) + ((338 - ((494 X 463) / 982))^2 / ((494 X 463) /
982))=180.51997377253414
=((O1-E1)^2/E1) + ((O2-E2)^2/E2) + ((O3-E3)^2/E3 + ((O4-E4)^2/E4)
O1= 363
O2= 156
O3= 125
O4= 338
E1= (488X519)/982
E2= (494X519)/982
E3= (488X463)/982
E4= (494X463)/982
10. Test the Null Hypothesis (Ho) by comparing the Chi-Square (χ2) value and Chi-Square (χ2) Distribution Table of
Critical Values. Interpret the results (Hint: use the Research Question in “7” as reference).