Programming Analysis Notes

Note was written by DCTYMT

PLEASE NOTE: (my hold harmless clause)

These study notes reflect what I thought was important to retain from the references.
These study notes are not intended to replace or supersede any study aid book
available.
These study notes are to be used as reference only, they do not guarantee a “PASS” grade for the NCARB exam.
There may be errors and omissions within the document, so do verify.
Not intended for sale.
 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
PA includes sections on the following content areas:
focuses on the evaluation of project requirements, constraints, and opportunities. You should be able to demonstrate an understanding of and
abilities in project type analysis, the establishment of qualitative and quantitative project requirements, evaluation of project site and context, and
assessment of economic issues.
Part A – Environmental & Contextual Conditions
In this section, you’ll evaluate a project site and identify both the opportunities and constraints that may impact future development.
1. Evaluate site-specific environmental and socio-cultural opportunities (A/E)
You will need to be able to analyze a project site and identify opportunities that could be incorporated into future site and building development.
These opportunities include the potential use of sun, wind, shading, views, water, and the neighborhood context, along with other environmental,
social, and cultural conditions.
2. Evaluate site-specific environmental constraints (A/E)
You will need to be able to analyze a project site and identify constraints and hazardous conditions that could limit a building’s location and future
site development. These constraints include issues like a floodplain, unstable soil, radon, lead, a brownfield, abandoned structures, and other
natural or built features.
3. Determine optimal use of onsite resources by incorporating sustainability principles (U/A)
You must be able to analyze a project site based on sun, wind, water, topography, temperature, and other environmental site data to inform
optimal building location, orientation, form and shape, footprint, and passive system design. You will also need to consider opportunities to
minimize disturbance of the site and existing natural features.

Part B – Codes & Regulations

In this section, you’ll look at the codes and regulations appropriate to the initial analysis and programming phase of a project.
1. Identify relevant code requirements for building and site types (U/A)
As an architect, you need to be able to determine and understand the codes and regulations that govern a specific project type and geographic
region. This includes distinguishing relevant accessibility and ADA requirements, IBC, IRC, IGCC, and energy codes.
2. Identify relevant zoning and land use requirements (U/A)
You need to be able to determine and understand requirements that limit the extent of site and building development. This includes issues like
setbacks, footprint limitations, maximum building heights, FAR, parking requirements, easements, and other zoning and land use regulations.
Recognizing situations where a special exception or variance is suitable and understanding the process for approval are also included in this
objective.
3. Identify relevant local and site-specific requirements (U/A)
You must be able to determine and understand local, environmental, and other specialty regulations and how they may impact the site and building
development. These include wetlands, floodplains, historic preservation, and other specialty codes.

Part C – Site Analysis & Programming

onsite responsibilities of an architect. This section is about the documentation necessary to the construction process. Clear written communication is
essential aspect of the construction process
1. Evaluate relevant qualitative and quantitative attributes of a site as they relate to a program (A/E)
This objective assesses your ability to analyze a project site relative to the requirements in the program to determine if it is appropriate and feasible
for development. You will need to consider the climate, topography, drainage, soil, built and natural features, utilities, access points, traffic
patterns, easements, and other attributes relevant to the project and program.
2. Synthesize site reports with other documentation and analysis (A/E)
In addition to analyzing the attributes of the site, you will also need to review and interpret site documentation such as geotechnical reports,
landscape reports, existing conditions, utility surveys, topographic maps, demographics, traffic studies, environmental data, historic reports, and
other site related reports. This is used to determine the feasibility of a project and verify the selection of site related consultants needed to execute
the project.
3. Analyze graphical representations regarding site analysis and site programming (A/E)
You must be able to evaluate and understand diagrammatic graphics and how they are used to represent and communicate site conditions,
relationships, and program requirements. These graphics include topographic, programming, circulation, adjacency, environmental, views, and
vegetation diagrams, which communicate site information and relationships.

Part D – Building Analysis & Programming

In this section, you’ll analyze new or existing buildings relative to the program requirements, cost, and schedule. This is the largest section in the
Programming & Analysis division.
1. Evaluate relevant qualitative and quantitative attributes of a new or existing building as they relate to the
program (A/E)
As an architect, you will need to analyze an existing or new building relative to the requirements in a project program to determine if it is
appropriate and feasible for renovation, repurposing, preservation, or demolition. You will consider the structural stability, spatial organization,
MEP systems, views, solar exposure, hazardous materials, and other attributes relevant to the project and program requirements.

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2. Evaluate documentation, reports, assessments, and analyses to inform the building program (A/E)
Similar to the site analysis of Section 3, you will also need to review and interpret technical documentation including geotechnical reports, structural
assessments, utility surveys, topographic maps, demographics, regional context, environmental data, historic reports, and other similar information.
This is used to consider the feasibility of a project and how the building program may be positively or negatively affected.
3. Identify and prioritize components of the building program (A/E)
As an architect, you must be able to review and understand the building program relative to the client’s requirements. This includes the
consideration of primary vs. subsidiary, back of house vs. front of house, occupied vs. unoccupied, as well as phasing and major circulation
components. Understanding the area requirements of a building type relative to the program, including net square footage and gross square
footage, is very important, as are how they relate to each other and the overall program requirements.
4. Assess spatial and functional relationships for the building program (A/E)
Spatial organization is an important aspect of architecture, so reviewing and analyzing the building program relative to both horizontal and vertical
spatial and functional relationships is an important assessment. You must consider the vertical relationships of shafts, stairs, conveying systems,
atriums, and other multi-level spaces, as well as the horizontal relationships including circulation, entry, loading, assembly, MEP spaces, and other
programmed spaces.
5. Recommend a preliminary project budget and schedule (U/A)
As an architect, you must be able to analyze available project information (master plans, existing documentation, program requirements, site
information, etc.) to determine a preliminary project schedule and cost. If the project budget and schedule have been defined by the client, you
should be able to evaluate this information to determine the feasibility of the project and provide appropriate recommendations.
6. Identify alternatives for building and structural systems for given programmatic requirements, preliminary
budget, and schedule (U/A)
You will need to understand various architectural, civil, structural, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems to determine the appropriateness of
each based on factors such as building type, function, program, availability, schedule, and cost. Even before the selection of each system, you will
need to be able to identify alternative systems that could fulfill the project requirements.
7. Analyze graphical representations regarding building analysis and building programming (A/E)
You will need to understand diagrammatic graphics and evaluate how they are used to communicate building relationships and other requirements.
These can include programming, circulation, adjacency, spatial, environmental, views, or other relevant building components.

Study Material
o 4.0 PPP, SPD study material, Kaplan Books
o 5.0 Ballast Reference, manual, practice exam & problem
o Building Codes Illustrated: Chapters 1,2,3,4,5,6,7(general understanding),18.
o Architectural Programming Primer:
o Site Planning and Design Handbook: Chapters 1,2,3,4,7,8,9(parts), Appendix A
o General Terminologies
o 2010 ADA (Refer CE note)
o Building Occupancy Type (Refer CE note)
Additional Supplemental Material
o Caroline Joseph`s PPP notes
o Fire protection, FW, FP, FB, SP, SB [Link]
o Hydrology: Ridges & Valleys [Link]
o Soil density and proctor test [Link]

Tips to Study
o Be familiar with different use and occupancy types, construction types, FAR, heights, Fire considerations and its
impact on site planning.
o Practice navigating through the IBC to find and reference appropriate tables for these items.
o all logical problems of space planning. Such like If this needs to be close to this, and this can't be next to that,
and this must be adjacent to this, then what is the layout.
o The most technical thing to pull out here is all the soils information. Be familiar with the different types of soil,
their characteristics, and their impact on design (structural), and terminology that describes soil conditions.
Know about different types of soil testing.
o Sustainable site design, basic architectural training in site design and orientation will be key here. Know about
solar orientation, prevailing winds, etc and best sustainable design practices.

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o Know about locating buildings near wetlands, or flood plains, etc.
o Know how to read surveys and topography maps. Know which way water will flow if you are reading topography
lines and how that will impact your building location. Topography slopes, soil angle of repose, etc.
o Know about Environmental Site Assessments, both phases, what they are, how they impact projects.
Brownfields.
o Be familiar with basic concepts and where things are located so you can easily navigate the Building Code.
o Know basic ADA guidelines regarding site design considerations (ramp slopes). Know about Zoning codes,
ordinances and how they affect your planning/site design.
o 1 acre = 43,560 [Link], a Section contains 640 acre (1 [Link] = 640 acre), ¼ of ¼ quarter section contains 40 acre.
1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 [Link].
o bubble diagrams to blocking diagrams.
o An exit toward to a dead-end at corridor shall not be more than 20 ft.
o For Code, get knowing about Title – 24, and title 24 is all the codes which used in CA….
o Spot elevation
o seismic or resistivity survey
o if a building sits right on the property line, then the fire rating shall be the highest which is a 4-hr firewall.
o Privity rule requires that man toilets shall be equal to female.
o Better to read through building system
Privity is a
o Soil capacity
o Defection is allowed, but shall be fall into a limitation
doctrine of
o Tolerance can be a good programmatic methodology. contract law that
says contracts
Content List are only binding
on the parties to
a contract and
I General Term Definition I 5
I Urban Development History & Planning I
that no third party 14
I Land & Site Analysis I can enforce the 31
I Building Analysis – Programming & Budgeting I contract or be 73
I Selection of Structural Systems I sued under it. 95
I Codes & Regulations During Programming I 105
I Additional - Arch Term Definition I 118
I Additional – Arch Brief History I 127

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I Key & Terminologies I
Architecture is the process of conceiving and developing physical forms to accommodate human needs and purposes.
Its basic purpose is to accommodate and facilitate human activities.

Architectural Design:
It is the process of giving form to an idea by setting objectives, analyzing information, planning spaces and the
conception of forms;
It puts together different parts to form a unified, interdependent composition; and
It requires the collaboration and coordination of a team of specialists.
 Typically, architectural design follows this process:
1. Statement of problem
2. Collection of data Steps 1 to 4 ⇒
3. Analysis of data Architectural Programming
4. Program
5. Design concept
6. Design development
7. Construction documents

Site design: is an exploration of possible solutions to a specific site problem for the conscious rearrangement of
the environment for human use, using design characteristics such as space, enclosure, scale, mass, and aesthetics.
During this process, the designer must become familiar with the client’s goals, the intended land use, and the parcel
of land itself. The various steps may occur in sequence; some may overlap, or occur simultaneously:
1. Project proposal: scope and cost of services, time (duration)
2. Research and analysis: collect, organize; analyze date from site, and client. Prepare a program
3. Design phase: diagrams, schematics, master plan, etc.
4. Construction phase: contract documents, landscaping plan, grading plan, etc.
5. Post construction: evaluate and maintain

Demography: statistical study of human populations.

Census: the means for gathering demographic information at a 10-year interval in the U.S., through a numeric
enumeration of the number of people, their conditions of living, and their resources.

Density: number of people per unit of area. Density only refers to a ratio, not the total number of people or how
they are distributed. Density should not be confused with crowding; high density does not imply crowding. The
perception of crowding depends on cultural influences and circumstances.

Population Size: the actual number of people in a given location, without regard to density.

Residential Density: measure of the number of people accommodated in a given area of land. It is important to
determine the density for planning public services such as public utility systems, and for calculating traffic volumes.
The density may be expressed in net or gross density.
• Net Density: inhabitants / housing land (it does not include streets)
• Gross Density: inhabitants / total land (including streets, local facilities, and open spaces)

Primary Social Group: group of persons with whom one has the most intimate and hence greatest variety of social
interactions – e.g. family.

Secondary Social Group: group of people with whom one has less intimate and more specialized interactions – e.g.

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classmates in the case of school children.

Primary Work Group: classification deals with the production or collection of resources, miners, farmers, fisherman…

Secondary Work Group: classification takes the raw materials collected or produced by the primary work group and
converts them into usable products  construction workers, factory workers…

Third Work Group: classification manages and services society and its industries & professionals: architect, teachers…

Use Network: It is a physical pattern of places that are used by individuals for residence, work, recreation, and cultivation,
all accessible by systems of convenient transportation, in a city or rural area.

Ergonomics: design based on the mechanics of the human body and its various senses.

Time and Motion Studies: system of studying the factory environment in order to improve productivity of an individual’s
physical effort. The result of these studies is to organize individuals into teams, and to alternate tasks among those
individuals.

Chance Encounter: it is the creation of spontaneous contacts which result in an exchange of information and ideas using
basic design principles such as:
• Movement and public spaces such as corridors;
• Horizontal arrangement of floors vs. multi-floor; fewer floors = more contact;
• Horizontal distances exceeding 200 to 300 ft, should be designed with social links between the different
increments.

Catchment Areas / Market Areas / Trade Areas / Tributary Areas: it is the surrounding base of population within a
geographical region, such as the people living at a certain distance from the proposed location of a shopping center, or
a school district for a school building. Simple gross population numbers are not enough to determine a catchment area;
information must be gathered from census data and local planning agencies.
• Catchment areas characteristics:
1. They may be defined by specific functions or population.
2. Their boundaries may be determined by geographic features (highway, river), artificial political boundaries
(city line, school district), or by nebulous demarcations (division between two ethnic groups). Boundaries are
often determined by the availability of transportation.
3. Catchment areas can overlap.
4. They may increase or decrease in size or come into existence.
5. They may be a result of population growth in an area.
6. They may be a result of a municipal development.
7. Residential catchments are determined by local transportation systems.
8. Zoning ordinances help to create and preserve catchment areas by specifying which land use are
permitted.
9. Existing catchment areas are subject to alteration.

Neighborhood Unit: it comprises a group of people with common need and goals for living, education, work,
recreation, and other activities.

Community: a group of several neighborhoods with total population between 20,000 and 100,000 people.

Housing Types: it is a fundamental element of urban planning.

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Single Family House/ Detached The dwelling is usually occupied by just one
House household or family, and consists of just
one dwelling
unit or suite.

Two-family House Two attached living units, either side by side or

one above the other

Row House Three or more attached units with a maximum

of eight attached units in most municipalities

Walk-up apartment Normally limited to 3 stories in height,

combines efficient land use with a comfortable
human scale

High-rise apartment Accommodates a large number of people

conveniently in relatively small areas of land

Housing Pattern: it is determined by the layout and configuration of streets, open space, and the apportionment of
land into building lots
Street Front Pattern Developed in a linear fashion, with houses and
apartments lining both sides of the street

End-on Pattern Consists of rows of units located at right angles

of streets

Court Pattern Groups units to face into a common open space

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PUD / Planned Unit Development: it refers to new development. It is an attempt to reinforce diversity and mixture;
each large parcel of land can have a mix of uses: residential, commercial, recreational, and open spaces designed with
variable lot sizes and densities. It is also the zoning designation used to achieve the cluster concept. PUD may also be
applied to industrial types of development. PUD’s have 3 major characteristics and 4 major advantages:
1. It involves large developments from an entire neighborhood to a new town.
2. It involves a mixture of uses and types.
3. It requires phased development extended over a long period of time.
4. Efficient use of land by grouping compatible uses.
5. The grouping allows for extra land to be given to open space
or common use areas.
6. Variety of housing options.
7. Recapture the diversity and variety of urban living.

Cluster Development: (housing development pattern) in this type of

development dwelling units are grouped and more densely sited than
in conventional developments. The remaining land serves as common
open space.

Inclusionary zoning (IZ): is an affordable housing tool that links the pro- duction of affordable housing to the
production of market-rate housing. IZ policies either require or encourage new residential developments to make a
certain percentage of the housing units affordable to low-income or moderate-income residents.

Overlay zoning: is a regulatory tool that creates a special zoning district, placed over an existing base zone(s), which
identifies special provisions in addition to those in the underlying base zone. The overlay district can share common
boundaries with the base zone or cut across base zone boundaries.

Urban redevelopment / Urban Renewal: (housing development pattern) (name for federally funded programs) it is a
form of PUD for central city areas. It refers to rebuilding in whole or in part.

Urban Pathology: including antisocial behavior are often caused by lack of opportunity, real and perceived; an
oppressive and hostile neighborhood; poverty; and lack of hope and means to pursue one’s personal aspirations.

RPC / Residential Planned Communities: (housing development pattern) allows the developers to integrate
residential, commercial, and industrial uses, and to divide the land into different density areas, based on the village-
neighborhood-town concept. Example: Columbia, Maryland.

CPTED / Crime Prevention through environmental design: Is the process of designing security into architecture.
Strategies are implemented through
• architectural design: the use of defensible space concepts that deny admission to a target and create a
perception that there is a risk in selecting a target; such concepts include natural access control, natural
surveillance, territorial reinforcement, and legitimate activity support.
• Mechanical access: including locks and window bars supplement natural and electronic access-control
measures
• Natural access: control elements include fences, hedges, and gates which create the perception that selecting
the target is a risk.
• electronic methods: including the use of locks, alarms, access control, electronic surveillance, and similar
techniques.
• organizational methods: include the use of human resources such as guards, door attendants, receptionists
and the like.

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Tenant Mix: variety of store types and facilities in a shopping center.

Homestead Act, 1862: this act was passed by the Congress when a large amount of public land was transferred to
private ownership. This act allowed for 160 acres of land to be given free to anyone who built a house and lived on the
land for 5 years.

Water table: it is the level underground in which the soil is saturated with water. The water generally follows the slope
of the grade above, but it may vary slightly. Boring logs will reveal whether groundwater is present and how dip it is.
Sites with high water tables – 6 to 8 ft below grade, can cause problems with excavations, foundations, utility
placements, and landscaping.
Earthwork: it includes excavating soil for the construction of a building foundation, water and sewer lines, and other
buried items as well as modifying the site’s land contours.

Wetlands / Jurisdictional wetlands: areas that are inundated or saturated by surface water or groundwater at a
frequency and duration sufficient to support vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.

Bio-swale / Swale: shallow and elongated grass-lined ditch or channel that is moist or marshy, designed to detain
storm runoff and remove sediments and other contaminants while allowing the water to seep into the ground
(increase rainwater infiltration).

Swamp: it is a wetland that features permanent inundation of large areas of land by shallow bodies of water, generally
with a substantial number of hammocks, or dry-land protrusions, covered by aquatic vegetation or vegetation that
tolerates periodical inundation.

Infiltration basin: closed depression in the earth from which water can only escape into the soil.

Excavation: removal of soil to allow construction of foundations and other permanent features below the finished level
of the grade.
• Trenching: A narrow and long excavation done for piping or for narrow footings and foundation walls is called.

Grading: modification of the contours of the site according to the grading plan.
• Rough grading: involves the moving of the soil prior to construction to approximate levels of the final grades.
• Finish grading: is the final moving of the soil prior to landscaping or paving.

Shoring: temporary support for excavation walls consisting of vertical beams and horizontal timbers.

Bracing: temporary support for excavation walls consisting of vertical sheeting, either wood or steel, supported by
diagonal braces.

Underpinning: it is a method to temporarily support existing foundations while they are being repaired or
strengthened or when they are being extended to a lower level.

Building Sewer: it is the portion of the horizontal piping of the sanitary sewer system outside the building. Min. slope is
0.5% to 2.0% depending on the size of the pipe. Greater slope is required for smaller pipes. A pipe with a diameter of 2
½ in or less must be placed at a slope of ¼ in/ft, a pipe with a diameter of 3 in to 6 in must be placed at a slope of 1/8
in/ft, and a pipe with a diameter of 8 in or more must be placed at a slope of 1/16 in/ft.

Invert in Sewer Pipe: it is the lowest elevations of the existing public sewer line, indicated as IL on drawings. It should
be established during planning because the effluent (out flowing of water) must flow from the lowest point where the
sewer lines leaves the building to the main sewer. Note: the actual connection of the building sewer to the main line

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must occur above the invert of the main line at any given point in order to interfere with the free flow.

Rise in Sewer Pipe: Gravity keeps water and other liquids flowing in pipes by way of sloped ground. The rise of sewer
pipes is the vertical height the pipe reaches from a fixed low point on the slope to a high point over a horizontal
distance, or the run. The slope angle determines the velocity of the flow -- water flows more quickly down a steeper
slope. Minimum slopes are set according to the size of the pipe and expressed as percentages.

Site Analysis Map: on this map information recorded during site analysis is overlaid and superimposed over a base
map.

Base Map: it is used as a background map for site analysis. It shows the site’s legal boundaries, contours, roads,
buildings, utilities, and other manmade key features.

Landform: refers to the shape of the earth’s surface. The natural shape of land affects how land is perceived, modified
and used. A level landform is flexible, practical, and highly desirable for the majority of human uses.
• Landscape: it is the continuous composition of various earth forms that blend into and reinforce one another.

Improvement: refers to any structure on a parcel of land which has value and improves the parcel’s usefulness. When
calculating land value, the improvement must represent the highest and best use of the land, that is, the use that is
most likely to produce the greatest net return over a given period of time.
• Under improvement will reduce the value of a property; the property is not producing the maximum income it is
capable of producing given its size, zoning and so on.
• Over improvement means that the cost of improvement exceeds potential revenue or income.

Eminent Domain: it is when an owner is required to relinquish his property to a government entity if the property is
needed for a public project (highway, school, road widening …) or for an overriding public need, such as structure in a
way of an aircraft flight path. In the first instance, the government exercises its powers of eminent domain, which
involves a condemnation proceeding. The owner of the property is entitled to a “just compensation” at the fair market
value of the land. Unless it is necessary, governmental agencies are reluctant to use this power because the legal
proceedings are complex, and they want to avoid the attendant publicity.

Condemnation: it is the legal process initiated by the public authority wishing to take the property in question to
exercise the power of eminent domain to transfer title to the property from its private owner to the government.

Subsurface Rights: refer to rights to oil and minerals under property that can be sold or leased.

Solar Rights: it refers to the right of a site or building to have access to solar radiation.

Riparian Rights: it is a system of rights and duties that determine the reasonable use, duties, and allocation of water to
owners of waterfront property; a person must own land adjacent to a body of water to be considered a riparian owner.
Riparian rights also depend upon "reasonable use" as it relates to other riparian owners to ensure that the rights of one
riparian owner are weighed fairly and equitably with the rights of adjacent riparian owners. These rights cannot be sold
or transferred other than with the adjoining land, and water cannot be transferred out of the watershed.
• Note: the owner does not own the water itself.

Development Rights Transfer: the owner of an historic property may “sell” the development rights to his property to
the owner of another nearby property, allowing that owner to develop his property at a higher density.

Exaction: it is a concept where a condition for development is imposed on a parcel of land that requires part of the
land to be dedicated to public use.

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Variance: it is a deviation from the zoning regulations applicable to a land parcel. It is used when zoning ordinances
create an undue hardship on a property owner or a zoning ordinance does not completely cover unusual conditions.

Nonconforming Uses: it is a use that is no longer permitted by the zoning ordinance. If a new zoning ordinance is being
applied to existing development, there may be properties that contain nonconforming uses. It concerns uses that do
not comply with current zoning regulations but that were permitted by the zoning ordinances in effect when the
structure was built. Nonconforming uses are allowed to continue unless they are unsafe, or the owner stops using the
property in its original fashion or the property is destroyed or demolished by fire. Any new use or rebuilding must be in
compliance with existing zoning standards.

Conditional Use Permit: it is granted by a zoning board for a special purpose for the welfare and convenience of the
public. It allows a nonconforming use or other use in the zoning ordinance if the property owner meets certain
restrictions. This is often done in the public interest. For example, a temporary street fair in a location where it will
normally be prohibited.

Spot Zoning: [favors a particular owner] the designation of a parcel of land for a use classification different from that of
the surrounding area to favor a particular owner.

Buildable area: it is the lot area minus the required setbacks. Structures are only allowed to be built in this area.

Fire Zones: geographic districts generally classified as high, moderate or low hazard based on population density,
building height, street access, and congestion that affect fire department response time, and the fire department’s
equipment and competence.

Life Cycle Cost Analysis / LCC: used to evaluate the economic performance of a material or building system over the
service life of the material or system. It includes all the costs associated with purchasing, installing, maintaining, and
disposing of an item from the time the item is installed in a building through the duration of the LCC study period. All
costs during the study period are discounted to convert future costs to their equivalent present values and account for
the time value of money.

Life Cycle Assessment / LCA: the LCA of a material evaluates the environmental impact from initial raw material
extraction to final recycling, reuse, or disposal.

PRO Forma Statement: 1) a financial projection for the development of a project meant to determine if the project is
feasible, given estimates on potential income and the cost of developing the project. It is a mean of determining a
project’s construction budget by listing labor and construction costs.

AD Valorem Tax: is a tax based on the assessed value of an item such as real estate or personal property. The most
common ad valorem taxes are property taxes levied on real estate. However, ad valorem taxes may also extend to a
number of tax applications, such as import duty taxes on goods from abroad.

Debt Service / Cost of Money: cost to pay off a construction loan for a project. It is considered to be an ongoing cost
over many years; it is not part of the original project cost.

Value Engineering (Value Analysis or Value Enhanced Design): a review process of proposed systems and materials
used to explore less expensive options that will achieve a similar result.

Prescriptive Building Code: specifies construction methods, and materials in detail. It is simple to administer but
discourages innovation. Most model codes follow this method.

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Performance Building Code: establishes the functional requirements that a structure must satisfy under specific
conditions. It promotes innovation in building design, but it may be difficult to administer.

Off-street requirements: parking spaces within property lines as required by a city ordinance and often expressed as
parking spaces per dwelling unit or per commercial space.

Wind chill factor: is the felt air temperature on exposed skin due to wind. The wind chill temperature is always lower
than the air temperature. This factor has a great effect on building energy consumption for heating.

Functional Program: it is information or data provided by the owner for the analysis and creation of a facilities
program.

Facilities Program: it is a program that considers scope, area minimums, area adjacencies, ballpark costs and site
analysis based on a functional program.

Room Data Sheets: those sheets list all of the relationships requirements in a given room, including layout, equipment,
activity zones, and lighting, temperature, and comfort requirements. For example, several diagnostic imaging
departments may have different needs; therefore, each will have a room data sheet.

Amortization: it refers to spreading payments over multiple periods.

Biophilia: human love of life and living systems; it is the attractions and positive feelings that people have toward
certain habitats, activities, and objects in their natural surroundings.

Organic feedstock: it is an organic matter that mold can eat. Mold cannot eat inorganic materials such as concrete.

U-Factor / U-Value: it describes how well a building element transfers heat. Low U-value = slow heat loss or gain (ex.
Brick wall); High U-value = high heat loss or gain (ex: window)

R-Value: it measures the thermal resistance in a building component.

Thermal Inertia: put simply, it is the ability of a material to store heat. For example, concrete walls in an arid climate
have a high thermal inertia because they store heat in daytime and release it slowly at nighttime.

Design temperature: it is the average temperature that a mechanical system is designed for heating (how cold the
temperature gets) and cooling (how warm the temperature gets).

Primogeniture: is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn to inherit the entire estate, to the exclusion of younger
siblings; land was passed from father to eldest son.

Standpipe: it is a type of rigid water piping which is built into multi-story buildings in a vertical position, to which fire
hoses can be connected, allowing manual application of water to the fire. Within buildings standpipes thus serve the
same purpose as fire hydrants. They are required in buildings that are 3+stories and
they should be operational during construction.
• Wet Standpipe: it is filled with water from a public supply and is pressurized
at all times and they can be used by building occupants. There is usually a
requirement for a fire department connection to a Siamese Fitting (See
Picture right), which permits the fire department to increase water pressure

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
and flow in the wet standpipe.
• Dry Standpipe: only a Siamese fitting for the fire department and it is used only when needed for firefighting.
It is not filled with water and it is not connected to a constant public water supply; fire engines supply the
water to the system. They are generally located in smokeproof stair towers and in enclosed stairway, for the
exclusive use of the fire department.
• Combination Standpipe: it is a combination of both wet and dry, and they are pressurized by a constant water
supply and have a fire department Siamese fitting. It serves both occupants and fire department, but primarily
used by fire department. Not all codes allow combination standpipes.

BOMA International: it stands for Building Owners and Managers Association. It is a professional organization for
commercial real estate professionals. These professionals monitor and lobby pertinent legislative, regulatory and
codes/standards issues in relation to the commercial real estate industry. It is a primary source of information on
building management and operations, development, leasing, building operating costs, energy consumption patterns,
local and national building codes, legislation, occupancy statistics, technological developments and other industry
trends. BOMA International has also set standards for measuring buildings and calculating rentable area.

Fair Housing Act: it is a law that prohibits housing discrimination of the basis of race, color, religion, sex, disability,
familial status, and national origin.

HUD: it stands for the US Department of Housing and Urban Development. Its purpose is to develop and execute
policies on housing and metropolises.

CONSIDERATIONS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Design: is the process of giving form to an idea, thus, it results in a purposeful, physical creation that serves a practical
need.

Methodical Approach of Architectural Design:

• Design examines the problem
• Available technologies and resources
• Physical solution seeking

Interrelationship of Architectural Design Considerations

Graceful in Silhouette
Integrity & Honesty
& Massing

Purpose & Function Economy of Means Human Scale

Utilization of Technologies Visual Richness

Utilization of Resources Spatial Forum for Human

BUILDING HUMAN
Contact
Basic Principles & Physical
Design Concepts Expression of Spiritual
SITE Aspirations
Interior – Exterior Relationship
Exhibiting Exuberance
Multi Purposes
Site
Landscape Site – Structure Characteristics
Relationship

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
I Urban Development History & Planning I
URBAN DEVELOPMENT
o General
• Cities begun near a major geographic feature such as the junction of two rivers tended to develop along the
water and ultimately away from it. When begun in less confining circumstances, cities have grown more or
less equally in all directions, usually in a uniform grid pattern. The constant challenge of urban design is to
set down forms which aid and allow future expansion.

o Historical Influences of Development

• Layout: Living quarters surrounded the

First Human granary, the temple, and the palace.
Settlements
• Security: Walled in or situated in a
tactical position for protection.

• Layout: Laid out like the first human

Greek Colonial settlements but more developed. More
Town activities required more and separate
(Hippodamus spaces. A rectilinear pattern of blocks was
Miletus used to form a town.
Adaptation of
Geometry to • Security: Enclosure wall was irregular and
the determined by the topography.
Irregularities of
Site)
• General: Had 2-main intersecting streets:
Cardo and Decumanus. Two types of
Roman Towns: Commercial
Town/Oppidum, Military Camp/Castrum

• Location: Town’s location depended on

Roman the productivity of the surrounding
Colonial Town regions & territorial control for strategic
land areas.

• Layout: Used the rectilinear form of

blocks to form a town.

• Security: Enclosure wall were regular.

• Location: Often built on the foundations

of pre-existing Roman outpost towns.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
• Layout: Started at the crossroads of 2-
main streets. The town adjusted to the
site conditions => irregular shape that
seemed to lack geometrical order. Towns
were founded and planned with the use
of orderly geometry (rectilinear, circular
and radio-centric). Medieval cities were
organized around the church and the
Earlier market because these represented the
Medieval Town two most important aspects of life. These
structures were located near the center
of the City and were surrounded by an
informal ring of streets loosely connected
by intersecting streets that ran from the
church to the gates of the City wall. They
were often built on earlier Roman
foundations and often adjusted to meet
particular conditions.
• Security: Towns are walled for defense
and defended on hygienic practices. (i.e.
waste removal)

• Layout: Like a Star-Shaped City: Regularly

spaced bastions at points around the wall
so that the entire enclosure and all
approaches to the City could be
defended. Street radiated from out from
Later Medieval the center allowing the defense to be
Cities controlled from one point and easy
movement of materials and troops.

• Security: The invention of gunpowder

required more protection.

• General: Planners paid more attention to

aesthetics of urban design. Recalled the
principle and forms of the classical world
in architecture & town planning.

• Layout: City plans combined symmetrical

Renaissance order and radial layout of streets focused
Cities on points of interest. The primary
organization was overlaid on a grid of
secondary streets or over existing road
systems. Used the town square/classical
forum/plazas that served as a gathering

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
place as well as setting for principal public
buildings.

• General: The concept was applied first for

forest landscapes and later applied to
towns.

• Connector: Boulevards were used to

unite the various parts of a larger, often
expanding City.
Baroque
• Focus: Plazas were used as a convening
public forum in a compact town.

• Example: Vista avenues in Versailles used

in French landscape architecture to make
large expanses of terrain visible.

• Factory System: Work force had to be

close to the factory, source of power, and
transportation = population increase in
Industrial factory town => overcrowding, filthy,
Revolution devoid of open space, and recreational
activities.

• General: Result of the reform movement

and published by Ebenezer Howard in
Garden City 1898.S.
Concept
• Concept: Combine the best of the City
and Country-living in his town-country
idea.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT

• General: Result of the reform movement

and published by Tony Garnier in 1917. 1st
concept to emphasize the idea of zoning.

• Concept: It is a model industrial City. It

suggests the separation of the Work from
City Industrial housing; separate zones for residential,
Concept public, industrial, and agricultural use,
linked by separate circulation paths for
vehicles and pedestrians. Buildings would
be placed on long narrow lots with ample
open space between them.

• General: Encouraged by the Ordinance of

1785 which established the rectangular
survey system / ubiquitous system of the
U.S. The system divided the country into
a grid of:
 Checks – 24-mile square, each
subdivided into 16 =>
 Townships – 6-mile on a side, each
further divided into 36 =>
 Section – 1-mile square.

Gridiron Street • Concept: Regularly planned public open

System spaces and uniform spacing and setbacks
of buildings.

• Note: Regularly planned public open

spaces and uniform spacing and setbacks
of buildings.

• Concept: It is an extension of the idea

that entirely new communities can be
built away from the crowding and
ugliness of existing cities. These new
towns were supposed to be autonomous
New Town centers surrounded by a greenbelt, but
Concept they never became truly independent
because they lacked significant
employment centers; they still depended
on nearby cities for jobs.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
• Concept: Attempt to counter the many
undesirable aspects of City development
(urban sprawl, automobile dependence,
environmental deterioration, housing
segregation, loss of farmland, single use
development. One of the primary design
features is the development of
neighborhoods intended for mix use. It
promotes the connection of
New Urbanism neighborhoods and towns to regional
patterns of bicycle and public
transportation, and pedestrian systems. It
encourages buildings to be integrated
with their surroundings and supports the
preservation and reuse of historic
structures.
• Leon Krier is a representative of New
Urbanism and New Classical architecture.

• Most basic components of the City were present in ancient Greek Cities, but in a more form.
 Agora  Marketplace, where is for trading goods, gathering, exchanging news, and conducting business.
 Encased by walls for security and many other facilities developed such: theaters, stadiums etc.

o Industrial Revolution
• It started 18th – 19th centuries in England brought about a fundamental change in the design of cities. The
factory system required that the work force be close to the factory – the source of power – and to
transportation and distribution outlets. As production expanded, so did the populations of the factory towns.
The emphasis was on turning out goods, not on social or aesthetic concerns, and the cities soon became
overcrowded, filthy, and devoid of open space and recreational activities. The living conditions brought
about by the Industrial Revolution spawned a reform movement. Many of the 1st reformers were concerned
most with alleviating the deplorable housing conditions that existed, reducing crowding, and improving the
water supply and sewage systems.

o New Urbanism
• It is a more recent planning that attempts to counter the many undesirable aspects of City development,
including suburban sprawl, reliance on the automobile, environmental deterioration, housing segregation,
loss of farmland, and single-use development. It promotes the connection of neighborhoods and towns to
regional patterns of pedestrian, bicycle, and public transit systems while reducing dependence on the
automobile. The primary urban design features are the development of neighborhoods intended for mixed
use: housing located within walking distance of shops, offices, and other services, and a variety of residential
types, from apartments above shops to single-family houses. At the street and building level, new urbanism
encourages individual buildings to be integrated with their surroundings, to support the street as a place for
pedestrians, and to provide users with a clear sense of location and time.

o Urban Planners

Name Known For

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio • The architectural (On Architecture), a handbook for Roman architects.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
Roman architect, engineer, • The architectural is divided into 10 books dealing with city planning and
and author architecture in general; building materials; temple construction and the use of the
Greek orders; public buildings (theatres, baths); private buildings; floors and
stucco decoration; hydraulics; clocks, mensuration, and astronomy; and civil and
military engines.

Christopher Wren • Master plan for rebuilding the City of London after the Great Fire of 1666.
Astronomer, Geometer, • Designed 51 churches in the City of London.
Mathematician-physicist, • Proposed main avenues linking major religious and commercial facilities. These
Architect were to be superimposed on a Gridiron Plan for other streets.
United Kingdom • Work: St. Paul’s Cathedral (1719)

Georges-Eugène • Responsible for the plan to rebuild and “Modernize” Paris under Napoléon III.
Haussmann • Rebuilding of Paris plan inspired some of the most important architectural
(A.K.A. Baron Haussmann) movements including the City Beautiful Movement in the United States.
Civic Planner • Encompassed all aspects of urban planning, both in the City center and in the
France surrounding districts.
• Cut down the Luxembourg Garden and destroyed much of the old City with
twisting streets and rundown apartments.
• Advocated straight, arterial boulevards connecting principal historic buildings,
monuments, and open squares. These were designed to create vistas and work in
conjunction with the major buildings that were part of the plan.
• Influenced by the frequency of street revolutions, now streets were too broad for
rebels to build barricades and military could assemble and get through.

Camillo Sitte • Authority on urban construction planning and regulation in Europe.

Architect / City Planning • Wrote “City Planning According to Artistic Principles” which suggested that the
Theorist / Painter / Art quality of urban space is more important than architectural form (the whole is
Historian much more than sum of its parts).
Austrian • Proposed using T-intersections to reduce the number of intersection traffic
conflicts and suggested creating Civic spaces around pinwheel arrangement of
streets, which became known as a Turbine Square.
• Proposed Cities that shall be laid out on the principles of Medieval Towns, with
curving and irregular streets because this street configuration would provide a
variety of views and be much more interesting than standard grid and radial City
layouts of the time. He believed Greek spaces like the Agora (gathering place) or
Forum (marketplace) were good urban spaces.
• Said a public square should be seen as a room and should form an enclosed space.
• Churches and monuments should not be isolated but integrated into the squares.
• Thought that the experience of an irregular urban structure with big plazas and
monuments was more appropriate than the hygienic planning procedures in
practice at the time.

Tony Garnier • Wrote “Une Cité Industrielle” in 1917, was another reaction to the conditions of
Architect / City Planner the Industrial Revolution. It suggested that functions of a City could be separated
France by zoning into four categories: residential, public, industrial, and agricultural
uses, linked by separated circulation paths for vehicles and pedestrians. The
buildings were placed on long, narrow lots with ample open space between them.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
• Schools and vocational schools are placed near the industries they’re related to,
and there are no churches or government/ police buildings so man can rule
himself.
• Pioneered the use of reinforced concrete.
• Designed innovative building block with free standing houses.
• Enormous open spaces. There are few squares or parks.
• Trees are incorporated into important streets.
• Designed Hall Tony Garnier in Paris, Lyon-1905.

James Edward • Savannah (grid with interior squares), Georgia, was designed in 1733.
Oglethorpe • Basic unit of the Oglethorpe’s Plan was the Ward, a plot of land about 600 feet
Statesman / Soldier / square. Each Ward contained Four-residential blocks (containing a total of 40-
Agriculturalist residential lots) and Four-Civic blocks intended for public buildings, which were
United Kingdom arranged around an open central square, two-side of which were reserved for
public use.
• Wards were bounded by major streets arranged in a regular grid.
• Addition: as U.S. moved to West, the grid system was further developed from
Checks into Townships and subdivided into Sections.

Ebenezer Howard • Wrote “Garden Cities of To-morrow” which describe a utopian City where people
Writer / Parliament Record live harmoniously with nature, the basis for the Garden City Movement.
Keeper • The book offered a vision of towns free of slums and enjoying the benefits of both
United Kingdom town (such as opportunity, amusement and good wages) and country (such as
beauty, fresh air and low rents). He illustrated the idea with his famous Three
Magnets Diagram (pictured), which addressed the question “Where will the
people go?”, the choices being “Town”, “Country” or “Town-Country”.
• Two Cities were built in England: 1st garden city Letchworth in 1903 / Welwyn
Garden City in 1920. They did not become independent Cities but instead became
Satellite Towns, smaller towns dependent on larger towns nearby for business.

Daniel Hudson • Director of works and designed the general plan of the World’s Columbian
Burnham Exposition in Chicago.
Architect / Urban Planner • Designed one of the first skyscrapers: The Masonic Temple Building, which was 21
stories tall, and a skeleton frame.
• Designed the Flatiron Building in New York and Union Station in Washington DC,
as well as the Monadnock, Reliance Building, and Rookery offices.
• Prepared the Plan of Chicago which laid out plans for the future of the City to
controlled growth and suggested that every citizen should be within walking
distance of a park.
• Helped with the McMillan Plan which led to the overall design of the national mall
in Washington DC.

Clarence Samuel • Major proponent of the Garden City Movement in the USA
Stein Collaborated with Henry Wright to design Rayburn, New Jersey a garden suburb
Architect / Urban Planner / noted for its superblock layout and for the total separation between the
Writer automobile and the pedestrian.

Henry Wright • Major proponent of the Garden City, an idea characterized by green belts and
Landscape Architect created by Sir Ebenezer Howard

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
• Wright became one of the core members of the Regional Planning Association of
America, along with Clarence
• Stein, Lewis Mumford, and Benton MacKaye, and it was this association that led to
Wright's most well-known work.

Lewis Mumford • Believed that what sets humans apart from animals is not our use of tools, but our
Historian / Author use of language/symbols.
• Critical of urban sprawl and argued that the structure of modern cities is partially
responsible for social problems seen in western society. Argues that urban
planning should emphasize organic relationships @ people and living spaces.
• Said the medieval city should be the basis of the ideal city.
• Modern cities are too much like Roman cities (a sprawling megalopolis) which
ended in collapse.

Frederick Law • “The father of Landscape Architecture”. leader in landscape and park design.
Olmstead • Famous for designing Central Park and Prospect Park as well as many parks
Journalist / Landscape throughout the country.
Architect • Prospect Park in Brooklyn / Riverside Park in New York / Audubon Park in New
U.S. Orleans / Metropolitan Parks Systems in Boston / Grounds of the DC, U.S.
• American urban design began with the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893
along with Architect. Daniel Burnham and John Root. And this exposition became
the prototype of a city.

Pierre Charles • Designed the layout of the streets in Washington DC, which was one early
L’ Enfant American City.
Architect / Civil Engineer • Submitted plans for the federal City in Washington DC that followed Baroque
France planning elements including grand radial avenues, sight lines, ceremonial spaces,
and respect of natural contours of the land. The two most important buildings on
the avenues were to be the houses of Congress and the White House.
• Visual connections would be made down avenues to ideal sites throughout the
City, including buildings, monuments, and fountains.
• Was dismissed of his duties and City plan was awarded to surveyor Andrew
Ellicott, who's revisions became the basis for the development.
• In 1901 a partial redesign of the capital used L’Enfant plans, including the
development of the national mall where his largest avenue was originally
intended.

Clarence Arthur • A strong advocate of “The Neighborhood Unit” – neighborhood community and
Perry recreation center.
Planner / Writer • Proposed as a way of bringing people together to discuss common problems and
U.S. to become involved in the planning process with formulating the 6 Principles:
Urban Concept 1. No major traffic arterials or through routes should pass through
residential neighborhoods
2. Use cul-de-sac, curvilinear layouts, and low volume roadways to preserve
a quiet and safe residential atmosphere
3. The population of a typical neighborhood should be around 5,000
4. The neighborhood focal point will be the elementary school, centrally
situated on a common green space, which would serve as a community

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
center of neighborhood activity. This principle would facilitate the
main proposal of the concept.
5. The neighborhood should be designed for a density roughly 10 families
per acre and occupy 160 acres of land
6. There should be shopping facilities, churches, library, and a community center
in conjunction with the school. 10% of the area should be allocated to
recreation.

Frand Lioyd Wright • From 1920s and 2930s, envisioned Cities with Vast Open Spaces.
/ Le Corbusier • Wright proposed Broadacre City which every home should be situated on at least
Architect an acre of land.
U.S.  Wright’s idea of City planning is all people should have abundant space and be
free of the tyranny of centralization.
• Le Corbusier envisioned a city consisting of office and housing towers surrounded
by large green spaces.
 Corbusier’s ideas of City planning were influenced in large measure by
Garnier’s City Planning.
• Both of Wright and Corbusier were against the dense, unsanitary, and haphazard
development of City brought about by the Industrial Revolution.

Patrick Geddes • Responsible for introducing the concept of Region to architecture.

Biologist / Town Planner • Believed that by changing spatial form, it would be possible to change the social
France structure as well.
• Geddes championed a mode of planning that sought to consider "primary human
needs" in every intervention, engaging in "constructive and conservative surgery"
rather than the "heroic, all of a piece schemes" popular in the 19th and early 20th
centuries, he emphasized the preservation of human life and energy rather than
superficial beautification. The happiness, health, and comfort of all residents are
more important than the roads and park for the rich.
• He coined the word “Conurbation”: a region comprising several cities, large
towns, and other urban areas that, through population growth and physical
expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban and industrially developed
area.

Ludwig Karl Hilberseimer • Taught at the Bauhaus.

Architect / Urban Planner • Wrote City Plan which emphasized street hierarchy including safety for children to
German, American walk to walk to school while increasing the speed of vehicular circulation.
• Developed studies for The New Town Center which was a dissolution of major
cities and a complete penetration of landscape and settlement.
• In order to create a sustainable relationship between human’s industry, and
nature, human habitation should be built in a way to secure people against
disaster and crisis.

Christopher Wolfgang • Wrote “A Pattern Language” which describes a practical architectural system
Alexander called a “Generative Form”. The reasoning is that users know more about the
Architect buildings they need than any Architect could; the “Pattern Language” is designed
to empower anyone to design and build at any scale.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
Jane Jacobs • Wrote “The Death and Life of Great American Cities” which is a critique of urban
Writer / Activist / Urban renewal policy of the 1950s and how they destroyed communities and created
Theorist isolated, unnatural urban spaces.
• Jacobs advocated the abolition of zoning laws and restoration of free markets in
land, which would result in vibrant, dense, and mixed-use neighborhoods and
communities.
• Frequently cited “Greenwich Village” as an example of a vibrant urban
community.
• Coined phrase “Eyes on the Street” a reference to natural surveillance by people
in their neighborhood.

Kevin Lynch • Imageability and Wayfinding: it links the urban scale with the community scale. It
Urban Planner / Author is the quality of environment that gives it a high probability of evoking a strong
U.S. image in the mind of a given observer. Example: Paris can be considered to be an
Urban Concept imageable city, the hills of San Francisco are part of the image of the city in the
minds of most people who visit or live there. It is a vital tool for orientation, way-
finding, and general well-being.
• The Image of the City Each individual construct a mental picture of his or her
environment that may be stable in overall form but is forever changing in detail.
Thus, they form a collective image.
• Five Elements:
 Paths
- These are the streets, sidewalks, trails, canals, railroads, and other
channels in which people travel;
- They arrange space and movement between space.
 Edges
- Boundaries;
- They can be either Real or Perceived;
- These are walls, buildings, and shorelines, curbstone, streets, overpasses.
 Districts
- Medium to large areas that are two-dimensional;
- An individual enters into and out of these areas;
- Have common identifying characteristics.
 Nodes
- Large areas you can enter, serve as the foci of the city, neighborhood,
district, etc.;
- Offers the person in them multiple perspectives of the other core
elements.
 Landmarks
- Points of reference person cannot enter into;
- These are buildings, signs, stores, mountains, public art;
- Mobile Points (such as Sun) can be used as well.

Oscar Niemeyer • Niemeyer wrote “Defensible Space & Creating Defensible Space”, encompasses
Architect ideas about crime prevention and neighborhood safety.
Brazil • 4 – Factors make a defensible space:
Urban Concept 1. Territoriality: the idea that one’s home is sacred – it is mine therefore I will
protect it;

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
2. Natural Surveillance: the link between an area’s physical characteristics and
the residents' ability to see what is happening;
3. Image: the capacity of the physical design to impart a sense of security;
4. Milieu: other features that may affect security, such as proximity to a police
substation or busy commercial area.
o Development Growth Pattern
• Two developments of a City can be viewed on two scales:
 Larger Scale of City / Metropolitan Region
 Smaller Scale of an Individual Community and Neighborhood
• Cities have grown equally in all directions, usually in a uniform grid pattern. With the proliferation of the
automobile, cities have expanded in several typical patterns.

• Development occurs along corridors of public

Finger Plan transit and automobile expressway routes

• It does not have a dominant center. Consists

of varying centers of activity. Each center is
Cluster Form served by an interconnected system of
expressways and other arterial roads
providing multi-directional travel through the
region connecting the cluster centers with
each other and with the urban core.

• Variant of the cluster form. It has a dominant

Satellite Pattern center. Each satellite is a regional civic,
cultural and commercial center. Expressways
and rapid transit systems connect the
satellites to each other and to the central
urban core.

• A City or several cities strong out in a

continuous line and connected by a
transportation spine.
• It is useful where major circulation occurs
between two points.
Linear Pattern • If lengths are reasonable, it can be an
economical form, but it often lacks a focus
and may become congested.
• Disadvantages: further development may be
limited by availability of land or by the
distance between extreme ends.
• Example: eastern seaboard in the U.S.A.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT

• More major urban centers. (metropolises)

near each outer grow together as the space
between them is developed.
Megalopolis • It is an extensive linear arrangement of cities.
Those cities function separately; physically
however they have continuity.
• Example: S. California, Los Angeles

• City is formed at the junction of two roads and

laid out in the prevalent pattern. Growth
simply follows the grid pattern until some
Expanding or natural feature, limiting population stops it.
Gridiron Grid / Usually found in smaller cities.
Rectilinear • Example: Philadelphia
Pattern

• It has no central focus or apparent overall

organization scheme. Development takes
place in an amorphous network of highways
Field Pattern and natural features.
• Example: Los Angeles

• Large circular urban form with a series of

radial bands of intense development
emanating from the central core.
• This is appropriate where the elements have a
Radial-centric common origin or destination.
Pattern • Disadvantage: since all paths emanate from a
common point, this pattern can be inflexible.
• Example: Washington DC

• Revolves around the urban core, and

development follows radiating spokes of main
highways or mass transit routes.
Star Pattern • It is a radio-centric form with open spaces, or
low density agricultural bands, or fingers of
development.
• Example: Baltimore, Chicago

• Linear form encircling an open undeveloped

area, such as a body of water or a reserve.
Ring Shaped • Example: Cities of Holland

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT

• Shaped of an extensive urban area without

specific focal points, well defined routes, or
Sheet articulated form. It describes low density
development
• Example: St Petersburg, Tampa

• Large, dense urban core is surrounded by

other major urban areas. The satellite areas
are linked to the City in the center by major
Satellite highways, and it connected by a circular road
system called a beltway, making it possible to
travel between them without going through
the City in the center.
• Example: Houston

• Series of urban developments of

approximately equal size and population
Constellation located fairly close to each other but without
a dominating center.
• Example: US Midwestern Cities

• An outgrowth of the new town concept.

• It minimizes the impact of the car on housing
and allows the development of pedestrian
circulation and park space within the block.
• Contemporary life revolves around the
Superblock automobile, this separation of the automobile
Urban Concept on the side of the house was latterly found
counterproductive to neighborhood social
interaction. As a result, the driveways and
parking spaces in superblocks are often used
more than the quiet park spaces.
• Example: 1st trials New Town of Radburn,
New Jersey.
• Concept was adopted by:
 Chandigarh, India, by Le Corbusier
 Brasillia by Lucio Costa and Oscar
Niemeyer,

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
• Each large parcel of land is designed to have a
mix of uses – residential, commercial,
recreational, and open space. It is designed
with a variety of lot sizes and densities.
• Industrial Development can be planned as
PUDs.
• Standards for PUDs include permitted uses:
Planned Unit  % FAR
Development  % Open space
(PUD)  % Living space
 Number & Config of Parking space
 Building Heights
 Setbacks
• Advantages:
 More efficient use of land by grouping
compatible use without setback zoning
ordinances
 Grouping allows the extra land to be
allocated for open space or common use
areas.
 Provide a variety of housing options, from
single-family detached to row houses to
high-rise apartments and condominiums.
 It recaptures diversity and variety of
urban living.

• Connect areas of urban sprawl with each

Planned Unit other and with downtown areas through
Development construction of light-rail, subways, and other
(PUD) mass transit.
• It is construction that takes place in areas
surrounding transit stops; it usually includes a
relatively high density of living units,
commercial development, and other support
services.
• For people to life, work, eat and take care
day2day needs without an automobile.
• Example: Tokyo, Shanghai, Manhattan NY.

o World Columbian Exposition

• It was held in Chicago and was designed by architects Daniel Burnham and John Root, and by landscape
architect Frederick Law Olmsted. The expo grouped classical buildings symmetrically around formal courts of
honor – White City, reflecting pools, and large promenades. It started the City Beautiful movement in the
United States and revived interest in urban planning. The expo resulted in having civic centers organized
around formal parks, a proliferation of classical public buildings, and broad tree-lined parkways and streets.

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 Held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New
World in 1492.
 The prototype of what they thought a city should be
 Showed desirable results could be achieved through organized efforts
 Designed to follow Beaux Arts principles and French neoclassical architecture based on symmetry,
balance, and splendor.

o Pattern of Land Use

• As a general rule older city follow the sector pattern and more recent cities follow the concentric zone
pattern.

• It is a series of concentric rings around an

original central business district or original
center. The rings are the results of progressive
phases of growth. The pattern within each
ring is determined by the type of urban
Concentric Zone transportation in predominant use during the
Pattern zones development. The rings do not have
precise boundaries; they blend one into the
other.
• It was the first model to give the explanation
of distribution of social groups within urban
areas/explain urban structures.
• Transition Zone: Commercial + Residential
Mixed Zone.

• The sector pattern suggested that zones

expand outward from the City center along
railroads, highways, and other transportation
Sector Pattern arteries. Land use are portrayed by pie-
shaped wedges radiating from the center of
the City. This model however varies from City
to City. Land values & housing costs are
related to the pattern of the sectors.

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• While a City may have started with a central
business district, similar industries with
common land-use and financial requirements
are established near each other. These
groupings influence their immediate
neighborhood. Example: Hotels and
restaurants spring up around airports, for
example. The number and kinds of nuclei
mark a City's growth.
Multiple Nuclei • It is a City composed of several distinct nuclei
Pattern reflected by all or some of these factors:
1. Nuclei are similar in purpose as well as
form – shopping center
2. Similar activities tend to group together
for mutual benefit – offices + shipping +
manufacturing
3. Activities have similar long-distance
transportation access (airport + highway)
4. Activities and land values influence one
another

o City Beautiful Movement Concept

• Its goal was to improve urban habitability and appearance, as well as social betterment for all. Another part
of this concept revolved around using environmental design concepts geared to industrial technology.
Importance was given to the management and conservation of natural resources, as well as the
development of techniques for metropolitan planning.

HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF URBAN PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

o Natural resource conservation and management, 1920’s consisted of:
• Re-planning of NY state by Wright & Stein to utilize land resources rationally & distributing urban and rural
population workably = conserving natural resources, restoring damaged landscapes, rebuilding obsolete
cities or towns, accommodating future growth
• Developments of technique of metropolitan planning in NY through the Regional Planning Association of NY.

o Radburn, NJ, Henry Wright & Clarence Stein

• Environmental design concept geared towards technology, it introduced a circulation network that included
a separate pedestrian system and a street pattern that prevented through automobile traffic. (see Urban
Concepts).

o Le Corbusier, Contemporary City, 1922

• Cities with vast open spaces => office & housing towers surrounded by large green spaces

o Frank Lloyd Wright, Broadacre City, 1932

• Cities with vast open spaces = every home situated on at least 1 Acre of land.

o City of Reston, Virginia by Robert Simon, 1964

• It was influenced by the Radburn city plan. It was the first modern post-war planned community, and
features a series of underpasses that promote travel on foot

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HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF URBAN PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT CHART

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I Land & Site Analysis I
SITE ANALYSIS IN GENERAL
Site analysis is the prequel to site design. It is the process of investigating basic data that relates to a particular site
(survey information, topographic data, geological information, zoning ordinances, existing character, microclimate…).
The purpose of site analysis is to determine whether a parcel of land is suitable for a specific proposed use, and it begins
when all the basic site data are collected. Once site data is collected, a base map is prepared, and the resulting site
analysis information is recorded on a site analysis map overlaid on the base map. The following is a list of some basic
data that must be gathered and analyzed for a complete site analysis:

Climate: every site is affected by macroclimate & microclimate (Temperature, Precipitation, Snowfall, Wind Intensity,
Humidity Patterns, Solar Angles, Day of Sunlight, Frost Data)

Topography: land development is strongly influenced by the form of a site’s surface features (Elevations, Slope Amount
and Direction, Unique Landforms, Natural Drainage Patterns)

Soils: determine the soils capacity to support buildings, roads, and plant materials (Soil Types, Moisture Content, Depth
of Organic Topsoil, Depth to Water Table, Depth to Bedrock, Drainage Characteristics, Susceptibility to Compaction, Soil
Fertility, Rock Outcroppings)

Hydrology: refers to the occurrence, movement, and quality of water on a site (Form of Surface Water Like Streams and
Lakes, Drainage Patterns, Runoff Rates, Subsurface Water Characteristics, Aquifer Water-Bearing Zones)

Vegetation: plant types and patterns represent a major site resource and often determine the form of development.
(Types and Extend of Vegetation, Density of Vegetation, Heights of Vegetation, Health of Vegetation)

Existing land use: consider manmade features on and around the site, such as structures, circulation systems, and
activity patterns. (Existing Roads, Paths, Utility Lines, Air and Rail Facilities; Type and Number of Structures, Uses of Open
Space, Human Behavior Patterns, Historical Sites, Structures and Trails)

Sensory qualities: they are those intangible elements that affect people though the senses of sight, smell, touch, and
hearing (Scenic Vistas, Spatial Illusions, Quality of Light, Characteristic Smells and Sounds, Sensation of Natural Forces,
Perception of Textures)

Natural hazards: there are several natural elements that are potentially hazardous to a site and must be identified
(Earthquake Fault Zones, Hurricane Zones, Tornado Zones, Flood Plains Tidal Inundation Areas, Wet Zones Likes Peat
Bogs and Quicksand, Areas of Poisonous Plants, Snakes or Reptiles and Annoying Insects)

CLIMATIC INFLUENCES
Climate analysis and its impact on site development are examined at two levels to help determine the orientation of
buildings, their protection (or exposure to) from sun & wind, fenestration, building materials, heating & cooling systems,
the location and selection of plant materials, as well as aesthetics & appearance: macroclimate and microclimate. Other
climatic considerations include the human comfort zone, air pollution, noise, and glare.
Must consider both Macroclimate and Microclimate:
o Macroclimate is overall climate of the region and is reflected in the weather data available from the National
Weather Service. Based on info, a region can be classified as cool, temperate, hot-arid, or hot-humid.
 Depends on:
1. Site latitude: the amount of solar energy that is received in a particular location in relation to latitude
(the angular distance north or south from the equator of a point on the Earth's surface).
2. Site elevation: as elevation increases, temperature decreases.
3. Proximity to bodies of water: bodies of water reduce temperature extremes both daily and seasonal,

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on nearby land areas. The bodies of water act as a moderator. Big body of water = increase moderating
influence on the climate.
 Influenced by
4. Prevailing winds: winds can alter a climate whether it carries warm air, cold air, moisture.
5. Ocean currents: currents can be warm or cool.
6. Mountain barriers: force prevailing winds to rise.
7. Clear/Cloudy sky: clouds are like a blanket thus they can slightly alter the range of daily and seasonal
temperatures.

o Microclimate is the site-specific modification of the Macroclimate. it is a local atmospheric zone where the
climate differs from the surrounding area. Microclimates exist, for example, near bodies of water which may
cool the local atmosphere, or in heavily urban areas where brick, concrete, and asphalt absorb the sun's energy,
heat up, and reradiate that heat to the ambient air: the resulting urban heat island is a kind of microclimate.
Microclimate information can be obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
by walking the site, or by studying the climate-influenced details of indigenous architecture. The microclimate of
an area depends on:
1. Solar radiation on the site influenced by the:
• Amount of solar radiation: it is a function of altitude, the angle between the sun and the horizon. The
amount of solar radiation received on the ground surface depends on the angle of the sun’s rays to the
surface.
• Duration of sunlight exposure: (Northern Hemisphere):
 Summer Solstice: day that has the maximum hours of sunlight exposure – June 21 or 22 – lowest
angle – depending on the site’s location, the sun rises and sets north of an azimuth through the site.
 Winter Solstice: day that has the minimum hours of sunlight exposure – December 21 or 22 –
highest angle - depending on the site’s location, the sun rises and sets south of an azimuth through
the site.
 Equinox: day when the hours of sunlight equals the hours of darkness – March 21 -vernal equinox,
September 21 - autumnal equinox – the sun rises and sets directly above the equator.
• Site slope: it affects the amount of solar energy that a site receives. South-facing slopes receive more
solar energy than level or north-facing slopes.

2. Topography of the site affected by:

• Wind velocity on the surface of a hill is influenced by the steepness of the slope and the prevailing wind
direction.
 @ Crest/Top of Hill: cold & windy – wind can be about 20%+ than wind on flat ground.
 @ mid-slope of Hill: warm
 @ valley: cold air flows downhill and settles in low-lying regions & less air circulation.
 @ windward side of hill (the side in the direction of the wind): great wind speeds & turbulent winds
at crest.
 @ leeward side of hill (the side away from the wind direction): less turbulent winds & wind velocity
is minimal known as the wind shadow.

Note: In general, in temperate climate the best microclimate for winds are on south or southeast facing
slopes; in the middle of the slope or toward the top of the hill rather than at the very top or bottom of the
slope.

3. Proximity to bodies of water: the effect of a body of water on the land adjacent to it is to moderate the
microclimate. The difference in temperature between the two causes an almost constant breeze. Warm air
rises over warmer land during the day and causes a breeze from the water. At night the pattern may be
reversed; cold air flows down a hill and settles in low-lying regions, causing pockets that remain colder than

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higher elevations during the first part of the day this results in an inversion (see inversion phenomenon
diagram in the following page).

4. Ground surface materials: ground surfaces having low albedo and high conductivity moderate and stabilize
the microclimate considerably such as grass, whereas high albedo and low conductivity such as pavement,
are much hotter than what the macroclimate will produce.
• Albedo: (reflectivity) fraction of radiant energy received on a surface that is reflected is called albedos
or solar reflectance (SR) and expressed as a number from 0 to 1.
 LOW – 0 (grab, no reflection): flat black surface that absorbs all the heat and reflects none, ex:
grass, vegetation.
 MEDIUM – 0 to 1 (in between): Natural materials such grass and vegetation have low albedos. ex:
pavement, snow.
 HIGH - 1.0 (no grad, reflection): reflecting surface that absorbs no heat and reflects all the
energy, ex: Mirror reflects all energy and absorbs none.
• Conductivity: it is the time rate of flow of heat passes through a material.
 LOW conductivity (keep energy): retard the passage of heat, ex: sand, natural materials.
 HIGH conductivity (release energy): lets heat pass through them quickly, ex: metals, concrete,
masonry.
• Emissivity: Inversely related to albedo is emissivity, which is the ability of a surface to emit stored
energy. Emissivity values can range from 0 to 1.
 For an opaque surface, emissivity and albedo add up to 1.
 Thermal emittance, sometimes called just emittance, is similar measure of thermal radiation.
• (SRI) Solar Reflectance Index: is a measure of a roof’s ability to reject solar heat, defined so that a
standard black surface (with reflectivity of 0.05 and emittance of 0.90) has an SRI of 0, and a standard
white surface (with reflectivity of 0.8 and emittance of 0.9) has an SRI of 100. A perfectly reflective
surface would have an SRI of about 122.
 For an opaque surface, emissivity and albedo add up to 1.

5. Trees
• Modify air flow: level rows of trees are effective wind breakers which can also reduce the wind chill
factor.
• Obstruction of solar radiation: block the direct radiation of the sun, as well as light and glare – Ex:
deciduous trees (trees lose their leaves seasonally) & evergreens (trees have leaves year-round).
• Filtration of air-born pollutants: filter the air by absorbing dust, dirt, and other pollutants.
• Photosynthesis: absorb carbon dioxide CO2 and release oxygen O2.
• Water evaporation: Evaporate water vapor into the air through perspiration which cools & humidifies
the air.

6. Structures or manmade structures

• Alter air movement: block, divert, and channel winds, sometimes in unpredictable ways.
• Reflect solar radiation & elevate temperatures: urban areas are generally warmer than comparable
rural areas both, day or night, winter or summer.

7. Other Climatic considerations:

A. Human Comfort Zone: It is the range of temperature and relative humidity in which the average person
is comfortable wearing light clothing. Factors influencing human comfort are:
 Temperature range: 63° and 71° in winter / 66° and 75° in summer.
 Humidity range: 30% to 60 % to 75% is uncomfortable regardless of the temperature.
 Air Movement: it causes a cooling sensation because of heat loss from the body by convection and
evaporation:

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- Air movement of 50 feet per minute - not noticed.
- Air movement of 50 – 100 feet per minute – pleasant.
- Air movement of 100 – 200 feet per minute – pleasant and noticeable.
- Air movement of 200 -300 feet per minute – drafty.
- Air movement of 300 and more – uncomfortable.
 Solar Radiation: affect comfort zone.
 Microclimate variables: affect comfort zone.

B. Air pollution: it is caused by both Man, and acts of Nature, but Man’s actions and practices are of a
greater concern. The effects of manmade pollution can be magnified by natural weather actions such as
the inversion phenomenon. (See diagram below).

C. Noise: it is unwanted sound. Sound levels are measured in decibels with a scale value of 1 (threshold of
hearing) to 140 (threshold of pain). One decibel is the smallest difference between two sounds that the
human ear can detect. Noise may be controlled by either locating activities at some distance from the
noise source or by placing physical barriers between the noise source and the planned activity using
noise barriers.
 50 to 60 decibels are the comfortable noise level for the average person.
 30 decibels are recommended for sleep/study areas.
 85 decibels are the safety threshold.
 Higher than 85 decibels over a prolong period ≈ hearing impairment.

D. Glare: it occurs when there are two sources of illumination of extremely different intensities. Glare is not
a result of too must light, but rather too much contrast. Glare may be alleviated by certain wall
treatments, sun control devices, and natural landscape elements.

E. Ecosystem or Ecological System and Ecology:

 Ecosystem: it is formed by a community of organisms (living animals and plants in a given area) and
its environment. It may be a forest, a pond … Ecosystems are constantly changing.
- Simple ecosystem: if a particular species is destroyed, the simple/unstable system is likely to
collapse.
- Complex ecosystem: if a particular species is destroyed, the complex/stable system itself will
form new relationships. Example: a forest.

 Ecology: is the study of living organisms in relation to their environment. Ecology applied to site
development means:
1. The need understands the impact of construction on the surrounding natural environment – see

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EIS below
2. The need to be aware of the impact of smaller scale buildings on the surroundings, whether the
environment is rural (impact on natural landforms, water runoff, wildlife, and existing
vegetation) or urban (minimize noise, pollution, pay attention to building placement in relation
to wind patterns, sunlight, glare, transportation system...)

 EIS / Environmental Impact Statement: The Environmental Policy Act of 1969 requires that for every
major federal action that may significantly affect the quality of the human environment, the
responsible official must prepare a detailed statement discussing the environmental impact of the
proposed action, describe any adverse effects that cannot be avoided, and any irreversible and
irretrievable commitments of resources that would be involved. The topics required in the impact
statement depend on the type of site, the building or development program, and the requirements
of a particular agency:
- A complete resource inventory of the existing conditions of the region and the project site.
- A complete description of the proposed project, with an emphasis on its environmental impact.
- The environmental impact assessment.
- Alternatives to the proposed project.
- Alternative process or methods.
- Alternative configurations.
- The no-action alternative.
- Environmental and socioeconomics impacts of the proposed project that cannot be avoided.

F. Ahwahnee Principles: In 1991, the Local Government Commission, a private nonprofit group in
Sacramento, California, invited architects Peter Calthorpe, Michael Corbett, Andrés Duany,
Elizabeth Moule, Elizabeth Plater- Zyberk, Stefanos Polyzoides, and Daniel Solomon to develop a set of
community principles that express new, sustainable land use planning ideas as a possible resolution to
the existing pattern of urban and suburban development impairing the quality of life (air pollution, loss
of open spaces, etc.).

 Community principles include having complete and integrated communities, a diversity of

housing types, an ample supply of open spaces, encourage pedestrian and bicycle use, efficient
use of water, and much more.
 Regional principles include having a continuous system of greenbelt corridor, regional institutions
and services located in the urban core, and much more
 Implementation principles include having the local governments take charge of the planning
process, plans should be developed through an open process…

G. Sustainable design / Green Building Design: it addresses a wide range of concerns to achieve a balance
between the consumption of environmental resources and the renewal of those resources. The
concerns include the environmental impact of a building, the use of materials, energy conservation, the
use of alternative energy sources, adaptive reuse, indoor air quality, reuse, site disturbance, site
development, building location, building size, shape, and design, and so on.

H. Wind Patterns: both prevailing wind patterns and microclimate wind effects must be studied during site
analysis. Wind speed on the top of a hill, e.g. can be about 20% higher than wind speed on flat ground.
 Wind patterns can be modified by buildings and trees.
- Trees planted in group 50 ft – 150 ft deep can reduce wind velocity from 30% - 60%, depending
on the density of the trees, at a distance of 10 times the tree height.
- The wind velocity is reduced to about half that at a distance of 20 times the tree height.
 In temperate climates, the best Microclimates when considering just the wind are generally found

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on South – or South-East – facing slopes, in the middle or toward the top, rather than at the very top
or bottom of the slope.

I. Solar Orientation (it is not a CLIMATIC CONDITION, it is a SITE CONDITION) *****

 It influences 3 aspects of site planning:
- The orientation of the building to control solar gain and heat loss.
- The location of outdoor spaces and
activities.
- The location of building entries.

 Building orientation: it is the direction

the length of the building faces. For most
northern hemisphere locations, the best
overall orientation is to have its principal
façade facing south or slightly east or
west of south. East of south (5° to 25°,
depending on the climatic region) is
considered ideal to balance the desired
heat gains in the winter and to minimize
heat gains in the summer. To control or
allow the sun rays into the structure,
louvers, overhangs, or deciduous trees
can be used. On the east and west
facades, however use vertical sun baffles
because of the sun’s lower angles at
these points in the morning and late
afternoon in the summer. For space
heating system, an angle of the latitude + 15 degree is optimum for the winter heating season.

 Design strategies for building orientation based on climatic regions:

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 Design strategies for building orientation based on climatic regions:
Cold Climates

• Optimum orientation angle: 12°

• Compact form with smallest surface area
possible relative to the volume
• South: large windows
• East & West: small windows
• North: minimal or no windows
• Interior materials: high thermal mass
• Summer shading for glazed areas
• Use dark or medium-dark colors for the
building’s exterior

Example: Canada, Northern of Middle U.S.,

Mountainous regions of Wyoming and Colorado.

Temperate Climates

• Optimum orientation angle: 17.5°

• Rectangular building with the long direction
oriented generally along the east-west axis and
facing slightly the east
• South facing openings to capture winter light
• Use the cooling effect of the wind in the
summer, block it in the winter
• Shade glazing in the summer, allow the sun to
fall on glazing and the building in the summer
• Use medium colors for the building’s exterior

Example: Middle of U.S. Northwest and Northeast

areas of country.

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Hot-humid Climates

• Optimum orientation angle: 25°

• Provide shade for all openings
• Maximize natural ventilation using large
openings, high ceilings, and cross ventilation
• Construct buildings using light materials;
minimize thermal mass
• Use light colors for the building exterior

Example: Southeastern parts of country.

Hot-arid Climates

• Optimum orientation angle: 5°

• Compact form with smallest surface area
possible relative to the volume
• Minimize opening sizes
• Provide shade for openings
• Maximize thermal mass
• Use light colors for the building exterior

Example: Southern California across the desert

Southwest to portions of Southern Texax.

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 Climate Zones of U.S.:
- This map of climatic zone used for the purpose was developed for U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
- This map has been adopted by International Energy Conservation Code (IECC), the International
Green Construction Code (IGCC), the International Residential Code (IRC), and ANSI / ASHRAE /
IESNA 90.1, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, as well as by
many states as part of their energy conservation regulations.
- Eight - Zone Breakdowns:

Zone Number Description

1A, 2A and 3A South of Warm-humid Line Warm, Humid
2B Warm, Dry
3A North of Humid Line, 4A Mixed, Humid
3B, 3C, 4B Mixed, Dry
4C Cool, Marine
5A, 6A Cool, Humid
5B, 6B Cold, Humid
7 Very Cold
8 Subarctic

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SURVEY SYSTEMS
It describes the location, form, and boundaries of land. Surveys also describe all the special features of a site that are
pertinent to sire development and building design.
o A Land Survey Provides the Following Information:
1. Survey title / property location / certification / date
2. Scale & compass orientation
3. Tract boundary lines, courses & distances
4. Adjacent property owner’s names
5. Bench mark with reference elevation
6. Location, type, size, flow of all that is existing on the property: structures, building, foundation, roads, meter
box, hydrant, water & gas mains, sewers, utility poles, bodies of water, paved areas (surfacing type), flood
plain max., right of way, trees with trunk over 8” in diameter and 3’ above ground, road elevation of all
improved roads…
7. Elevations (vertical dimensions) through the site sufficient to develop a complete and thorough contour map
or topographic contour lines of the site.

o Surveying for Building Construction is done Three Levels of Details:

1. Preliminary survey: basic information for the preparation of building plans.
2. Construction survey: describes the precise condition of the site and adjacent structures, and established
base lines, benchmarks, and offsets.
3. Possession survey: it is made after the completion of construction to record the completed development,
including site improvement, and structures.

o Types of Surveys:
1. Geodetic: it is used for very large land areas. This survey takes into consideration the spherical shape of the
earth and describes large land areas with great precision.
2. Plane: it is used for most site development work and assumes that the earth is a flat plane. There are various
types of plane surveying:
• Land survey: land parcels or sites general measurement and description.
• Topographic Survey: contour lines – natural and manmade features and elevation.
• Route survey: layout road and utility lines – used by civil engineers.
• Hydrographic survey: describes and maps bodies of water for purposes of navigation, water supply, or
water-related construction.
• City survey: used for city planning.
• Aerial survey: prepared using aerial photography – see photogrammetry.
• Construction survey: provides a system of markers to determine the precise location of a building on
its site.
• Plat map: a land plan. A component of a survey, typically furnished by a civil engineer, and drawn to
scale, it indicates the bearings and dimensions of property lines.

o United Sates Survey System / Public Land Survey System / Rectangular Survey System: The Land ordinance of
1785 was the beginning of this survey system. It is the most common land description for site boundaries in the
US. It was used to survey and spatially identify land parcels before designation of eventual ownership,
particularly for rural, wild or undeveloped land. The US Survey System divided land that was not already
surveyed into a grid system of meridians and parallels 24 miles apart. Find below a list of the key terms
associated with this type of boundary description, and a representative diagram of this system.
• Meridian: north-south lines. Some meridians serve as the basis of the grid layout they are called principal
meridians. Other meridians are called guide meridians, which are east or west of the principal meridians.

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• Parallels: east-west lines that follow the lines of the latitudes of the earth. Some parallels serve as the basis
of the grid layout they are called base line. Other parallels are called standard parallels, which are north or
south of the baseline.
• Range (R): it is the row of townships running north and south.
• Township (T): it is the row of townships running east or west. (Same Term, but different meaning)
• Check: 24 mi. square bounded by parallels and meridians, divided into 16 townships.
• Township: 6 mi. on one side divided into 36 sections.
• Sections: 1 mi. square parcel of land containing 640 acres further divided into quarter sections. (Note: 1 acre
= 43,560 ft).
• Quarter Section: .5 mi square further divided into four more parcels.

o Diagram for Land Description NE 1/4 of the SW 1/4 of Section 31, T.2N R.8W

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o Boundary Survey:
• Typical property description: include the bearings of the property lines and their lengths, along with any
permanent corner markers set by the original subdivision surveyor.
• Property line bearings: are referred to by the number of Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds the line is located
either East or West of a North-south line.
• Survey example:

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o Metes and Bounds Survey System: it is a method for describing a property in the form of a narrative. The
property is described by beginning at a specific point on the property boundary and then describing the length
and direction of the boundaries of the property, until the entire property is encompassed.
• Example: "beginning with a corner at the intersection of two stone walls near an apple tree on the north
side of Muddy Creek road one mile above the junction of Muddy and Indian Creeks, north for 150 rods (rod
is a unit of measurement) to the end of the stone wall bordering the road, then northwest along a line to a
large standing rock on the corner of John Smith's place, thence west 150 rods to the corner of a barn near a
large oak tree, thence south to Muddy Creek road, thence down the side of the creek road to the starting
point."

o Lot and Block Survey System: it is a method used in the United States and Canada to locate and identify land,
particularly for lots in densely populated metropolitan areas, suburban areas. The description must identify:
• The individual lot,
• The block in which the lot is located, if applicable,
• A reference to a platted subdivision or a phase thereof,
• A reference to find the cited plat map (i.e., a page and/or volume number), and
• A description of the map's place of official recording (e.g., recorded in the files of the County Engineer)
• Example: The legal description of a 2.5-acre (10,000 m2) property under the Lot and Block system may be
something like:
1. Lot 5 of Block 2 of the South Subdivision plat as recorded in Map Book 21, Page 33 at the Recorder of
Deeds.
2. Some simple maps may only contain a lot and map number, such as Lot C of the Riverside Subdivision
map as recorded in Map Book 12, Page 8 in the office of the City Engineer.

o Methods of Field Measuring & Recording to Create an Existing Building Survey:

1. Field measurement: hand measuring, tape measure, traditional surveying equipment, EDM (electronic
distance measurement), REDM (reflector less electromagnetic distance measurement) – EDM & REDM are
both laser-based instruments.
2. Rectified photography: large format, film-based view cameras to photograph facades. It produces a flat
image with no perspective distortion from which dimensions can be scaled.
3. Orthophotography: it is similar to rectified photography except that it relies on digital photography and
correction of optical distortion through computer software.
• Photogrammetry: it is the surveying of objects or spaces through the use of photography and associated
software. There are 2 methods:
 Stereo photogrammetry: uses 2 overlapping photographs in a computer program to produce a
digital stereo image to produce 3D drawings
 Convergent photogrammetry: uses multiple, oblique photographic images of an object taken at
different angles in order to derive 3D models and measurements. This method requires surveyed
reference points.
• Laser scanning: it uses laser beams which symmetrically sweep over an object or space to obtain 3D
coordinates of points on the surface of the object or space being scanned. No surveyed reference points
are needed.

TOPOGRAPHY
o General:
• Topography describes the surface features of land.
• A topographic map shows:
• The slope and contour of the land;
 Natural and artificial features, such as trees, vegetation, outcroppings;
 Natural features, such as view analysis, significant natural features should be identified

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
(rock outcroppings, caves…), and subsurface conditions of groundwater and rock (water
table, removal of rocks near the surface) must also be studied during site analysis.
• Manufactured structures, such as roads, existing buildings, utility poles;
• Property boundaries.

o Topography Affects:
1. Location of major site features (building, parking, drives…)
2. Quantity of soil to be moved to maintain desired slope and drainage patterns.

o Any Modifications to The Land Should Be Kept to A Minimum Because:

1. Moving or removing earth is expensive;
2. Excavating and building on steep s lopes is more expensive than on gentle slopes;
3. Excessive modifications affect drainage patterns;
4. Large changes in elevation can require a retaining wall, which add cost to the project;
5. Damage tree roots

If the natural contours and slope have to be changed the amount of earth cut away in grading operation should
equal the amount of earth required to fill in other portions of the site.

o It is better to orient the length of a building parallel to the direction of the contours to minimize excavation
costs.

o Key Words:
• Contour Lines: graphic way to show the elevations of the land in a plan view. Contour lines are also used to
make a slope analysis to determine the suitability of the land for various uses. Each contour line represents a
continuous line of equal elevation above some reference benchmark. Existing contour lines are dashed, and
new contour lines are solid. At the property lines, the contour lines must match up with the existing
contours at adjacent properties or retaining walls must be built. Modifications should not be done within
the drip line of trees.

o Common Contour Line Representations:

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
Uniform slope: Valley / Swale:
equally spaced point in the
contour lines. direction of the
upslope –
toward higher
elevation.

Convex slope: Ridge / Crown:

closely spaced point in the
contour lines direction of the
at the bottom downslope –
of the slope. toward low
凸 elevation.

Concave Summit /
slope: closely Depression: are
spaced represented by
contour lines concentric
near the top closed
of the slope. contours. For
凹 both forms,
spot elevations
should be
included at the
highest or
lowest point.

o Contour Interval: it is the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines. A contour interval will vary
depending on the steepness of the slope, the scale of the map, and the amount of detail required.

o Slope of Land: the slope of the land can be determined using the contour interval and the horizontal distance
between any two contour lines. The resulting slope is represented as a percentage.
• Formula: d (vertical distance between contours), G (slope of land), L (horizontal distance between points of
slope)  G= (d / L) x 100% ***
• Example: find the slope between point A (85ft) and point B (100ft), if the horizontal distance between them
is 80ft.
- The vertical distance  d = 100 – 85 = 15ft
- The slope  G = (d / L) x 100% = (15ft / 80ft) x 100% = (.19ft) x 100% = 19%
• Note: slope categories for different types of uses:

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
- 0%-4% = usable for all types of intense activity + easy to build on;
- 4%-10% = suitable for informal movement + outdoor activity + can be built on without much
difficulty.
- 10%-25% = difficult to climb + use for outdoor activity + more expensive + more difficult to build on.
- 25% or more = very steep slope + subject to erosion + very expensive to build on.

Note: a 0.5% slope maybe sufficient for only very smooth

surfaces. For most paved surface, 1.5% is needed to account.

o Reasons of Minimizing Land Work Modification:

• Moving, removing, or hauling in earth or soil costs money. (think what if the soil is even contaminated)

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
• Excavating and building on steep slopes is more expensive than on gentle slopes.
• Drainage patterns will be affected. Must consider with contour changes, drainage ditches, culverts or other
site works. Runoff shall be managed not to flow onto adjacent sites.
• Retaining walls may be required due to the large changes in elevations.
• Tree roots might be damaged due large amounts of cutting.

o Topographic Map in General:

• Shall include:
 Contours of sites
 Property boundaries
 Easements (that has nothing to do with ZONING ORDINANCE, REMEMBER! It is a Contractual
Relationship that rides on the Deed).
 Existing buildings
 Utility poles
 Trees and natural features
 Other manufactured features

DRIANGE
o General & Terms
• Demand for drainage is determined by:
1. Topography: steep areas drain quickly often too fast to allow for percolation. Drainage benches or
channels should be provided above and below steep banks to collect runoff water.
2. Type of soil: it determines the amount and speed of water absorption, which in turn affects the runoff
quantity.
3. Vegetation: thick ground cover slows down the rate of runoff, reduces erosion, and reduces the need for
elaborate drainage systems.
4. Rainfall Data: local rainfall data is necessary to calculate the frequency and intensity of rain water to be
drained.
5. Land use: in rural areas, one can generally allow water to disperse over the landscape.
6. Size of area: the area to be drained generally refers to those areas with limited percolation such as
roofs, roads, driveways.

• Significant natural features such as rock outcroppings, cliffs, caves, and bogs should be identified to
determine whether they must be avoided or can be used as positive features in the site design.

• Runoff: additional storm water that does not steep into the ground.
• Runoff coefficient: the fraction of total precipitation that is not absorbed into the ground.

• Buildings need to be built away from major drainage paths or must bridge them so that water flow is not
restricted, and potential damage is avoided.

• If the runoff coefficient is greater than the capacity of the natural or artificial drainage from the site,
holding ponds must be constructed.

• Retention pond vs. Detention pond:

 Retention pond: [keep] it is used to manage storm water runoff to prevent flooding and downstream
erosion, and improve water quality in an adjacent river, stream, lake, or bay. It is an artificial lake with
vegetation at the perimeter and includes a permanent pool of water in its design; it is designed to hold a
specific amount of water indefinitely. Usually the pond is designed to have drainage leading to another
location when the water level gets above the pond capacity.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
 Detention pond / holding pond: [let go] it is a storm water management facility installed on, or adjacent
to rivers, streams, lakes, or bays. It is designed to protect against flooding by storing water for a limited
period of time while slowly draining the water out at a controlled rate to a downstream water body.

• Subsurface drainage methods to minimize subsurface water:

1. Slope the land (1/4”/ft minimum) around the building to drain surface water before it soaks into the
ground near the structure;
2. Use gutters and drain pipes to collect water from the roof and decks to drain away water from the
building;
3. French Drain / Subdrain: perforated drain tile set in a gravel setting bed laid around the footings 6”
below the floor slab to collect water and carry it away to a storm sewer system for example;
4. Layer of gravel and waterproofing membrane against a wall or slab to relieve hydrostatic pressure.
5. Enclosed storm sewers that carry the runoff from the site to a municipal storm sewer system or to a
natural drainage outlet such as a river.

• Note: large sewer systems require manholes for service access, located wherever the sewer changes
direction, or a maximum of 500ft apart. Storm sewers are completely separate from sanitary sewers.

• Important: Sanitary sewers and storm sewers usually take precedence in planning because they depend on
gravity flow.

• Surface water drainage methods to minimize surface water: (design drainage system for 10 or 25 yrs typ.)

Swale: Sub-Surface
graded flow Drainage: refers to
paths similar to the collection,
valleys. Swales conduction, and
are graded disposal of water
around below ground level.
structures with Runoff water flows
finish contour not only on the
surface, but also
below the ground
surface. Collection
of sub-surface
water utilizes
gravel-filled ditches
and perforated
drain pipe, or drain
pipe laid with open
joints.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
Sloping Plane: Area Drain: collects
simplest, water from the low
cheapest and point of a limited
consequently area and conducts it
the most directly to
common way to underground pipes.
drain a relatively
level area.

Wrapped Plane: Catch Basin: similar

the high side is to an area drain,
level, similar to except deeper and
the sloping generally larger in
plane. The order to catch and
contours, are retain sediment
fan-shaped. which may clog the
system.

Gutter: Trench Drain:

formed by two collect water along
sloping planes a wide strip before
that create a conducting it to
valley. underground pipes.
It is suitable at the
entrance to an
underground
garage.

Central Inlet: Culvert: should be

large flat areas, straight, cross the
especially where road at right angles,
enclosed and be sufficiently
(courtyards, strong to resist
patios etc). moving traffic loads.
Disadvantage is
to requires a
catch basin and
sub-surface
piping to dispose
of the water.

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GRADIENTS
o General & Terms:
• Gradient Ratios: express slope as the
ratio between a horizontal distance and
the vertical elevation change within that
distance. Gradient Ratio generally used
for slopes on small-scale projects and
also to express design standards such as:
 2:1 – Max. allowable ground slope
with little danger of erosion
 3:1 – Max. slope for most planted areas.
 4:1 – Max. slope maintainable with a
lawn mower.

• Gradient Percentages: express slope as

the gradient:
 G – is the gradient in percentage.
 V – is the vertical rise.
 H – is the horizontal run.
Example: if land rises 10 feet in a distance of 30 feet, the slope is 10/30 = .33, which is expressed as 33%
When scaled from a topographic map, if the horizontal distance between the 24-foot and 28-foot contours is 10 feet,
the slope is 4/10 = .40, which is expressed as 40%.

• Gradient Percentages for Design Standards:

 0 to 1 %: Flat slope, poorly drained, generally undesirable for development.
 1 to 5 %: Considered ideal for most development.
 5 to 10 %: Suitable for most development, maximum for walks.
 10 to 15 %: Considered too steep for many land uses without grading.
 15 % +: Too steep without substantial development efforts and costs.

ROADS
o General: for safety and efficiency, roads are constructed as level as possible. Road drainage is accomplished:

Sloped:
Road is graded level across the width but sloped over
the length. This causes water to flow in a sheet down
the length, where at some point it is collected and
conducted elsewhere. Contours are shown crossing the
road perpendicularly and break in the downhill direction
on each side.

Pitched:
Road is pitched toward one side allowing water to flow
along one gutter. This method is advantageous where
the road parallels the contours, since some of the grade
may be taken up by tilting the road in the same
direction as the land slopes. Contours cross the road at
an angle, and water flows perpendicular to the contours

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Central Gutter:
Road is depressed in the center, which allows the water
to run to the middle and flow to some collection area.
Contours are drawn similar to a valley.

Central Crown:
Road is a convex curve with water pitched toward both
sides. This is the most common method used, and a six-
inch high crown is typical in a 40-foot street width.

SOIL TYPES AND TEST

o General & Terms:
• It is the pulverized layer of the earth, formed by the erosion of rocks and plant remains and modified by
living plants and organisms.

o Soil Cutout:
LEVEL 1 TOPSOIL (organic + minerals)
LEVEL 2 MINERALS
LEVEL 3 ROCK (partially weathered & fractured)
LEVEL 4 BEDROCK

o Soil Types: All soils are a combination of the following types and any site analysis must include a subsurface
investigation to determine the types of soil as well as the water content. Soils are classified according to
grain size and as either organic or inorganic:
• Gravel: particles over 2mm in ⌀. rock particles low in plasticity. Excellent for construction loads, very good
bases for building foundations, drainage, and for sewage drain fields. It is unsuitable for landscaping.
• Sand: particles from 0.05 - 2mm in ⌀. same abilities as gravel, just that it has smaller granular particles.
• Silt: particles 0.002 – 0.05 mm in ⌀. fine grained sedimentary soil composed of material smaller than sand
but larger than clay. It is stable when dry or damp but unstable when wet. When frozen it swells, heaves and
compresses under load. It can provide an adequate base for foundations if soil investigations show they are
stable; building foundations and road bases must extend below it or they must be elastic enough to avoid
damage. Silt makes better foundations if they are mixed with other types of soils.
• Clay: particles 0.002 mm in ⌀. composed of smaller particles than silts. It expands when wet and shrinks
when it dries. It is also subject to slippage. It is poor for foundations unless it can be kept dry or they are
mixed with other types of soils. It is also poor for landscaping and unsuitable for sewage drain fields or other
types of drainage. The clay particles with some cohesion and plasticity in their behavior.
• Organic: organic materials such as Peat consist of vegetable or other organic matter excellent for
landscaping but unsuitable for building foundation and roads. Usually, these soils must be removed from
the site and replaced with sands and gravels for foundations and roads.

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www

o Soil Groups:
• Soils are then grouped into three groups consisting of:
 Coarse Grained - divided into gravely soils (G) and sands and sandy soils (S)
 Fine Grained - divided based on their plasticity properties. (L, H)
 Highly Organic - are not subdivided. (Pt)

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• Coarse Grained – are soils which composed of gravel and or sands and which contain a wide variety of
particles. These are most suitable for foundations when well drained and well confined. They are soils with
good bearing value. Particularly the G series (GW, GP, GM, GC).

Identified on the basis of the percentage amount of gravel and sand.

• Fine Grained – are soils that are Silts and Clays (L, H). Contain smaller particles of silt and clay. These are
suitable. for foundations but require compactions. The most suitable of this series (L) is the CL.

Based on their cohesive properties and permeability.

• Highly Organic – are soils that are usually very compressible and are not suitable for construction. They
contain particles of leaves, grass, and branches. Peat, Humus, and swamp soil with highly organic texture are
typical of this group (Pt).

These are identified readily on the basis of color, texture, and odor. Moisture content is also very high in this
type of soil.

o Soil Test
• Key terms:
 Hardpan: unbroken mixture of sand, clay, and gravel.
 Shale and Slate: soft rocks with a fine texture. They have the second highest bearing capacity.
 Boulders: rocks that have broken off of bedrock.
 Bedrock: solid rock that forms the earth’s crust. It has the highest bearing capacity of all soil types.

• General: Soil tests are usually requested by the architect but paid for by the owner. They are
typically referred to in the specifications for information only. However, soil tests are not part
of the contract documents.

• Soil tests are used to determine the exact nature of the soil – bearing capacity, water table level, and
porosity – using borings or test pits.
 Boring log: removal of undisturbed samples of the soil at regular intervals, usually a minimum of 4
borings is taken.
 Test Pit: 10ft trenches dug at the job site that allow visual inspection of the soil strata and direct
collection of undisturbed samples; soil below 10ft cannot be directly examined.

• Water present in soil can cause several problems for foundations as well as other parts of the site, such as
reduce the load carrying capacity of the soil, cause differential settlements, and foundations can be subject
to hydrostatic pressure.

• Possible solutions to other potential land problems:

1. Water within 6ft of land surface  pump out excavation, waterproof slab/basement, and resist
hydrostatic pressure by,  using a continuous drain pipe around the foundation.
2. Rock found near the surface of the land  use explosives which will reduce manual labor.
3. Soil is composed of soft clay, water bearing sand or silt  construct deeper foundations, use drive
piles, or remove poor soil
4. Underground streams  building over this location should be avoided and apply caution when siting
the structure
5. Cut and Fill: it has to be balanced; amount taken out (cut) should be equal to amount putted in (fill)

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• Brief overlook of a land problems:

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT

• To increase bearing capacity, decrease settlement or both, several soil treatments are used:
1. Drainage: increase the strength of the soil and prevent hydrostatic pressure
2. Fill: if existing soil is unsuitable for building, the undesirable material is removed, and new engineered
fill is brought in, which should be compacted before building commences.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
3. Compaction: compact existing soil.
4. Densification: on-site compaction using vibration, dropping heavy weights, or pounding piles into the
ground and filling the voids with sand.
5. Surcharging: preloading of ground with fill material to cause consolidation and settlement of the
underlying soil before building. Once the required settlement has taken place, the fill is removed, and
construction begins.
6. Mixing: a layer of sand or gravel can be placed on less stable soil and mixed in.

• Proctor test / Proctor compaction test: it is named after the engineer Ralph R. Proctor (1933). The test is
used frequently by geotechnical engineers to determine the optimum moisture content at which a given
soil type will become most dense and achieve its maximum dry density.
 Procedure: these laboratory tests generally consist of compacting soil at known moisture content
into a cylindrical mold of standard dimensions using a compacted effort of controlled magnitude.
The soil is usually compacted into the mold to a certain number of equal layers, each receiving a
number blows from a standard weighted hammer at a specified height. This process is then
repeated for various moisture contents and the dry densities are determined for each. The
graphical relationship of the dry density to moisture content is then plotted to establish the
compaction curve. The maximum dry density is finally obtained from the peak point of the
compaction curve and its corresponding moisture content, also known as the optimal moisture
content.

• Percolation test (colloquially called Perc Test): it is a test to determine the water absorption rate of soil
(that is, its capacity for percolation) in preparation for the building of a septic drain field (leach field) or
infiltration basin. The results of a percolation test are required to properly design a septic system. In its
broadest terms, percolation testing is simply observing how quickly a known volume of water dissipates into
the subsoil of a drilled hole of known surface area. While every jurisdiction will have its own laws regarding
the exact calculations for the length of line, depth of pit, etc.

• Soil Bearing Capacity - Maximum amount of pressure or load by soil type:

Bedrock 10,000 psf

Graded Gravel & Sand 3,000 to 12,000 psf
Compacted Sand / Compacted 2,000 to 3,000 psf
Silt / Clay 1,000 to 4,000 psf

• Soil Report recommendation should be based on testing of materials obtained from onsite borings:
1. Bearing capacity of soil.
2. Foundation design recommendations.
3. Paving design recommendations.
4. Compaction of soil.
5. Lateral strength (active, passive, and coefficient of friction).
6. Permeability.
7. Frost depth.

• Surface investigations: (Danger Flags)

1. High Water Table.
2. Presence of trouble soils: Peat, soft clay, loose silt, or fine water bearing sands.
3. Rock close to the surface (require blasting for excavations).
4. Dumps or Fills.
5. Evidence of slides or subsidence.

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT

• Aboveground indicators of soil conditions:

 Near Buildings – require shoring or earth and existing foundations.
 Rock Outcropping – indicate bedrock, good for bearing and frost resistance, bad for excavations.
 Water (lake) – indicate high water table, some waterproofing of foundations is required.
 Level Terrain – easy site work, fair bearing, but poor drainage.
 Gentle Slopes – easy site work, and excellent drainage.
 Convex Terrain (Ridge) – dry solid place to build.
 Concave Terrain (Valley) – wet soft place to build.
 Steep Terrain – costly excavations, potential erosion, and sliding soils.
 Foliage – some trees indicate moist soil. Large trees indicate solid ground.

FOUNDATION TYPES
Deep Used for very large Drilled Pier
Foundations design loads, or in Caisson Caissons are drilled and poured while piles are driven into
the presence of poor the earth. Belled Caissons / Socketed Caissons
soil at shallow depth, Pile Piles can be wood, steel, reinforced concrete or cast in
or because of site place concrete. End Bearing Piles / Friction Piles
Shallow Transfers building Spread Footing • Light load, suited for low rise (1-4 Stories), economical
Foundations loads to the earth • single spot square pads at columns, elongation form
near the surface reinforced bearing walls
• Area of spread footing is obtained by dividing the
applied force by the soils safe bearing capacity (f=P/A)
• Depth of footings is below the top soil and frost line, on
compacted fill or firm native soil, above the water table.
Mat-Slab • Can be used on very weak or expansive soils such clays.
• Often are tensioned concrete and for 10-20 stories tall.
• In lieu of driving piles because less expensive and
obtrusive (i.e. less impact on surrounding areas)
Pad
Slab on Grade
Rubble Trench
Earthbag

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• Role of Foundations:
1. Transfer the building load to
the ground.
2. Anchor building against wind
and seismic load.
3. Isolate building from frost
heaving.
4. Isolate building from expansive
soils.
5. Holds building up from
moisture.
6. Provide living spaces
(basement, storage).
7. Houses mechanical systems.

Foundation configurations are: Slab on Grade,

Crawl Space, and Basement.

ASBESTOS AND LEAD EXPOSURE- HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS

o Key Terms:
• EPA: Environmental Protection Agency
• OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration - it is designed to protect workers who handle ACM
and other hazardous materials.

• Asbestos Containing Materials (ACM): regulated by EPA/OSHA/State/Local Agencies

• Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL): it is a standard that sets the number of asbestos fibers a worker can be
exposed.

• National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP): an EPA regulation that dictates
requirement of ACM removal before remodel/demo in order to prevent significant asbestos release into the
air.

• Asbestos Hazards Emergency Response Act (AHERA): an EPA regulation that handles asbestos found in K-12
schools and requires that all facilities be inspected to determine the presence and amount of asbestos.

• Asbestos: it is a natural mineral used commercially for their desirable physical properties. Asbestos became
increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders in the late 19th century because of its sound
absorption, average tensile strength, its resistance to fire, heat, electrical and chemical damage, and
affordability. It was used in such applications as electrical insulation for hotplate wiring and in building
insulation. The inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious illnesses and long exposure to high
concentrations of asbestos fibers is more likely to cause health problems.

• The three most common types of asbestos found in buildings are:

1. Chrysotile: white asbestos, accounts for about 95% of asbestos found.
2. Amosite: brown asbestos
3. Crocidolite: blue asbestos

• Asbestos Facts:

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 PROGRAMMING ANALYSIS NOTE I DCTYMT
 Asbestos were originally used for spray fireproofing, sound proofing, pipe insulation,
floor/ceiling tiles, mastic, etc.;
 EPA banned spray application of asbestos containing fireproofing materials in 1973;
 Laboratory analysis is the only way to positively identify asbestos;
 Owner is responsible for cost to identify and remove asbestos;
 Removal of asbestos is less of a concern if no children will be living in the building

• Health Hazards known to exist from asbestos exposure:

 Asbestosis: non-cancerous chronic respiratory disease caused by accumulation of asbestos fibers in the
lungs
 Cancer of Lung, Stomach, and/or Colon
 Mesothelioma: rare cancer in the thin membrane lining the chest and abdomen

• Methods to minimize/contain asbestos fibers during removal:

 Wet methods
 HEPA vacuuming
 Area isolation
 Use of Personal Protective Equipment
 Avoid sawing, sanding and drilling

• Lead: toxic material once used in paint and other household products, found in contaminated air, water,
soil, food, and consumer products.

• Lead Facts:
 Typically lead based paint that is in good condition is not a hazard
 Children under 6 are at the greatest risk for lead poisoning
 Most common sources for lead poisoning are by breathing or swallowing the following:
- Deteriorating lead-based paint
- Lead contaminated dust
- Lead contaminated residential soil

• Health Hazards known to exist from lead exposure:

 Children:
- Damage to brain and nervous system
- Behavioral and learning problems (e.g. Hyperactivity)
- Slowed growth
- Hearing Problems
- Headaches
 Adults:
- Reproductive Problems
- High blood pressure
- Nerve disorders
- Memory/concentration problems
- Muscle/joint pain

• Methods to minimize/contain lead during removal:

 If disturbing more than 6ft2 of lead paint in homes, in child care facilities, or a in school built before
1978, the work must be done by contractors certified by the EPA to follow procedures for safe removal;
 Contain work area;
 Minimize dust;

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 Clean up thoroughly

ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND NATURAL RESOURCES

• When planning a project, it is important to look at passive design methods for energy efficiency as well as
the use of alternative energy sources. Both can greatly reduce operating costs, improve human comfort,
reduce reliance on mechanical systems, and reduce the use of fossil fuels. Below finds a list of ways it can be
achieved.

• Energy Efficiency can be achieved through:

1. Building orientation (rectangular building with the long direction facing east-west)
2. Building shape (any building which maximizes the total area, e.g. a cube has the least surface for the
volume contained):

Cool & Cold Weather

Use cubic shape. Extremes of
winter suggest the surface area
should be minimized in both types
of load dominated buildings.

Temperate Weather
Elongate the building in East-West
direction for more inter solar heat
gain, daylighting and minimizing
heat gain in summer.

Hot-arid Weather
Square shapes are better. For
external-load dominated buildings,
the plan should include open
courtyards; for internal-load
dominated buildings, a solid,
multistory arrangement works
best.
Hot-humid Weather
East-West direction is preferable to
low breezes and provide natural
cooling, and minimize severe heat
gain from east and west directions.
Courtyards and broad overhangs
are useful for blocking sunlight etc.

3. Landscaping (use of deciduous trees or evergreens)

4. Building shading (horizontal or vertical shading)

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5. Earth sheltering (burying a portion of a building underground):
 Three types design:
1. Built above grade, and fill earth is berm against the walls on one or more sides.
2. Built into the excavated side of a hill.
3. At Northern Hemisphere, built into the hill and south side is exposed for solar heating, views,
and daylight.
 Considerations in regard to:
- Should be a natural slope to the land, so earthmoving can be minimized.
- Soil should be granular. Gravel, sand, and sandy loam are all appropriate soils.
- Site should be tested for radon concentrations.
- Groundwater level and positive drainage away from the building.
- Waterproof the underground portions adequately.

6. Green roofs (extensive green roof – use soil less than 6” deep, intensive green roof – use ticker soil and
support complex landscapes) / Cool Roofs: use light-colored material reflects more of the sun’s heat
than it absorbs.
 Two types of green roof:
- Extensive green roof: use soil less than 6 in deep, which is capable of supporting meadow green.
- Intensive green roof: deeper soil like 12 in and support complex landscapes.
 Advantages of green roof:
- Conserving energy by reducing cooling and heating loads
- Reducing storm water runoff on a site
- Reducing the impervious surface area on a site
- Absorbing carbon dioxide
- Reducing ambient air temperatures
- Filtering the air and binding dust particles
- Reducing the heat island effect normally caused by exposed roofing membranes
- Protecting roofing membranes from ultraviolet light degradation, temperature extremes, wind,
and hail, so it give a longer lifespan and less expensive to maintain than a conventional
membrane roofing system
- Adding acoustical insulation
- Adding aesthetic appeal to the roof
 Green roof construction:
- Subsurface irrigation system is recommended.
- Include a continuous layer of growth medium, a material with the proper nutritive and drainage
characteristics for proposed plants.
- A flood test will be required for water tightness.

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7. Air Locks (a vestibule entry system is desirable in cold and temperate climates and can be beneficial in
hot climates) / or Air Barriers (can reduce energy consumption, and help keep out pollutants and excess
moisture)
 Infiltration and Exfiltration: unwanted for following reasons:
- Air enters through infiltration rather than ventilation, and 25-40% of the heating and cooling
energy used by a building is lost due to infiltration.
- Similarly, conditioned air from within the building can be lost to exfiltration.
- Infiltration carriers water vapor into the building, which can condense and contribute to mold
growth and the degradation of building materials.
 Air barriers: vapor-impermeable barrier acts as both air barrier and vapor retarder.
- Permeance: is a measure of how readily a material or membrane allows water vapor to pass
through it.
- Maximum permeance of an air barrier material should be 0.004 cfm/[Link]. at a pressure
difference of 1.57 lbf/[Link]. testing according to ASTM E2178.

8. Insulation & Weather sealing (Superinsulation, Transparent Insulation, Movable Insulation, Air Barriers,
vapor barrier, cementitious foam…)
 Variety of materials: fiberglass, mineral wool, polystyrene, polyisocyanurate, polyurethane, and
cellulose. Newer material includes cementitious foam, autoclaved aerated concrete, straw panels,
straw-bale construction and plastic fiber.
 R-Values: must be determined before the types of making selection or reference the requirements
from a model energy code such as IEC / Standard as ANSI / ASHRAE / IES Standard 90.1.
Note: HCFCs in production process should not be used, because of Ozone-Depleting, and it will be phased out by 2030.
CFCs is similar used but already band back to 1996.

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9. Glazing (use appropriate type of glazing system)
 Two ways of window/glass reduces solar radiation:
- Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC): it includes the effects of the frame, glass spacer and other
parts of window assembly.
- Shading Coefficient: it applies to just the glass itself. It is a decimal fraction between 0 to 1.
 Types of glass:
- Insulating glass (double/triple-pane glass): it is used to control heat loss.
- Tinted glass, reflective glass and heat-absorbing glass: these have long been used to reduce solar
heat gain. This reduces or eliminates the potential for using daylighting to conserve energy; it
makes both views out and interiors seem darker, especially on cloudy days.
- Low-E glass (low-emissivity glass): it is double glazing that includes a thin film or coating placed
somewhere in the glazing cavity. refers to a surface condition that emits low levels of radiant
thermal (heat) energy. It prevents the loss of heat.
- Spectrally selective glazing: it transmits a high proportion of the visible solar spectrum while
blocking up to 80% of heat from the infrared portion of the spectrum. It is good for buildings
that have a long cooling season and that need high interior light levels.
- Super windows: it combines two Low-E coatings with gas-filled cavities between three layers of
glass.
- Switchable glazing: it has following types of products:
1. Electrochromic glazing: it changes from opaque and clear or change colors.
2. Photochromic glazing: it darkens under the direct action of sunlight. It does not offer the
control of electrochromic glazing.
3. Thermochromic glazing: it changes darkness in response to temperature; it becomes
translucent when it reaches a certain temperature.
4. Transition-metal hydride electrochromic: it changes from transparent to reflective.

10. Double envelope (dynamic buffer zone - two glazed layers as the outer skin of a building)

11. Daylighting (the daylighting design must be coordinated with artificial lighting control and mechanical
system design.)
 In order to make daylighting feasible and cost effective, several conditions must be met:
- It must be enough view of the sky.
- The glazing must transmit sufficient light.
- Daylighting design must be coordinated with artificial lighting control and mechanical systems
design.
 Daylight factor (DF):
- The DF is the ratio of the illuminance at a point on a horizontal surface indoors to the
illuminance at a point on a horizontal surface outdoors and fully open to the sky, measured at
the same time under overcast skies; direct sunlight is excluded.
 Window design:
- Two important variables designing windows for daylighting are
1. the height of the window head above the floor.
2. the effective aperture.
- Effective aperture (EA) is the product of two variables: visible light transmittance and window-
to-wall ratio.
- Visible light transmittance (VLT) is the percentage of visible light that passes through a glazing
material.
- Window-to-wall ratio (WWRs) is the glazing area in a room or space divided by the gross
exterior wall area.
 Light shelves:

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- A horizontal surface above eye level. It reflects direct daylight onto the ceiling while shading the
lower portions of the window.
 Glazing selection:
- Need for a high VLT against the need for control of glare and unwanted heat gain and loss.
- Control heat loss through convection, a low U-value is desirable.
- Control heat gain from the sun radiation, a low SHGC is desirable.
- A good choice for glare control is a glass with VLT from 50-70% with the lowest possible SHGC.
 Shading:
- In general, horizontal shading above the window on the south side, and vertical shading on the
east and west side.
 Room design:
- The reflectance of interior surfaces should be as high as possible.
- Minimum reflectance should be 80% for ceilings, 50-70& for walls, and 20-40% for floors.
 Top lighting:
- Top lighting with daylight involves the use of light pipes, skylights, roof monitors, saw-toothed
roofs, or sloped glazing.

• Alternative energy sources to improve a building’s sustainability while decreasing life-cycle costs: Early
stages of design, the proposed integration of alternative energy systems and methods can affect the overall
project concept. Such systems can affect the choice of location, massing, shape, orientation, and primary
material for the building, as well as the configuration of other site elements like parking and landscaping.
1. Solar design
 Passive Solar Design: windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, reflect, and
distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. A
thermal mass is featured as a design element. Deciduous trees and evergreen trees can shade
windows in summer and unblock sunlight in winter.
- Passive solar heat transfer principles: Convective heat transfer / Radiative heat transfer
- General categories:
1. Direct gain system: heat stored in high-mass materials such as concrete floors, masonry
walls, tile, stone and terrazzo.
2. Indirect gain system: mass is heated during the day by room air temperature and reflected
sunlight.
3. Thermal storage wall: Trombe wall.
4. Phase change materials: used to avoid the overheating and wide swings in temperatures
that occur with concrete, masonry, and water. Eutectic salts that change from a solid to a
liquid at a fairly of heat.
5. Greenhouse design: features a large glazed area on the south side, with a heavy thermal
mass wall separating the greenhouse from rest of structure.
6. Roof pond: stores heat in large water-filled bags on the roof.
7. Convective loop system or thermosiphons: place the solar collector below the inhabited
space. The air within the space is circulated by natural convection as the warm air rises and
cool air falls back to the collector.

 Active Solar Design: involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices. Be aware some equipment
on a building can make a significant adverse visual statement, parapets can be used. Active solar
device shall be located for a maximized efficiency, and it will not affect other buildings or occupied
areas.
- Three components are required:
1. a collector: a flat-plate collector or focusing collector.
2. a storage device: water for water systems and rock beds for air systems. Such as Phase

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Change Materials.
3. a distribution system: like standard HVAC systems.
- Solar energy: can be used for cooling if high enough temperatures are reached in the transfer
medium.

2. Wind (wind power to generate electricity)

 Specific conditions needed: equipment is costly and not easy to be allowed its use on urban or
suburban sites.

3. Geothermal (use of ground surface heat pumps using the temperature of the earth)
 Geothermal energy uses ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs): are electrically powered systems that
work like air-source heat pumps by either extracting heat from the ground in winter or giving off
excess heat to the ground in summer.

4. Photovoltaic - PV (direct conversion of sunlight into electricity)

 Advantages: it reduces demand on nonrenewable energy sources such as coal- and gas-fired power
plants. It can reduce energy costs.
 Disadvantages: high initial cost, need for collectors to be placed in a location that receives adequate
sunlight, low winter production, and the lack of electricity production during night hours. The use of
storage batteries introduces its own challenges such as high initial and maintenance costs.

Note: IBC requires photovoltaic elements to comply with the general code requirements for roofing materials and
rooftop structures. Including: fire resistance, wind resistance, material standards, and installation according to
manufacturers’ instruction. Applicable of the IFC as well.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL INFLUENCES

During programming, the architect has to make a clear distinction between the architect’s client and the actual users.
They are not always the same. The resulting statement of the programming process must respond to the psychological
needs of these users by developing physical guidelines in order to develop a realistic model of the people who will be
using the structure, and the nature of their activities. For that reason, the architect needs to get familiar with the
following concepts:
o Diversity: humans need a diverse and stimulating environments.

o Proxemics: it is a term created by Edward T. Hall to describe the interrelated observations and theories of
humans’ use of space as a specialized elaboration of culture. It deals with the issues of spacing between people,
territoriality, organization of space, and positioning of people in space, all relative to the culture of which they
are a part.

o Behavior setting: studies the effect of the environment on human activity. It can be though as a particular place,
with definable boundaries and objects within the place, in which a standing pattern of behavior occurs at a
particular time. Example: the activity dictates the behavior; a weekly board of associates meeting in a
conference room. The activity of the meeting follows a procedure, it occurs in the same place, and the room is
arranged to assist that activity.

o Territoriality: it refers to the need to lay claim to the spaces we occupy and the things we own; people need a
place they can call their own. Environments should allow people to claim territory and make choices about
where to be and what activities to engage in.

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o Personalization: people need to arrange their environment to reflect their presence and uniqueness. Example:
moving a chair to make viewing a screen easier.

o Status: the physical environment holds a great deal of symbolism that indicate/communicate status for some
human beings. Example: in the US someone with a corner office has more status than someone with only one
exterior wall.

o Group interaction: an environment can either facilitate or hinder human interaction. In most behavior settings,
groups are disposed to act a certain way. If the setting is not conductive to the activities, people will modify it or
modify their behavior. In most cases, providing a variety of spaces for interaction is the best approach:
1. Sociopetal: spaces, buildings, rooms, and even furniture can be considered Sociopetal if they bring people
together.
2. Sociofugal: it refers to conditions that just do the opposite of Sociopetal; they tend to discourage interaction
or social contact.
3. Personal Space: there four basic distances that can used to study human behavior:
- Intimate distance: people come within this distance for special conditions - physical contact to a
distance of 6” to18”
- Personal distance: general distance maintained between a person and other people - 1 ½ to 2 ½ ft
- Social distance: interaction between strangers - 4ft to 12ft
- Public distance: greatest amount of formality - 12ft outward

COMMUNITY INFLUENCES ON DESIGN

o Catchment Areas: it is the surrounding base of population within a geographical region, such as the people living
at a certain distance from the proposed location of a shopping center, or a school district for a school building.
Simple gross population numbers are not enough to determine a catchment area; information must be gathered
from census data and local planning agencies.

o Catchment areas characteristics:

1. They may be defined by specific functions or population.
2. Their boundaries may be determined by geographic features (highway, river), artificial political boundaries
(city line, school district), or by nebulous demarcations (division between two ethnic groups). Boundaries are
often determined by the availability of transportation.
3. Catchment areas can overlap.
4. They may increase or decrease in size or come into existence.
5. They may be a result of population growth in an area.
6. They may be a result of a municipal development.
7. Residential catchments are determined by local transportation systems.
8. Zoning ordinances help to create and preserve catchment areas by specifying which land use are permitted.
9. Existing catchment areas are subject to alteration.

o Accessibility to Transportation
• As simple as a one-way street that makes the site more difficult to enter from one direction may be enough
to render the property undesirable for some uses.

o A number of considerations shall be examined when analyzing a site for development:

1. Is the highway system adequate to bring the catchment area population to the site?
2. Are there adequate traffic counts for business that depend on drive-by trade?
3. Would enough additional traffic be created to overload the existing road system? Would new roads need to
be built? Would existing roads need to be expanded?
4. Is there adequate access for trucks servicing the site?

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5. Does the surrounding transportation network create an undesirable environment for the development?
Example: a small site bounded by two freeways may be too noisy for an apartment building.
6. Is there safe and convenient pedestrian access to the site? Needed?
7. Is there public transportation nearby? How will people get from the mass transit stops to the site? This is
especially important for transit-oriented development.
8. If this is an industrial project, are rail lines available?

o Neighborhoods: It is a relatively small area in which a number of people live and share similar needs and desires
in housing, social activities, and other aspects of day2day living. Site development must be sensitive to the
existing neighborhood. This can include respecting pedestrian paths, maintaining the size and scale of the
surrounding buildings, using similar to compatible materials, not creating uses that conflict with the
surroundings, respecting views and access to important structures in the area, and trying to fit within the general
context of the district.

o Public Facilities: Such as schools, shops, fire stations, places of worship, post offices, and recreational center.
These are relative importance in neighborhood can affect how a site is developed.

TRANSPORTATION AND UTILITY INFLUENCES

o Road Layout at Interactions:

Avoid two-way Y
intersections

Driveway Service Drives

Entries

Cul-de-sac
Turnaround

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Movement
Lanes

o Roads: Roads should have a maximum of 10% grade for drainage. provide a primary means of access to a site
and prime determinants for land development. 4 – basic categories of roads:

Local Streets
have the lowest capacity and provide direct access to building sites. They may be in the
form of a continuous grid or curvilinear system, or be cul-de-sacs or loops. Parking is often
available on the street or in nearby parking lots or garages, and the local street connects
to the pedestrian circulation system.

Collector Streets
connect local streets with large arterial streets. It has a higher capacity than local streets
but are usually not intended for through traffic. Interactions of collector and local roads
may be controlled by stop signs,

Arterial Streets
major, continuous circulation routes that carry large amounts of traffic on two or three
lanes. Connect collector streets to expressways. Parking is not allowed on an arterial
street, and direct access from arterial streets to building sites should be avoided.

Expressways
limited access roads designed to move large volumes of traffic. Intersections are made by
various types of ramp systems, and pedestrian access is not allowed. It has major impact
on the land due to the space they require and their noise and visual impact.

Note:
1. Entrance location to a site is most desirable to be located on a collector street rather than an arterial street.
2. A straight section of a road is called a Tangent.
3. A curved section should form the arc of a Circle, and the curve shall have enough radius for vehicle.
4. Simple curves of uniform radius between tangents are preferred.
5. A curved of changing radius should be avoided.
6. Min. 100 ft between curves in opposite directions and 200 ft between curves in the same direction, but the
dimension of roadway is influenced by many factors.
7. Design Guidelines for Road Grades:

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o Pedestrian Circulation, Exterior Access for ADA:

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o Public Facilities: availability and location of public transit lines can influence site design. true of transit-oriented
development. Building entrances and major site features should be conveniently located near public transit. In
large Cities, site development may have provisions for public access to subway and rail lines.

o Service Access: provisions for truck loading, moving vans, and daily delivery services. Ideally, service access shall
be separate from automobile and pedestrian access. Loading dock berths and enough space for large trucks to
turn in many need to be provided. Loading Berth generally are:
• 10 – 12 ft wide, min. 40 ft long, and have a 14 ft vertical clearance.
• Min. turning radius of 60 ft.

o Utilities: determining the existing availability, location, and capacity of existing utilities. The site development
depends on the availability of water, sanitary sewers, storm sewers, communication service, gas service, electric
service, and other necessary public utilities. Having to extend utility lines from a distance can add greatly to the
cost of development.
• Utility lines follow the street layout and right-of-way.
• Sanitary sewers, storm sewers, and water mains are generally under the road, whereas electric and
communication lines are adjacent to the roads, either underground or on poles.
• Gas lines may either be under the road or next to it within the right-of-way.
• Utilities can also be located in easements, portions of privately owned land that public utility companies are
permitted to use for the installation and maintenance of their lines.
• Location of sanitary and storm sewer lines takes precedence over others when new utilities are installed,
because sewers must use the flow of gravity and therefore depend on the natural slope of the land.
o Utilities Include followings:

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• Sanitary sewers • Steam
• Storm sewers • Telephone
• Waterlines • Internet
• Natural gas • Cable television
• Electricity • Others.

o Municipal Services: such as police protection, fire protection, trash removal, and street cleaning. Any site
development must provide access for these services, which may require large areas of land.

SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
Considers the full life cycle of a building and the materials it comprises. It includes considering the impact of raw
material extraction through its fabrication, installation, operation, maintenance and disposal.
o General Ecological Considerations:
• Environmental Impact Statements (EISs), An environmental impact statement is used to analyze and predict
how development will affect the environment, including the air, water, land, and wildlife.
• The EIS requirement was instituted as a provision of the National Environmental Policy Act (EPA) of 1969.
• Control the distribution to the nature:
 Less impact on natural landforms, water runoff, wildlife, and existing vegetation.
 Existing drainage patterns must be left intact, and additional runoff caused by impervious roofs and
paving should not exceed the capacity of the existing drainage facilities.

o Wetlands:
• The soil defined by EPA is inundated or saturated by surface water or groundwater frequently enough that
it can support plants that are adapted to living in saturated soil.
• Referred to as jurisdictional wetlands when they are administered by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
• They are protected by Federal Government through the Clean Water Act (CWA) 1972.

o Site Analysis: consider following for site analysis

• Determine if site within 100 ft of wetland, elevations lower than 5 ft above a 100-year floodplain, habitats
for endangered species, potential historic sites like Burial Grounds, and Prime Farmland.
• Determine if within historical and cultural qualities.
• Analyze types of development might surround the site in the future.
• Analyze existing air quality. Performed test by qualified laboratory.
• Test soil and groundwater for contamination.
• Determine the presence of endangered species including plants, insects and animals.

SUSTAINABLE SITE AND BUILDING CONCEPTS

Early stages of project planning and site analysis offer many ways to help create a sustainable project. following is the
guide line:
o Building Location:
• Preference to urban sites or other sites with existing infrastructure, to minimize disruption of undeveloped
land and maximize efficient use of transportation and utility services.
• Encourage mixed-use development of residential, commercial, retail, and entertainment facilities, to give
people the option of living near the building where they work and do much of their shopping and recreation.
• Locate buildings in such a way as to:
 near public transportation and bicycle or pedestrian routes.
 Minimize tree and vegetation clearing, take advantage of solar access, and minimize the detrimental
effects of wind.
 Maximize desirable airflow patterns.

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 Use gravity sewer systems.
• Minimize solar shadows on adjacent properties with setbacks or low building heights.

o Building Size, Shape, and Design:

• Minimize the building footprint by using multiple floors when possible.
• Establish building dimensions that optimize material use and reduce waste.
• Consider using garden roofs or highly reflective roof coverings to reduce the heat island effect.
• Plan buildings to include bicycle storage and shower/changing facilities to encourage use of alternative
means of transportation.

o Site Disturbance:
• Locate buildings and parking on previously disturbed areas.
• Position buildings and roads along landscape contours and shallow slopes, to minimize earthwork and site
clearing.
• Plan utility corridors along new road or walk construction or along previously disturbed areas on the site.
• Limit site disturbance to 40 ft beyond the building perimeter, 5 ft beyond primary roadway curbs and walks,
and 25 ft beyond constructed areas with permeable surfaces.

o Site Development:
• Minimize the site development area by providing all or some parking under the building.
• Develop a site plan to minimize road length, parking, and service areas.
• Do not develop more than the minimum parking required by the local zoning ordinance.
• Reduce heat islands by providing shade or using high-albedo materials with a min. reflectance of 0.3.
• Use open-grid paving or other pervious paving to reduce Stormwater runoff.
• Design pedestrian surfaces using permeable materials, such loose aggregate, permeable concrete, wooden
decks, and spaced paving stones.
• Use mechanical or natural treatment systems for Stormwater, such as constructed wetlands, vegetated filter
strips, infiltration basins, and bioswales.
 Bioswales are landscape elements designed to concentrate or remove debris and pollution out of
surface runoff water. They consist of a swaled drainage course with gently sloped sides (less than 6%)
and filled with vegetation, compost and/or riprap.
• Design vegetative buffer areas around parking lots to mitigate runoff of water containing pollutants such as
oil and sediments.
• Minimize site lighting. Prevent light from spilling onto adjacent properties or into the sky.
• Consider using collected rainwater for supplemental irrigation.
• Use native plant materials, and minimize the use of high – maintenance lawns. Good landscaping practices
can improve the aesthetics of a site, reduce water runoff, and minimize erosion while minimizing the need
for irrigation and providing habitats for animal and insect species.

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I Building Analysis – Programming & Budgeting I
EVALUATING EXISTING STRUCTURES
o Site Features
o Configuration of the Building
o Structure of the building
o Roof
o Exterior envelope
o Mechanical systems
o Plumbing
o Electrical system
o Fire protection system
o Major equipment
o Finishes
o Compliance with accessibility requirements

EVALUATING THE HISTORIC BUILDING & PRESERVATION

Information and regulations pertaining to national historic landmarks and historic preservation in general is developed by
the Historic Preservation Service of the National Park Service.
o Key Terms:
• Preservation: the act or process of applying measures necessary to sustain the existing form, integrity and
materials of an historic property.
• Mothballing: term used in historic preservation when you designate certain areas to be repaired or restored
at a later date, under a later contract.
• Adaptive-reuse: process of adapting old structures for purposes other than those initially intended while
retaining their historic features. Example: An old factory may become an apartment building – loft.

o 4 Treatments Are Applied to Historic Structures from Most Historically Accurate to Least:
• Preservation: [keep historic character] retains all historic fabric through conservation, maintenance, and
repair.
• Rehabilitation: [keep historic character but makes it look better] emphasizes the retention and repair of
historic materials but gives more latitude to replacement because it assumes the property is more
deteriorated prior to work. (FOR TAX INCENTIVES PROGRAM)
• Restoration: [only keep material from on period, removes others] focuses on the retention of materials
from the most significant time in a property’s history, while permitted the removal of materials of other
periods.
• Reconstruction: [re-creation of history] least historically accurate and allows the opportunity to re-create a
non-surviving site, landscape, structure, or object in new materials.

o Secretary of Interior’s Standards for Rehabilitation: they are to be applied to specific rehabilitation projects in a
reasonable manner, taking into consideration economic and technical feasibility. When federal investment tax
credits are involved, these standards take precedence over local historic preservation requirements.
The standards for Rehabilitation are:
1. The use shall be historical purpose; new use has minimal changes.
2. Historical character shall be retained and preserved. Avoid historic materials removal or alteration.
3. No false sense of historical development.
4. Historical significance shall be retained and preserved along any changes through the times.
5. Any distinctive features, finishes, const. techniques, craftsmanship shall be preserved.
6. Repairing over replacing. New feature shall match the old in design such as color, texture, visual quality…
7. No harmful chemical or physical treatments shall be applied.

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8. Significant archeological resources affected by a project shall be protected and preserved.
9. Any new construction shall not destroy historic materials.
10. The standards do allow for new additions and alterations to be differentiated from the old while still being
compatible in massing, size, scale and architectural features.

o The U.S. National Park Service established guidelines for Preservation, Restoration, and Reconstruction similar
to those of Rehabilitation.
The standards for Restoration are:
1. New use shall reflect its` restoration period.
2. Materials, features and spaces from the restoration period shall be retained and preserved.
3. It shall be recognized as a physical record of its time, place, and use.
4. Materials, features, space and finishes characterize other periods shall be documented prior executing work.
5. Any distinctive features, finishes, const. techniques, craftsmanship shall be preserved.
6. Repairing over replacing. New feature shall match the old in design such as color, texture, visual quality…
7. Replacement of missing features from the restoration period shall be substantiated by documentary.
8. No harmful chemical or physical treatments shall be applied.
9. Significant archeological resources affected by a project shall be protected and preserved.
10. Designs that were never executed historically will not be constructed.

o Masonry in historic building

• The Historic Preservation Service of the National Park Service provides several recommendations for the
treatment of historic masonry in several categories:
1. Identify, Retain and Preserve
 Unique masonry from the restoration period should be identified and should not be altered or
covered.
2. Protect and Maintain
 Provide proper drainage.
 After testing surfaces, the surfaces should be cleaned only when necessary using the gentlest
method.
 Do not use sandblasting and chemical products for cleaning.
 Paint only if damaged or deteriorated.
3. Repair
 For mortar should be repointed by hand-raking the joints and duplicating the mortar in strength,
composition, color, texture, and joint profile. Never use electric saws, hammers, and high Portland
cement content.
 For masonry, repair by patching, piecing in, or reinforcing using recognized preservation methods.
4. Replace
 If feature is too deteriorated for repair, it may be replaced with a reproduction.
 If the same kind of material is not possible, a compatible substitute material may be considered.
5. Remove existing features from other historic periods

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 If the structure has features from both the original construction and construction from other
periods, the items from the other periods should be removed, and if possible stored to facilitate
research.
6. Recreate missing features
 Consider this method only if none of the previous
recommendations is feasible.

PROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS
o Three Phases in Programming:
1. Board objectives
2. Functional Requirement: are described by size and relationships
3. Detailed Requirements
o Five-step process of architectural programming: (each of these
steps are organized around the four major considerations defined
above)
1. Establish goals / Establish objectives: goals indicate what the
client wants to achieve and why. They establish the direction of
programmatic concepts that ultimately suggests the physical
means of achieving goals. Ex: increase the daily informal
interaction between students and teachers.
2. Collecting facts / Collect, organize, and analyze data: the facts
describe the existing conditions and requirements of the
problem, which should not only be collected, but also organized,
using such tools as the program outline format (see definition).
Examples of facts to be collected and organized include, but are
not limited to, site conditions, space adjacency needs, money
available for construction, building code requirements, etc.
3. Uncovering concepts / Formulate relationships: develop abstract
ideas that are functional solutions to the client’s problems
without defining the physical means that should be used to
achieve them by using programmatic concepts (see definition).
Ex: A programmatic concept to increase the daily informal
interaction between students and teachers: provide common
spaces for mixed flow in circulation patterns.
4. Determining needs / Establish priorities: this step balances the desires of the client against the available
budget or establishes a budget based on the defined goals and needs; wants have to be separated from
needs. During his step one or more of the four elements of cost (quantity, quality, time, and budget) may
have to be adjusted to balance needs against available resources.
5. Stating the problem: this step summarizes the essence of the problem in just a minimum of four statements,
one for each of the major considerations of form, function, economy, and time. These statements will be the
bridge between programming and the design process.

o Architect’s Design Decisions are Affected by:

1. Cost (Economy): considers the construction budget, long-term operating costs.
2. Function: relates to the people and activities of the space or building and their relationships.
3. Aesthetics (Form): considers the site, the character of the physical environment, spatial aspects, and
pertinent structural aspects.
4. Time: considers the schedules for design, construction and occupancy.
5. Sustainability – LEED certification is considered an additional service for the architect.

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A. Level and quality of Sustainability is rated by the LEED System. LEED’s goal is to introduce new
sustainable approaches and technologies to the construction industry. It is comprised of 6 categories:
1. sustainable sites
2. water efficiency
3. Energy and atmosphere
4. materials and resources
5. indoor air quality
6. innovation and design practice
In order for a project to be LEED certified, the design decisions have to improve the building’s performance against an
established standard in percentages.
B. It is important to educate and explain to the client, the project team, and bidders, the benefits,
requirements and characteristics of sustainable design, in order to avoid misunderstandings, and
unnecessary additional fees from bidder, contractor, and consultants.
C. Sustainability affects:
 Cost  life-cycle costing considerations (initial cost, operating cost, maintenance cost, residual
value, replacement cost) and matrix costing considerations (balancing aesthetics, budget and
function)
 Function  environmental impact and energy efficiency
 Aesthetics  balance function + cost + aesthetics= better reputation for sustainability
 Time  may result in longer construction process and construction

o Design Concepts vs. Programmatic Concepts

• Design Concept: physical solutions to the client’s problems and which reflect approaches to satisfying
programmatic concepts.
• Programmatic Concepts: abstract ideas about how to view and solve the client’s performance problems
before attempting to solve them with 3D design ideas. 24 programmatic concepts are identified in the book
Problem Seeking by William Peña:

Priority If client has goal of company`s image, then building entrance is higher priority than office.
Relationships Affinities of people and activities, which directly affects spaces and rooms.
Hierarchy A law firm, senior members might be given larger offices than junior members.
Character A response to the image the client wants to project. combination of look and aesthetic feel.
Density Rated low, medium or high. Describes how a parcel of land, building, or space is used.
Service Groupings Building service such MEP, Communication systems, other functions support the building.
Activity Grouping Determine activities should be integrated and grouped or separated.
People Grouping How people are placed together based on physical, social and emotional characteristics.
Home Base Concept of territoriality and a place where a person can maintain his/her individuality.
Communications Promotes the effective exchange of info or ideas by exam who with whom and how.
Neighbors How project will promote or prevent sociality.
Accessibility Concern accessibility to all regardless of familiarity with physical capability.
Separated Flow Segregate flow of people, vehicles, service access, other activities of a building.
Mixed Flow Opposite of separated flow
Sequential Flow Needed for both people and objects where a specific series of events or process is needed.
Orientation Concern of keeping people from feeling lost within a larger context,
Flexibility Expansibilities, Convertibility, Versatility.
Tolerance Allows some extra space for future.
Safety Minimize risk of injury or death. Building code & safety precautions are tied to this concept.
Security Control Both people and property can be protected, with the degree of security.
Energy Conservation Keeping the heated or cooled area to a minimum etc..

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Environmental Control Controls designed to meet conform needs.
Phasing Project in stages to meet time and cost schedules.
Cost Control Of course, you know what does that mean!!!

o Organizational Patterns
• The functional needs of a project, the clients’ goal, the site conditions, the desired symbolism, patterns of
growth, or other additional factors influence how the physical environment is organized. Each organizational
pattern has its own core characteristics which should be measured against several aspects: user behavior
and objectives, circulation, health, expansion, and cost. There are 6 fundamental organizational concepts:

Linear Consist of a series of buildings or spaces (identical or of different

sizes and shapes) that always relate to a single line. A linear
organization is adaptable, easily expandable, and be built in a
modular configuration.
Positive: major circulation occurs between two points.
Negative: lack of focus, may be congested, expansion may be limited.
Axial It is a variation of the linear system with two or more major linear
segments about which buildings or spaces are placed.
Positive: allows for expansion.
Negative: may become extended.

Grid Consists of two sets of regularly spaced parallel lines, which creates
one pattern that is very strong, and one that is quite flexible.
Positive: allows for expansion in several directions, flexible,
compact, and appropriate for very large buildings and building
complexes where a great amount of circulation is required.
Negative: may become monotonous.

Central It is based on one space or point about which secondary

elements are placed. This organization concept is often used in
combination with axial or linear plans.
Positive: common point of origin, compact, allows for maximum
social interaction.
Negative: somewhat inflexible.
Radial More than one linear organization extends from a centralized
point. This organization has a central focus and also has the ability
to extend outward to connect with other spaces or expand. It can
be circular or assume other shapes.
Positive: common point of origin, compact, allows for maximum
social interaction, allows for expansion.
Negative: may become extended.

Cluster It is a loose composition of spaces or buildings related around a

path, axis, or central space, or they are simply grouped together.
Positive: adaptable to requirements for different sizes of spaces and
they are easy to add onto without disrupting the overall
composition.

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Negative: may become extended.

o Circulation Patterns
• They are primary ways of organizing spaces, buildings, and group of buildings. They are vital to the efficient
organization of a structure and provide people with their strongest orientation within an environment. Paths
of circulation provide the means to move people, cars, products, and services. A circulation pattern is
directly related to the organizational pattern of a building, but it does not necessarily have to mimic it.

Dumbbell Spaces are laid out along a straight path that connects two
major elements at the ends.
Positive: simplest, most flexible, double loaded corridor makes it
very efficient, spaces are laid out perpendicular to the path and
allow for extension along the length of the spaces.
Negative: site constraints may restrict the length of the spine.

Doughnut Making a complete loop of the dumbbell results in a doughnut

configuration.
Positive: spaces at the perimeter can be expanded outward. It is
good for square or nearly square sites and for buildings that must
be compact. Spaces that do not need exterior exposure can be
placed in the middle. Entries, exits, stairways can be placed
wherever needed.

Grid
Positive: used in large buildings where access must be provided
to many internal spaces
Negative: not appropriate and inefficient for small buildings.

Radial It is oriented on one major space with paths extending

from its central area.
Positive: appropriate for large buildings or building complexes
Negative: requires a large site. Each corridor must have an exit
at the end if it is longer than 20ft.

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Field Consists of a network of paths with no strong direction.
Negative: orientation is difficult, may become extended

o Program Outline Format: the purpose of the program outline format

is to organize programmatic data, to summarize basic project needs,
and to be used as a guide during the various design phases. The
program outline format is broken down into 4 components:
1. Total building group: it refers to all the buildings that constitute a
building group. It is like developing a master plan for a group, as
well as its shared elements (e.g. circulation, parking ...). Note: A
master plan describes the development of a site to be realized
over a period of many years.
2. Component building: it refers to the functions any single building
in the Total Building Group. This portion should describe the
objectives of the building’s activities, the relationship between
the major activity centers, the number and type of people to be
housed, the amount of space needed to serve the objectives,
access, ingress, egress, internal circulation, and possible
extension.
3. Activity center: it refers to a space or series of spaces within the
component building related to each other by function.
4. Space unit: information about the space itself.

o Estimating Space Needs: the principle of the “Numeric Method” is that physical facilities can be classified by
groups called “use categories,” each of which requires a specific amount of space. Followings are some examples
to demonstrate how spaces are calculated:

#1. Solving for Index #2. Apply Index

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If need to get the number and size of instructional Based on .83 index, it can be applied to get Net
classrooms, need to know: Square footage of a space with 1,000 students:
a. Curriculum uses, to determine size a. Assume 1,000 students, each spend 6 hrs in
b. Instructor-student ratios class/week.  6,000 weekly student-hours.
c. Number of students b. Space needed: 6,000 x .83 = 5,000 net ft²
d. Number of weekly class-hours of use (regardless number of classroom)
e. Area per student Use the total 5,000 ft² and given Net Square Feet
The area per weekly student-hour is derived from three /Occupant, to arrange the spaces as needed, see
Classroom / Laboratories

sources: following:
a. The A² required for each student = 15 – 20 ft² a. 5 Classrooms for 20 students, each at 300 ft²
b. The # of hours per week classrooms are in use = 30 5 x 300 = 1,500 ft²
hrs b. 2 lecture halls for 150 students, each at 1,350
c. The % of time each student-station is occupied when ft²
the classroom is in use = 60% 2 x 1,350 = 2,700 ft²
Solving for Index: c. 8 seminar rooms for 5 students, each at 100 ft²
Square feet per student-station = 15. 8 x 100 = 800 ft²
Hours/week classroom used = 30. Total Area: 5,000 ft²
Each student-station in classroom is used with a ratio of Get Gross Square footage:
60%. a. Use the 60% efficiency
 Index = 15 / (30 x 60%) = .83 b. 5,000 / 60% = 8,333 ft² for 1,000 students.

Stack Space: Book storage space derives from the Result: a library will serve 4,000 undergraduates,
number of Volumes and periodicals in the collection: 800 graduates and 250 faculty with a total
a. Shelf is filled about 75% collection of 400,000 volumes, generates a total
b. The basis of 0.1 ft² / bound volume; eg: 15 net usable area = 86,188 net ft²
pamphlets equal in width to 1 bound volume.
c. Library Equivalency Factors:
Library

d. Standard given area for reading station: 30 ft²

e. Capacity of each student body is: 25%

To get Gross Building Area:

If the pre-determined building efficiency is 80%
 86,188 / 80% = 107,735 ft²

Reader Space: To determine reading room space:

a. 7.5 ft² / Undergraduate student, Graduate student
b. 15 ft² / Teaching and Research Faculty
Service Space: To determine reading room space:
(example)
a. 25% of reader space shall be used for library service

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including both technical and public service areas.
that also includes office and workroom areas for
administration, acquisition, and cataloguing of
volumes.

The space needs of retail sales area are directly related Example:
to the potential sales expressed in $ / ft²: a. The catchment area for a proposed shopping
Three types of shopping centers will be considered: center comprises a densely urban area: 1,440
acres, population density is 50 person/acre
b. The volume of sales required to produce a
Retail Sales Space

profit is determined to be $72 $/ft² of leasable

area.
c. Assuming that the personal consumption
expenditures within the catchment area avg.
$288 /person.
1. Neighborhood Center
• Provides convenience goods and personal service
What is the Max. gross leasable area the
for everyday needs. catchment area can support?
• Often built around a supermarket or drugstore
and serves 7,500 to 20,000 people within a 6-min Solution:
driving radius, as well as walk-in shoppers. a. Total population = 1,440 acres x 50
2. Community Center person/acre = 72,000 persons
• In addition to convenience goods, provides for b. Total sales volume = 72,000 persons x
the sales of “soft goods” (clothing, towels, etc.) $288/person = $20,736,000
and “hard goods” (hardware, appliances, etc.)
• Often has as its major tenant a variety store or  Max. gross leasable area = $20,736,000 / $72
junior department store, in addition to a $/ft² (SALES) = 288,000 ft²
supermarket.
• Serves 20,000 to 1000,000 people, and it ranges
in size from 100,000 to 300,000 ft²
3. Regional Center
• Provides general merchandise, apparel, furniture,
and home furnishings, apparel, furniture, and
home furnishings.
• Avg. building area is 400,000 ft²; it ranges
300,000 to 1,000,000 ft²

EVALUATING FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMMING

o Determining Space and Volume Needs:
1. Client will have a list of requirements for square footage and special heights based on the client’s
experience, what currently exists, or on corporate space standards. These requirements may be subject to
review during programming.

2. People engaged in a particular activity most commonly define the space required. Ex: an office worker
needs from 100 ft2 to 250 ft2. This information is usually given in a guideline for space requirements. In
some instances, space needs can be based on something that is directly related to occupancy. Ex: area per
bed for the preliminary planning of a hospital. In both cases, the number of people that must be
accommodated is determined and is multiplied by the area per person.

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3. Objects determine the amount of space required (Ex: washing machine and dryer dimensions determine the
necessary clear space for where they will be located in a laundry room).

4. Specific Activity governed by certain practices or rules related to the activity itself (Ex: a basketball court has
specific dimensions and layout).

5. Market study research help determine the space/volume needs for retail sales spaces.

6. Numeric Method’s main purpose is to present a logical system for the calculation of space requirements to
estimate the space needs in living and work spaces. It classifies the different physical facilities (e.g.
Educational Facility) into use categories (e.g. Classrooms, Labs, Library …) which will require a specific
amount of space obtained using an index (multiplier). Factors needed to compute an index:
a. Ft2/user: Square feet per user, found using the space standards. (Ex: Classroom 15- 20 ft2).

b. Hrs/Wk: Hours per week the space is being used. (Ex: Classroom being used 30h/week).

c. % of Time: Percent of time that space will be occupied while in use (Ex: Classroom student stations will
be in use for 60% of the time).

• Formula using the numeric method:

Calculate Index Example:

2
Ft /user ÷ (Hrs/Wk x % of Time) 15 ÷ (30 x .60) = 15÷18 = .833
Example:
Calculate NSF st
1 : Calculate the weekly user hours:
Quantity of users x Index
1,000 sociology students - 6hr/week
(this does not determine the quantity or
1,000 x 6 = 6,000 weekly hours
size of classrooms, it gives a total amount
of NSF needed to accommodate those nd
2 : Calculate the Net Square Feet:
users)
6,000 x .833 = 5,000 NSF
Calculate Gross Area Example:
Net Area ÷ Efficiency 5,000(NSF) ÷ 60%(Efficiency) = 8,333 sf’(Gross)

o Determining Building Area for Net Assignable & Unassigned Areas:

• Space Standards / Net Square Feet per Occupant: they are specified in building codes, it is the amount of
usable floor area required for one person including that person’s share of floor area required for circulation

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to be safely housed in a space. For example: a dining table requires 15-17 [Link]. for each person to be safely
housed in a space.

• NSF-Net Square Feet / Net Area / Net Assignable Area: sum of all USABLE (leasable) floor spaces measured
to the inside faces of enclosing walls or to the lines of other space separations. It does not include spaces
not directly housing the primary activities of the building such as circulation and general service areas
(corridors, lobbies, restrooms, custodial rooms, stairways, mechanical spaces…). These secondary spaces are
referred to as the unassigned areas or unassignable areas.

• Gross Building Area: sum of all building areas (assigned and unassigned) measured to the exterior face of
perimeter walls, including interior walls, columns, and shafts.

• Efficiency is the net-to-gross ratio: The ratio maybe dictated by a client or maybe obtained using common
efficiency ratios. This ratio ranges from 60-80%; any percentage below 60% is considered inefficient.
Efficient means that an area is functioning in the best possible manner with the least waste of space. To
increase the efficiency of a building, usually, circulation layout has to be done carefully; the least amount of
corridors, the higher the efficiency.

• Typical Building efficiencies: (+/- 5%)

55% Hospital
60% College (student union) / court house / retail store
65% Apartments / College (Classroom +Admin)
70% Auditoriums /Bank / Restaurants
75% Prison / Office
80% Department Store
85% Parking garage / Service areas

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• Formulas:
Example:
2
EFFICIENCY Gross Area: 100,000 ft
2
(NET ÷ GROSS) X Net Square Feet: 60,000 ft
2 2
100 60,000 ft ÷ 100,000 ft = .65
.65 x 100 = 65%
Example:
GROSS AREA
Efficiency Ratio: 65% or .65
NET ÷ EFFICIENCY 2
Net Square Feet: 60,000 ft
2
60,000 ÷ .65 = 100,000 ft

• Non-assignable Areas Space Requirements:

o Determining Rentable Area:

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• Rentable Area: the rentable area is greater than the basic programmed usable area because it includes
circulation and service spaces.
1. When measuring from an exterior wall in which more than 50% of the wall is glass, measure from the
inside face of the glass.
2. Measure to the inside face of walls between the office and the corridor.
3. Measure to the centerline of demising walls, or walls between tenants.
4. The rentable area would also include a share of common restrooms and corridors.
5. No deductions are made for columns or projections necessary to the building.

• Two areas of sum can be rented by building owner:

6. Tenant’s occupant area, which is the area used exclusively by tenant’s own business or function.
7. A prorated share of those areas of the building used by all tenants, such common corridors, restrooms,
elevator lobbies, and mechanical rooms, building amenity areas such conference rooms, food service
facilities, vending areas and day care centers, etc.

• Base Building Circulation: the minimum path on a multi-occupant floor necessary for access to and egress
from occupant areas, elevators, stairs, restrooms, janitorial closets, and similar areas.
1. IF, a tenant occupies an Entire floor, the occupant area includes all space taken by the base building
circulation as well as the elevator lobby.
 Base Building Circulation: is the minimum path on a multi-occupant floor necessary for access to
and egress from occupant areas, elevators, stairs, restrooms, janitorial closets and similar areas.

2. IF, a tenant occupies Part of a floor, ANSI / BOMA Z65.1 measures

 the occupant area to the inside, finished surface of multi-occupant corridor partitions and;
 to the centerlines of demising partitions (partition in middle separating two tenants).
 Where the measurement is taken to an external wall then:
- If 50% or more the external wall is glass, the occupant area is measured to the inside surface of
the glass;
- Otherwise, the occupant area is measured to the inside surface of the exterior wall columns,
recessed entries, and structural projections are ignored.

• ANSI / BOMA Z65.1 uses two methods: to determine the rentable area for a tenant:

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1. Method A (Legacy Method)
 May result in different load factors for different floors
of a building, and it uses a separate R/U ratio (rentable
area / usable area) for each floor.
2. Method B (Single Load Factor Method)
 Results in the same load factor for all floors of a
building, and it uses the R/O ratio (Preliminary or net
floor area / usable area) instead of R/U.
Note: Owner should come up the load factors, architect uses it to
help determining how much rentable space is needed.

DETERMINING BUILDING SPACE AND PROGRAMMING

o Space Relationships
Note: programming relationships shall follow logical arrangement
with assigning a hierarchy of importance. The relationships are
usually recorded as an adjacency matrix or diagrams. There are
three basic types of adjacency needs: people, products, and
information. How the architect designs the physical space in
response to these needs will differ with each type.

Matrix Format
How to read a matrix format: follow the outer lines of
each tab until it meets with the outer line of another tab
on the list. At the point where they meet, provide for the
appropriate or required adjacency level.

Filled circle/1 = mandatory adjacency  Example: entry

and living room need to be close to each other in this
diagram

Empty circle/2 = secondary adjacency / no relationship

 Example: the bedrooms do not have to be close to
each other

No circle/3 = no adjacency/separate  Example: kitchen

and study have to be separated.
Bubble Diagram
How to read an adjacency diagram: follow the lines
connecting each circle. The circles indicate required
adjacencies, priorities, a relative size of spaces; best for
showing relationships.

Thick line = mandatory adjacency  Example: entry ,

study, and living room need to be close to each other

Thin line = secondary adjacency Example: entry,

bedroom, and kitchen do not have to be close to each
other but should still have a relationship

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No line = no adjacency  Example: study and bedroom do
not need to be next to each other.
Blocking & Stacking Diagram

It is a method used to determine the ideal method of

introducing program elements in a building envelope. It
depicts more regular and accurately sized spaces.

Blocking is the aggregation of area into a block of space,

usually at the department level, based on the desired
adjacency and support requirements.

Stacking is the placement of the block within a building

volume which shows the organization being studied and
3D adjacencies, where each unit is represented by a
volume of space as quantified by the program data. (Used
in multi-floor facility programming).

PROJECT BUDGETING DURING PROGRAMMING

o Four Basic Variables must be Considered for any Construction Budget:
• Quantity
• Quality
• Available funds
• Time
Note: Value Engineering sometimes will be performed to accomplish a less expensive way. It is typically done during SD,
or DD, but may be performed during any phase of a project.

o Items Are Included In The Project Budgeting: during programming or even before programming to test the
feasibility of a project:

Site Acquisition Purchase price, legal fees, title transfer cost…

Total Construction Building Costs: All work related to Contractor’s overhead and Profit:
Cost (85%) the structure and its systems using
unit cost figures (ft2 x cost per ft2) • Overhead: 10-20% of the total cost of labor,
materials, equipment:
Site Development: 10-20% of
Building Costs 1. General overhead: cost to run a contracting
Off-site work: all improvements business: office rent, recurring cost, heat, salaries…
outside of the property lines of the
project, i.e. Utilities and services 2. Project overhead: money it takes to complete a
required to make the development particular job, not including labor, materials or
operable. equipment: bonds, insurance, permits, sanitary
On-site work: all improvements facilities, taxes, trash removal…
within the property lines of the
project but excludes the building Profit: 5-20% of the total cost of labor, materials,
itself, i.e. landscaping, parking. equipment, and overhead. Most highly variable part of
the budget.
Contractor’s overhead and profit:
5-40% of total construction costs.

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Movable Equipment Movable Equipment: Furniture, accessories, major equipment, etc. necessary
& Furnishings (FF&E) 5-10 % of Building Costs to put the facility in operation. These are often listed in
separate line items because the funding for them may
come out of a separate budget and because they may
be supplied under separate contracts (see FF&E)

Professional Services 5-10 % or 10-15% of Total Topographic survey, consultant fees, architecture fees,
Construction Costs engineering fees, soil tests, legal

Inspection & Testing Varies Special on-site full-time inspection, testing for concrete,
steel…

Miscellaneous Cost Varies Advertising for bids, fees for sewers and water
connection, attorney’s fees, building permit…

Escalation Estimate 2-10% of Total Construction Costs + Include a factor for inflation where the present budget
Movable equipment &Furnishings estimate is escalated to a time in the future at the
per year expected midpoint of construction.

Contingency 5-10% of Total Construction Costs + Account for unforeseen changes prior to and during
Movable equipment &Furnishings construction that add to the cost.
per year
Financing Costs Varies Loan origination fees, construction loan interest,
administrative costs, permanent mortgages…

Moving Varies Cost to physically relocate: stationary, installing

telephones…

Note: a long-term interest is called Debit Service which is not included in the project budget because it is an ongoing
cost to the owner, similar to maintenance costs.

o Methods of Estimating Cost: Cost estimating is an ongoing activity for the architect. At each stage of
the design process, there should be a revised budget reflecting the decisions made at that time.
Listed below are the different types of cost estimating:
1. Unit Cost System (Programming) – cost per square foot based on recent experience – it enables estimators
to apply cost data accumulated from one building to a different building type, provided the design and
performance criteria are similar.

2. Building Subsystem (Schematic Design) – enables comparison between different conceptual solutions.

3. Component Cost System (Design Development) – enables a more precise selection of components and
systems.

4. Matrix Costing: (Design Development) it is a way of comparing and evaluating alternative construction
components. In this method, a matrix is drawn showing, along one side, the various alternatives, and, along
the other side, the individual elements that combine to produce the total cost of the alternatives.

5. Composite Unit Rates (Construction Documents) – these rates are for construction components,
assemblies, and systems and are required for pre-bid estimates, final cost checks, the contractor’s cost
breakdown, and used as a basis for verifying the contractor’s payment requests.

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6. Parameter Method: (Construction Documents) involves an expanded itemization of construction quantities
and assignment of unit costs to these quantities. It makes it possible to evaluate the cost implications of
each building component and to make decisions concerning both quality and quantity in order to meet the
original budget estimate. Instead of using one number for floor finishes, the cost is broken down into
carpeting, unfinished concrete…

o Construction Cost Is Affected By:

1. Geographical location.
2. Availability of labor and materials – shortage, demand &
supply.
3. Resources to produce or fabricate materials.
4. Convenience of available transportation systems.
5. Price control / credit control.
6. Labor costs largely influenced by building trade unions.
7. Inflation – one method to estimate cost escalation
based on Cost indexes.

o Cost Estimates Are Based On 3 Factors:

1. Scope (Quantity) – what is included in the building
(program).
2. Quality – level of quality achievable.
3. Budget (Cost) – how much money can the owner
spend?

o Construction Cost Based on Location:

• Suburban Areas: lowest cost for development because of its proximity to urban areas.
• Urban Areas: highest cost for development mainly because of labor rates.
• Rural Areas: variable cost based on accessibility by existing transportation routes.

o Cost Indexes: indexes are calculated by averaging costs in a number of major US cities. It is intended to be a
construction cost indicator. The indexes can be used to apply costs from one part of the country to another and
to escalate past costs to the expected midpoint of construction of the project being budgeted
• Example: Cost Index in Miami is 950. Cost Index in Fort Lauderdale where you will be building is 1040. If the
expected construction cost estimate is $ 1, 400,560 based on prices in Miami, what will be the expected cost
in Fort Lauderdale?
 Divide Higher index by Lower Index: 1040 / 950 = 1.095
 Multiply the result by the base cost: ($1,400,560) x (1.095) = $1,533,613.20

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LAND USE & VALUE
• Land use depends on its potential roles in a:
1. Catchment area
2. Location
3. Topography
4. Cost
• There are 8 basic categories of potential land use:
1. Natural resources (mining, forestry…)
2. Agricultural
3. Residential
4. Commercial
5. Industrial
6. Governmental
7. Institutional
8. Open space/conservation
• Land values are generally based on:
• a value per square foot or per acre
• the concept of “highest and best use”
• Location (market area, population density, special site features…)
• Local market conditions (incl. demand for the land)
• Potential profit-making use
• Zoning
• Access – vehicular access, proximity to transportation
• Utilities – proximity to utilities
• Topography

o Land Value May Be Determined For 5 of the Categories of Land Use (natural resources, agricultural,
residential, commercial, and industrial land use) using 4 methods:
1. Market Approach / Comparison method / Market Data Approach: it is the most common technique for
determining land value. This method reflects the market value most closely and is applicable to all land use,
only if one of its requirements is met: sufficient data has to be available on comparable land being offered
for sale at the same time of valuation. This approaches procedure requires that the surrounding region be
investigated to find properties that have recently sold or are on the market that are similar to the property
being valued; the property is then assumed to have the same value as that of the similar properties. Since no
two properties are alike, adjustments will have to be made to reflect the unique nature of the property.
2. Income Approach / Residual method: it is used in highly developed areas with no vacant land where data
of comparable parcels is not available. The basis is the potential the property has to yield a profit or income;
value must be estimated on the potential income from site improvements. The potential income is
estimated and then various expenses (taxes, insurance, maintenance…) are deducted. The resulting amount
must be capitalized to estimate the current, total value of the property because potential income is usually
figured on a yearly basis.
3. Cost Approach / Allocation method: It is used to determine the value of improved properties; the value of
the land is estimated at its highest and best use. The cost to replace the building or add improvements is
calculated by figuring out the estimated accrued depreciation and deducting it from the replacement cost or
cost of the improvements. This adjusted amount is then added to the land value to get the total value of the
property.
4. Development method: it is used to value land that has a potential use for residential or industrial
subdivision. This method depends on evaluating development cost. How? 1. Determine the selling price of
individual lots, 2. Determine the cost to develop the subdivision, 3. Determine the period of time necessary
to sell the developed lots, and 4. Determine the possible discounts of the net sale price.

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Note: Land appraisal is based on the idea of “highest and best use” which means to yield the highest return.
Property is not used to this capacity is Underdeveloped.

FINANCING & TAX STRUCTURE

o Development Loan Types
• Mortgage loan: is used to purchase property. In exchange for the loan, the borrower grants the lender a lien
on the property until the loan is repaid. This is the most common method by which individuals purchase
homes.
• Blanket loan / Blanket Mortgage: used for the purchase of land that the developer intends to subdivide and
resell; generally, includes a clause that releases each subdivided plot from the loan as it is purchased, and a
portion of the debt is repaid;
• Bond: it is a kind of debt security issued by a government entity to raise money to finance a construction
project;
• Bridge loan: short-term loan used to quickly purchase property or to finance a project that must begin
immediately while waiting on another lender to approve a long-term loan;
• Construction loan: used to finance the building of a project for the duration of construction. Once
construction is complete, the loan must be converted into a long- term, permanent loan whereby the lender
is repaid monthly;
• Hard money loan: it is a relatively short-term loan used where there is a distressed financial situation
(foreclosure, bankruptcy, or nonpayment of previous loan). The amount of the loan is based on the quick-
sale value (usually less than the market value) of an asset (property or real estate).
• Mezzanine loan: often used by developers for large projects. It is a large loan with variable interest rate that
increases substantially near the time repayment is due. The loan is secured by using stocks in the
developer’s company as collateral in case of default; this loan is based on a gamble that property will
produce enough revenue to repay the loan when the interest rates escalate.
• Conventional mortgage: fixed or adjustable interest rate; secured by the property purchased; when debt is
repaid, borrower has clear title to the property. If borrower defaults, lender may begin foreclosure and seize
the property.
• Development Impact Fees: are imposed on developers in order to pay for the improvements to off-site
infrastructure (such as roads, utilities, and fire and police department) that the new development makes
necessary. Through these fees, a municipality can make these costs the responsibility of developers rather
than existing residents.
• Impact fees: may be charged in addition to other exactions, such as hookup fees for utility service, and can
be used for projects such as street improvements or construction of wastewater treatment plants. Impact
fees are often controversial because of debate over how the fee is calculated and who really benefits from
the new public facilities.

o Typical Financing Procedure for Private Projects: all private investments in construction are made with the idea
of making a profit. Some owners or developers might have access to capital investment money, own money to
invest, or assemble a small partnership, but most, will go to a lender to seek financing. In order to seek that kind
of financing and assess the value, cost and feasibility of the project, a financial analysis of a building project,
which involves cost and return on investment, must be estimated - pro forma. Along with pro forma, taxes
(ongoing operating cost of a development) to which a developer is subject can influence whether a project is
undertaken and how the site is developed. Once approved, the financing is made available in the form of a
construction loan. The loan funds are paid out to the contractor, subcontractor, and suppliers, which the
developer will pay back the debt service or cost of money through rental income.
• To estimate yearly tax: many taxes are based on a Mill Levy (rate) on the assessed valuation of a piece of
property. The assessed valuation is a percentage of the actual value of the property set by the taxing

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authority:
 Example: the assessed valuation of developed property is based on 19% of actual value, and the Mill
Levy is 49.31. If a developed piece of property is estimated to have an actual valuation of $150,000.00,
what will the yearly tax be?
- Property taxes are often expressed as a mill levy, which is the number of mills, or THOUSANDTHS OF
DOLLAR, that are charged per $1,000 of assessed value: 49.31 / $1000 = 0.04931
- ASSESSED VALUE: (19%) ($150,000.00) = (0.19) ($150,000.00) = $28,500.00
- YEARLY TAX: (0.04931) ($28,500.00) = $1405.00

o Typical Financing Procedure for Public Projects: when a public agency recognizes the need for a new project, a
site is chosen, a project schedule and a budget are developed. This work is done to coordinate with the
government’s fiscal process, in which money for projects is requested and divided up. The financing for public
projects can be done through several methods:
• General sales taxes (general tax revenues) and property taxes: the money collected is put in a general fund
and used as required by that jurisdiction. They are typically used to fund public works, used to provide
ongoing operation and maintenance of existing facilities and normal capital improvements (Ex: replacing
curbs, remodeling schools…).
 General tax: any tax imposed for general governmental purposes
 Property tax: tax based on the value of property being taxed; it is an ad valorem tax.
• Special sales taxes: any tax imposed for a specific purpose or by a single-purpose authority. This type of tax
requires a majority vote of the people in the district (Ex: fund a major transportation project).
• General obligation bonds: used to finance the acquisition or construction of specific public facilities and to
purchase property that does not collect revenue. The principal and interest on such bonds are paid form
general tax revenues (Ex: schools, museums, libraries, parks…). It does not encourage private development.
• Revenue Bonds / Rate supported bonds: used to finance revenue producing facilities. The bonds are paid
back by the revenue from customers using the services that the bond funding paid for (Ex: toll bridges, City
water and sewer…)
• Public enterprise revenue bonds: used to finance facilities for revenue producing public enterprises. The
bonds are paid off from revenues generated by the facility through the charges they impose (airports,
parking garage, hospitals…)
• Tax-increment financing: used to purchase land, planning, and public works improvement to encourage
private development and it is based on increased taxes due to increased property value. The tax increment
acquired from the increased taxes is used to pay the bond issued to originate the development.
• Development impact fees: costs charged to developers for off-site infrastructure improvements made
necessary by new development. (Ex: hookup fees for utility service…)
• Subdivision exaction: it is not used to fund construction, rather they are requirements that developers
either dedicate some land for public use or contribute cash for the purchase of land and facilities made
necessary by local governments.
• Special district assessment / Business improvement districts (BIDs) / Benefit assessments: used to finance
public space improvements in order to enhance an area’s appeal and, indirectly, its property values (Ex:
park, streetscapes…). Owners within the district’s boundaries are required to contribute through assessed
taxes, only if a majority of them has agreed to the improvement.

SCHEDULING OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Setting up a timeframe for design & construction is one of the most important parts of programming because it
influences cost (the longer it takes, the more it will cost), design decisions, and determines the feasibility of a project.
Both schedules for design and construction should be flexible and responsive to changing conditions and allow for
contingencies of at least 2-4 weeks. Several methods are used for scheduling: Bar Chart or Gantt Chart and the Critical
Path Method (CPM).
o Effects of extending a schedule:

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• Original team members may retire or take other positions before completion of the work;
• Cost of the project will increase due to inflation that may result in the project being terminated or reducing
its scope.
o Methods of shortening a schedule:
• Team works overtime;
• Hire more people (part-time, freelance, subcontract work);
• Reduce the man-hours spent on the project.
o Effects of shortening a schedule:
• Higher cost of design;
• Higher cost of construction;
• Lower quality project.

o Design scheduling
• The architect has control over the scheduling of design and the production of contract documents, but no
control over construction. However, the architect must be able to estimate the entire project schedule
during programming so that the best course of action can be taken in order to meet the client’s goals, such
as suggesting a fast-track schedule to meet a deadline. The time required for these phases is highly variable
and depend on several factors.
• To organize the design process, the architect separates the design efforts into phases, each of which must
be substantially finished and approved by the client (1wk-1mo) before moving to the next phase:
1. Schematic design phase (1-2 mo): general layout of the project, preliminary alternates studies for
materials and building systems;
2. Design development phase (2-4 mo): decisions from the previous stage are refined and developed in
more details, preliminary specifications, more detailed cost budget;
3. Construction documents phase (3-7 mo): final working drawings, project manual, bidding documents,
contract documents;
4. Bidding or Negotiation phase (3-6 wks.): obtain and analyze bids from several contractors, or negotiate
a contract with one contractor;
5. Construction administration phase (varies): assure that the structure is being built according to the
contract documents
• The time required for each phase depends on the following factors:
1. The size and complexity of the project;
2. The number of people working on the project – the design team;
3. The abilities and methodology of the project team – level of experience, skill;
4. The quality and completeness of the program information supplied by the client;
5. The type of client and the decision-making and approval processes of the client;
6. Financing – time to secure financing for the project.

o Construction scheduling
• A construction schedule may be established by the contractor or construction manager, but it is most often
estimated by the architect during programming, so the client can have an idea of the total time from
conception to move-in. Keep in mind that this is just an estimate; the architect can in no way guarantee any
estimate of the construction schedule to the client like design scheduling, construction scheduling can be
affected by many variables, where most can be controlled, and others not.
• The time required for construction scheduling depends on some of the following factors:
1. The size and complexity of the project;
2. The weather;
3. Labor availability & labor disputes;
4. Material delivery time;
5. The quality and completeness of the architect’s drawings and specification;

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6. The management ability of the contractor to organize his/her own forces and subcontractors;
7. New construction or remodeling project;
8. Site conditions;
9. The architect-engineer – some or more demanding than others;
10. Lender approvals;
11. Agency and governmental approvals – permit…

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I Selection of Structural Systems I
STANDARD STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Wood
Type 1 - Joist Span between beams or bearing walls and support
floors/ceilings
Typical sizes: 2x6, 2x8, 2x10 and 2x12;
Typical spacings: are 12”, 16” and 24” on center.
Typical maximum span is 20 ft; 25 ft is often used.
Space between joists is spanned with plywood,
particleboard or oriented strand board subflooring
on which underlayment is placed in preparation
for finish flooring.
3/4 in subfloor / underlayment single sheet is
used.
Top edge is held in place by sheathing, but
bridging must be used to support the bottom
edge.
Maximum intervals of no more than 8 ft are
recommended.
Either solid or cross bridging may be used.

Plank-and-beam Common use of solid wood beam.

Framing Typical sizes: 4” or 6” in nominal
Typical spacings: span between girders or bearing
walls at spacing of 4, 6 or 8 ft.
Wood decking  solid or laminated, is used to
span between beams with underside of the
decking being the finished ceiling.
Maximum span for beams is 10 – 20 ft.

`
Type 2 - Glued- Popular method of wood construction.
laminated Individual sizes: lumber 3/4” or 1-1/2” thick, glued
Construction together in factory.
(Glulam) Standard widths: 3 1/8”; 5 1/8; and 8 3/4”
Typical spacings: spans from 15 – 60 ft.
Advantage: appearance
Manufactured in tapered beams, tapered and
curved beams and various types of arches.

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Lightweight I-shaped Used in residential and light commercial
Joist construction and allows longer spans.
(Glulam) Individual sizes: lumber 3/4” or 1-1/2” thick, glued
together in factory.
Standard widths: 3 1/8”; 5 1/8; and 8 3/4”
Typical spacings: spans from 15 – 60 ft.
Advantage: very efficient structural shape,
eliminated warping, splits, checks and other
common wood defects. Stronger and stiffer than a
standard wood joist.

Venner Glued Member It is used primarily for headers over large openings
and singly or built-up for beams.
Higher modulus of elasticity than a standard wood
joist, and its allowable stress in bending is twice
that of a Douglas-fir joist.

Type 3 - Truss It is made up of standard sized wood members

connected with metal plates. Are useful for
residential and light commercial construction and
allow easy passage of mechanical ductwork
through the truss.
Typical Span: from 24 – 40 ft.
Typical Depth: from 12 – 36”.
Typical Spacing: is 24” on center

Box Beam Fabricated with plywood panels glued and nailed

to solid wood members. Often used in locations
where the depth of the member is not critical and
where other types of manufactured beams cannot
be brought to the building site.
Typical Size: 2 x 4 framing
Typical Span: from 24 – 40 ft.
Typical Depth: from 12 – 36”.
Typical Spacing: is 24” on center

Stressed Skin Panels They are the other type of built-up wood product.
It is constructed of plywood glued and nailed to
solid 2 in nominal thickness lumber and are used
for floor, roof or wall construction.

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Steel
Beam-and-Girder Large members span between vertical supports
System and smaller beams are framed into them.
The girders span the shorter distances while the
beams span the longer distances.
Typical Span: from 25 – 40 ft with the beams
being spaced about 8 – 10 ft on center.
Steel Framing is usually covered with steel
decking that spans between the beams.
A concrete topping is then poured over the
decking to complete the floor slab.

Open-Web Steel Joist Advantage: it is efficient structural members and

System well-suited for low-rise construction where
overall depth of the floor/ceiling system is not
critical..
Typical Span: can span up to 60 ft.
Long-span joists can span up to 96 ft,
Deep long-span joist is capable of spanning up
to 144 ft. depths of standard joists range from 8
-30”, in increments of 2”.
Long-span joist depths range from 18 – 72”
Floor joists are typically placed 2 – 4 ft on
center, while roof joists are usually placed 4 – 6
ft on center.

Concrete
o Cast-in-place concrete system mild steel reinforcing
• Structure requires formwork and takes longer to build than precast.
• Variety of shapes, sizes, design intentions and conform structural requirements.
• Two general types, depending on how floors are analyzed:

One-Way Systems
These are designed to transfer loads in one direction only
Beam and Girder • This functions in a manner similar to a steel
system in which the slab is supported by
intermediate beams that are carried by
larger girders.

• Typical spans are in the range of 15 ft – 30

ft.

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• This system is economical for most

applications, relatively easy to form, and
allows penetrations and openings to be
made in the slab.

Concrete Joist System • It is comprised of concrete members usually

One-way pan joists spaced 24 in or 36 in apart, running in one
direction, that frame into larger beams.

• Most spans range from 20 ft – 30 ft with

joist depths ranging from 12 in – 24 in.

• A concrete joist system is easy to form since

prefabricated metal pan forms are used.

• This system is good for light or medium loads

where moderate distances must be spanned.
Two-Way Systems
These are designed for use in rectangular bays, where the distance between columns is the same, or close to the
same, in both direction.
Flat Plate & Flat Slab • Flat Plate is the simplest system. The slab is
designed and reinforced to span in both
directions directly into the columns.
• Because loads increase near the columns
and there is no provision to increase the
thickness of the concrete or the reinforcing
at the columns, this system to light loads and
short spans, up to about 25 ft with slabs
ranging from 6 in to 12 in.
• It is very useful in situation where the floor- Flat Plate
to-floor height must be kept to a minimum
or an uncluttered underfloor appearance is
desired.

• The Flat Slab system can accommodate fairly

heavy loads with economical spans up to 30
ft.
• The span of flat plates is large, or the live
loads are heavier, flat plates require drop
panels (increased slab thickness around the
columns) to provide greater resistance
against punching shear failures.
• Column capitals (truncated pyramids or
Flat Slab
cones) are sometimes also used to handle

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punching shear as well as large bending
moments in the slab in the vicinity of the
columns.
Waffle Slab • It can provide support for heavier loads at
slightly longer spans than the flat slab
system.
• Spans up to 40 ft can be accomplished
economically.
• Like the one-way joist system, waffle slabs
are formed of prefabricated, reusable metal
or fiberglass forms that allow construction to
proceed faster than with custom wood
forms.
• Waffle slabs are often left exposed with
lighting integrated into the coffers.

o Precast
• Precast concrete is used for structural members such as beams and columns, and enclosing elements such
as wall panels.
• Precast concrete is typically prestressed; that is, high-strength steel cables are stretched in the precasting
forms before the concrete is poured.
• Single and Double Tee beams: are popular forms of
precast concrete construction because they can
simultaneously serve as structural supports as well as floor
or roof decking, fast erection. Topping of concrete is about
2 in thick and is placed over the tees to provide a uniform,
smooth floor surface and provide increased strength when
tees are designed to act as composite.
• Compressive stress in the concrete caused by the
prestressing forces, unloaded beams from the prestressing
plant have a camber built into them.
• Post-tensioned Concrete (Tendons): is another structural
system of concrete and steel. It is stressed after the
concrete has been poured and cured. It is useful for high
strength required work with difficulties to transport it to
the job site.

Masonry
o For Structural System
• Masonry is generally limited to bearing walls.
• Has a high compressive strength, but its weak in tension
and banding.
• Advantage of strength, design flexibility, attractive
appearance, resistance to weathering, fire resistance and sound insulation.
• Vertical reinforcement: it is accomplished with standard reinforcing bars sized and spaced in accordance
with the structural requirements of the wall.
• Horizontal reinforcement: tied to the vertical bars, with the entire assembly being set in a grouted cavity
space.

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• One important consideration in utilizing masonry walls is the thickness of the wall, which determines three
important properties:
1. Slenderness ratio: ratio of the wall’s unsupported height to its thickness and is an indication of the
ability of the wall to resist buckling when a compressive load is applied from above.
2. Flexural strength: it is important when the wall is subjected to lateral forces such as from wind.
3. Fire-resistance rating: depends on both the wall’s material and its thickness.
o Three Types of Masonry Bearing Wall Construction
1. Single Wythe
2. Double Wythe
3. Cavity (Double-Wythe)

Composite Construction
• Composite open-web joists are used to provide a nailable surface for the floor and ceiling while using high
strength-to-weight ratio of steel for the web members.
• Trusses with wood for compression members.
• Steel rods for tension members
• Concrete-filled steel tube sections, and composite steel joists.

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COMPLEX STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Trusses • Straight members forming a number of triangles with

the connections arranged so the stresses in the
members are either in tension or compression.

• Can be used either Vertically, Horizontally or

Diagonally.

• Can be filed-fabricated or at shop. Limitation is the

transporting from shop to job site.
Arches • It has hinged or fixed supports. Primarily subjected
to compressive forces.
• For a given set of loads, the shape of an arch to resist
the loads only in compression is its funicular shape.
This shape can be found by suspending the

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anticipated loads from a flexible cable and then
turning the shape upside down.
• At the supports of a hinged arch, there are two
reactions: vertical and horizontal reactions or thrust.
• It can span from 50 ft – 240 ft for wood / 20 ft – 320
ft for concrete / 50 ft – 500 ft for steel
• It can be constructed of any material: steel, concrete,
wood, or stone.
• The third hinge at the apex is called three-hinged
arch.
Rigid Frames • Vertical and horizontal members work as a single
structural unit.

• Beam portion is partially restrained by the columns

and becomes more rigid to vertical bending forces,
and both columns can resist lateral forces because
they are tied together by the beam.

• The attachments of the columns to the foundations

may be rigid or hinged, and it results in different
loads on the columns.

• Gabled frame decreases the bending stresses in the

two inclined members and increases the
compression, making the configuration a more
efficient structure.

Space Frames • It is a structural system consisting of trusses in two

directions rigidly connected at their intersections.

• Triangulated space frame is common type, where the

bottom chord is offset from the top chord by half a
bay, and each is connected with inclined web
members.

• Very efficient structures for enclosing large

rectangular areas, because it is a single unit.

• It can span up 350 ft. Span-to-depth ratios are from

20:1 to 30:1.

• Very complex structural design.

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Folded Plates • Loads are carried in two different directions.

• It is constructed by reinforced concrete from 3 in – 6

in thickness with wood or steel structures.

• Longitudinal spans are 30 ft – 100 ft.

Thin-Shell • With a curved surface that resists load through

tension, compression, and shear in the plane of the
shell only.

• No bending or moment stresses in thin-shell

structure.

• Major material is reinforced concrete from 3 in – 6 in

thick.

• Forms can be domes, parabolas, or barrel vaults or

saddle-shaped hyperbolic parabolic.

Stressed-Skin • Comprise panels made of a sheathing material

attached on one or both sides of intermediate web
members in such a way that the panel acts as a
series of I-Beams, with the sheathing being the
flange and the intermediate members being the
webs.

• Long-span steel stressed-skin panels do exist, but

most panels of this type span intermediate distance
from 12 ft – 35 ft.

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Suspension • Mostly used in bridge and used in large stadium with
suspended roofs.

• Federal Reserve Bank in Minneapolis is an example.

• Cable suspension structures are similar to arches.

The support must be resisted by both vertical and
horizontal thrust reactions.
 Difference is the vertical reactions are up;
 Horizontal reactions are outward.

• Suspension structures can only resist loads with

tension, the shape of the cable used changes as the
load changes. No bending stresses are possible.

• The resist of tension has disadvantages:

 Instability due to wind and other loads.

Inflatable • It is similar to suspension structure can only resist

tension.

• Double-skin inflatable structure is created by

inflation of a series of voids like air mattress.

• Like cable suspension buildings, inflatable structures

are inherently unstable in the wind and cannot
support concentrated loads.

• Used for temporary enclosure and for large, single-

space building such sports arenas.

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I Codes & Regulations During Programming I
BUILDING REGULATION
o General:
• Two most common legal restrictions are: Building Codes and Zoning Ordinance. Others like:
• Note: Means of Egress = Exit-way
• Buildings are classified in the building code according to:

Occupancy Group Test and standards used

Construction Type INFLUENCE Means of Egress design
Fire Hazard Fire resistive rating

• Building codes are enacted as laws, generally adopted and enforced by local governments; and affect the
design and construction of buildings;
• They are written to protect the health, safety and welfare of the public as they relate to the construction
and occupancy of buildings and structures;
• Written based on the “least acceptable risk” – minimum level required for building and occupant safety;
• Enforced through the permit process, which requires that specs and drawings be submitted to the AHJ. The
AHJ conducts inspections to verify that the building is proceeding according to the approved plans; the AHJ
is responsible for code enforcement;
• The architect is responsible for designing a building in conformance with all applicable codes and
regulations;
• Building codes and fore codes are intended to protect from fire damage;

• International Building Code (IBC): it is the primary building model code, published by the International Code
Council (ICC). A model building code is one that is written without reference to any geographical area. The
IBC is a prescriptive code.

• Uniform Building Code (UBC): it is used as the model code throughout all ALS study material and it is
published by the international Conference of Building Officials.

• Standard Building Code (SBC): it is published by the Southern Building Code Congress International and is
used by some Southern states. Most have used it as the base code for their state specific building codes.

• BOCA National Building Code: It is published by the Building Official an Code Administarators is still being
used in a few states, mostly in the northeast. This code was last published in 1999 and states that use this
code are either changing to the IBC or revising a model code to make it state specific.

• Life Safety Code: it is used in conjunction with the building codes by some jurisdiction, but it is not a legal
code. It addresses construction, protection, and occupancy features necessary to minimize danger to life
from fire including smoke, fumes, or panic. It does not address general fire damage prevention or building
construction features that are normally part of the fire or building codes. The life safety codes also address
egress – number and location of exits in a building.

• National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) wrote its own building code – NFPA 5000

• In addition to building codes, there are companion codes that govern other aspects of construction. Ex:
National Electric Code, International Fire Code…

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• Building codes indicate what tests or standards a particular type of material must satisfy in order to be
considered acceptable for use. For that reason, model codes make extensive use of industry standards
developed by trade associations, standard writing organizations, standard approving groups, and
government agencies (see testing and material standards below).

• Building codes recognize that there is NO such thing as a Fireproof Building; there are ONLY degrees of Fire
Resistance (see types of tests and standards + fire resistive standards below).

o Building Code Characteristics

1. Construction documents
2. Use group
3. Height and area
4. Type of construction
5. Siting
6. Fire performance
7. Interior environment and design
8. Exterior envelope
9. Structural performance
10. Building service system

o List of Regulatory Agencies and Code Provisions that may Apply to a Project:
• Local or State Building Code (IBC) is primary model code and updated by ICC every three-year. IBC is
prescriptive based, it describes specific materials and methods of design and construction for building
components and systems.
• Local Zoning Ordinance
• Fire Department
• NFPA 1: Fire Code, developed by the NFPA
• NFPA 101: National Life Safety Code
• NFPA 70: National Electrical Code
• Energy Code Adopted by Local Jurisdiction
• Housing Codes
• ADA / ABA Accessibility Guidelines
• Local Utility Company
• Drainage / Waste Water Agency
• City Engineer or Public Works Department Regulations
• Local Department of Health Codes and Standards
• Local Department of Hospitals
• Local Ordinances Such as Height Restrictions and View Easements
• Historic Preservation Regulations
• Waterway and Shoreline Management Agencies
• Insurance Company Requirements
• Financial Lender Requirements
• Deed Restrictions
• Restrictive Covenants
• Planning or Architectural Review Board Rules

o Testing & Material Standards:

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• All approved materials and construction assemblies referenced in the building codes are required to be
manufactured to accepted methods or tested approved by agencies according to standardized testing, or
both. The following are the principal standard agencies and testing laboratories:

• ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials: publishes standards and test procedures; it does not
actually perform tests, but its procedures and standards are used by testing agencies.

• NFPA – National Fire Protection Agency: develop standards related to the causes and prevention of
destructive fires.

• Industry Trade Groups: standard writing organizations that have an interest in a particular material,
product, or filed of expertise, such as ASHRAE (American Society for Heating, Refrigeration and Air-
Conditioning Engineers)

• ANSI – American National Standard Institute: does not develop or write standards; it approves standards
developed by other organizations and works to avoid duplications between different standards.

• NRTL – Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory: when a standard describes a test procedure or requires
tests in its description of a material or product, a testing laboratory must perform the test. Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) is one of the most well-known NRTL’s.

Note:
UL: When a product successfully passes the prescribed test, it is given a UL label. There are 2 types of UL labels:
• Listed label: passed safety test and is manufactured under the UL follow-up services program.
• Classified label: samples of the product were tested for certain types of uses only.

o Types of Tests and Standards:

• The most important types of tests for building components are those that rate the ability of a construction
assembly to prevent the passage of fire and smoke from one space to another, and tests that rate the degree
of flammability of a finish material.

o Types of Construction Assembly Tests Most Commonly Used for Fire Resistance:
• ASTM E119 – building construction and material: these assemblies are given a rating according to time: 1-4
hours rating, and for doors and other assemblies 20/30/45-minute rating. For most use of Wall, Floor/Ceiling
Assemblies.

• Test includes two parts:

 Heat transfer through the assembly is measured, to discover how long the fire must be applied to one
side of the assembly before the surface of the other side of the assembly or other materials adjacent to
the other side, will combust.
 “Hose Stream” test. Tests the assembly’s ability to maintain its integrity during a fire and to withstand
impacts, such as from fire hoses and falling debris, and the cooling and eroding effects of water. Overall
the test evaluates an assembly’s ability to prevent the passage of fire, heat, and hot gasses for a given
Amount of Time.

• NFPA 252 – Door or other Assemblies: evaluates the ability of a door assembly to resist the passage of
flame, heat, and gases.

• NFPA 257 – Window and Glass Block Assembly: prescribes specific fire and hose stream test procedures to
establish a degree of fire protection in units of time.

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o Types of Finish Materials in Building Construction Tests:

• ASTM E84 / Steiner Tunnel Test – surface burning characteristics of interior finishes and other building
materials: test samples in a narrow chamber that has a controlled flame at one hand.
 The result is a materials Flame Spread Index (FSI).
- Class A (I) => FSI 0 – 25
- Class B (II) => FSI 26 – 75
- Class C (III) => FSI 76 – 200
• Class A (I): is the most fire resistant. E.G. Glass-reinforced cement board has FSI of 0
• Class C (III): is the least fire resistant. E.G. Red Oak flooring has FSI of 100.

• NFPA 265 / Room Corner Test – sometimes required in addition to the ASTM E84 test for textile interior
finishes or instead of it. It determines the contribution of interior textile and ceiling covering to fire growth.

• NFPA 286 – evaluating contribution of wall and ceiling interior finish to room fire growth: it evaluates
materials other than textiles and addresses displacement during the ASTM E84 test.

o Finish Material Flammability Test:

• ASTM E84 / NFPA 265, NFPA 286 – A particular building code will not necessarily include all three. Two
more tests, NFPA 289 (for Individual Fuel Packages) and NFPA 701 (for Flame Propagation of Textiles and
Films), are used to test the flammability of specific kinds of items. Flammability tests for building and finish
materials determine:
 Whether a material is flammable, and if so, whether it simply burns with applied heat or supports
combustion (adds fuel to the fire).
 The material’s degree of flammability (how fast fire spreads across the material).
 How much smoke and toxic gas the material produces when ignited.

SITE-SPECIFIC REGULATIONS
o Types of Deed Restrictions:
• Restrictive Covenants: it is a legal agreement used to protect or uphold a condition of use on a parcel of
land. Its purpose is to maintain a desired uniformity of appearance, site development, and quality of
construction, and prevent unfavorable land uses or structures, thus maintaining and even increasing the
value of the development. They can be more effective than zoning in achieving and maintain aesthetics
harmony and overall quality. Covenants are more difficult to alter than zoning. Deeds may contain
covenants to limit the height, size, or appearance of a building. Covenants are legal and enforceable if they
are reasonable and in the public interest.

• Affirmative Covenant: those covenants legally commit a buyer to perform certain duties in the future. Such
covenants run with the land so that future owners of record will always be responsible to perform the same
duties. Affirmative covenants are also used to require buyers of PUD’s and condominiums to make
payments for the maintenance of common areas, association fee. Example: maintaining a fence, or roadway.
• Conditional Covenant / Condition: it is a clause that imposes a restriction on a buyer and specifies that if
the restriction is violated, the title to the land will revert to the original grantor or his heirs.

o Types of Easement:
• Easement: it is the right of one party to use a portion of the land of another party in a particular way, usually
without compensation. An easement for a stated purpose may not be unilaterally modified for another
purpose at a later date; if the original purpose was an easement of ingress, the person can only use it for
that purpose and may not use it for any other. There are many types of easements:

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 Utility easement: it allows a utility company to install and maintain lines above and below ground within
the boundaries of the easement. No permanent structures can be erected within the easement without
getting permission from the party holding the easement, although the land belongs to the property
owner.

 Access easement / Easement for ingress: if one parcel of land is not served by a public road and another
parcel separates the first parcel from the street, an access easement may be granted, which allows the
public and the owner of the inaccessible land to cross. An access easement creates a public or private
right-of- way (see right-of-way).

 Support easement / Party Wall Agreement: it is for the construction of common party walls between
properties. It is used in row housing, where a common wall is shared by two adjacent owners. Each
owner owns half of the wall, but each has an easement of support in the other half of the wall. The
arrangement cannot be revoked unilaterally.

 Joint use easement: two private owners share the joint use of a strip of land between two houses,
which has a property line running through it such as a driveway.

 Scenic easement: protects views and prevents the development of land that is of scenic value to the
public. Used be public agencies to control land use without the need to purchase large tracts of
property.

 Conservation easement: limit land use in large areas. Used be public agencies to control land use
without the need to purchase large tracts of property.

 Right-of-way: it is the legal right of one party or the public to traverse land belonging to another. A
right-of-way, in its most common form refers to the public land used for streets and sidewalks. The
boundary of a right of way usually corresponds to the property line of adjacent property owners.
- Private right-of-way: allows one person to traverse the land of another in order to reach his own
property. This type of easement is the result of negotiations between private parties.
- Public right-of-way: may come into existence simply by the long-established use of a pathway or
roadway over private land whose owner fails to discourage such use.

 Historical façade easement: can be established by a municipality to protect a historically valuable

architectural façade in an area where redevelopment is occurring and where the existence of the facade
is threatened. The municipality does not compensate the owner to preserve the façade.

FIRE RESISTIVE STANDARDS

• The building codes specify requirements for two broad classifications of fire resistance: resistance of
materials and assemblies, and surface burning characteristics of finish materials
• For finish materials, building codes regulate the flame spread rate along the surface of a material and limit
the amount of combustible material in a building.
• When a fire-resistive barrier is built, any penetrations in the fire-resistive barrier must also be fire rated.
Duct penetrations are protected by fire dampers placed in line with the wall
• Many materials by themselves do not create a fire-rated barrier; it is the construction assembly of which
they are part that is fire resistant.
• One of the most common types of construction assemblies is the partition. Below find the different types of
partitions:
• Comparison: FW – FB – FP Definitions:
 Similarities:

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- All restrict the spread of fire

 Difference:
- FW: require Structural Stability, and continuity from foundation to/thru the roof.
- FB: require continuity and horizontal assemblies can be FB.
- FP: can be vertical and/or horizontal.

 Fire partition: In most cases, a fire partition provides a continuous barrier from the floor to the
underside of the floor or ceiling above, or to the ceiling of a fire-resistance rated floor/ceiling or
roof/ceiling assembly. A vertical assembly of materials designed to restrict the spread of fire in
which openings are protected.

Issue Requirement
Required Fire-Resistance Rating 1 hour, with exceptions, depending on use. For corridors see
Table in Chapter 10 – IBC only.
Required Continuity Floor/ceiling below to deck above or tight to underside of
fire-resistance rated assembly. Supported by fire resistance
rated construction, except in corridors, tenant, and
guestroom separations in Types IIIB and VB construction.
Openings 20 minutes (w/o hose stream) for corridors.
45 minutes for all others.
Types of Materials As required for the type of construction
Robustness of Structural System If load bearing, fire tested with load

- Fire partitions are used in the following applications:

1. Dwelling unit’s separations
2. Sleeping units in Group R-1, R-2, and I-1
3. Tenant separation in covered malls
4. Exit access corridor walls
5. Elevator lobby separation
- NFPA does not use this phrase
- FB vs FP – Continuity

 Fire Barrier: It offers more protection than a fire partition. It is a vertical or horizontal assembly that is
fire-resistance rated and is designed to restrict the spread of fire, confine it to limited areas, and/or
afford safe passage for protected egress. A fire-resistance-rated wall assembly of materials designed to
restrict the spread of fire in which continuity is maintained.

Issue Requirement
Required Fire-Resistance Rating Depends upon specific use.

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Required Continuity Floor/Ceiling below to deck above.
Openings Minimum Partition Rating: 1hr.
20 min. to 3 hrs depending on the fire barrier’s rating.
General: Aggregate glazing area (or width) < 25% wall
area/length; maximum size 120 [Link]. in area.
Types of Materials As required for the type of construction.
Robustness of Structural System If load bearing, fire tested with load.

- Fire barriers are used in the following applications:

1. Fire area separations
2. Mixed occupancy separations
3. Incidental use areas
4. Hazardous area separations
5. Exit enclosures
6. Shaft enclosures
7. Horizontal exits
8. Corridor walls – NFPA only

 Fire Wall (Party Wall): it is a fire- resistance rated wall that is used to separate a single structure into
separate construction types or to provide for allowable area increases by creating what amounts to
separate buildings even though they are attached. They must extend continuously form the foundation
to or through the roof. Example: wall separating row house units. A fire-resistance-rated wall having
protected openings, which restricts the spread of fire and extends continuously from the foundation to
or through the roof, with sufficient structural stability under fire conditions to allow collapse of
construction on either side without collapse of the wall.

Minimum Partition Rating Minimum Opening Rating

2 hr to 4hrs • No openings
Required Continuity Run from basement to roofline.
Large firewall is an only exterior wall.

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- Fire wall are used in the following applications:
1. Subdivided a building into separate fire areas.
2. Used to separate-high value transformers at an electrical substation in the event of a mineral oil
tank rupture and ignition.

- Three basic fire walls:

Freestanding fire wall: this self-supporting structure is

constructed of listed brick, reinforced concrete, or
listed concrete masonry blocks and is connected to its
footing with reinforcing bars. The wall is usually
installed in an expansion break in the building frame. It
must rely on its own strength to overcome forces such
as expansion caused by temperature differences inside
and outside of the wall.

Tied fire wall: is a wall erected to encase the steel

framing or tied to the steel framing that is coated with
a fireproofing material. The wall is held in place by the
steel columns that support the roof system. To
maintain its stability, the roof steel on either side must
be strong enough to resist forces caused by steel
collapsing on a fire-exposed side. This stability is
usually accomplished by having through-ties attached
to the web on the beams and pass through the wall.

Double one-way fire wall: a fire wall consists of two

one-way walls back-to-back with a separation
between them. The separation distance is based on
NFPA 221. Each wall must have at least 3hr fire
resistance. The double fire wall is more commonly
found in new construction where a fire wall between
an existing structure and a new building is required.
The existing wall, secured to the existing building
frame, could be upgraded to the required fire
resistance rating. Then the new rated fire wall could
be raised next to it and secured to the new building
frame. If a fire on one side of the wall causes the loss
of one wall, the wall supported by the other side
should remain standing.

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• Comparison: SB – SP Definitions:
 Similarities:
- SB restricts the spread of smoke.
- SP resist the spread of smoke.

 Difference:
- SB can be walls, floor, and/or ceiling assemblies.

 Smoke Barrier: continuous vertical or horizontal membrane that is designed and constructed to restrict
movement of smoke. It is a passive form of smoke control. Openings in smoke barriers must have a least
a 20-minute rating. A continuous membrane, either vertical or horizontal, such as a wall, floor or ceiling
assembly, that is designed and constructed to restrict the movement of smoke.

Issue Requirement
Required Fire-Resistance Rating 1-hour with the exception that a construction of a minimum
0.1” thick steel in Group I-3 buildings is allowed.
Required Continuity Top of the foundation or floor/ceiling assembly below to the
underside of the floor or roof sheathing, slab or deck above.
Runs from exterior wall to exterior wall, from floor to floor.
Continuous thru concealed space (suspended ceiling)
Openings 20 minutes – but not a true fire door in NFPA 101 Smoke-
and draft-controlled doors tested in accordance with UL
1784 – IBC only.
Types of Materials As required for the type of construction.
Robustness of Structural System If load bearing, fire tested with load.

- Smoke barriers are used in the following applications:

1. Corridors & Care suits such as I-2: Hospitals, Nursing Home, Detox, Foster Care.

 Smoke Partitions: Non-rated walls that resist the spread of fire and the unmitigated movement of
smoke for an unspecified period of [Link] is designed to stop the passage of smoke. Ceiling tiles or hard
ceilings “may” be considered part of enclosure if sprinkled.

Issue Requirement
Required Fire-Resistance Rating Not fire rated
Required Continuity Top of the foundation or floor below to the underside of the
floor or roof sheathing. Slab or deck or underside of smoke-
resistant ceiling.

- Smoke partitions are used in the following applications:

1. I-2: hospitals, nursing homes, detox, foster care.
2. I-3: correctional & detection centers

OCCUPANCY GROUP

Group Type Sub-group occupancy / examples

A Assembly 1. Traditional stage theaters and motion picture theaters
(Groups A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4, 2. Restaurant and nightclubs
and A-5) 3. Churches, dance halls, and small gymnasiums that do not have spectator
seating

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4. Arenas and gymnasiums with spectator seating
5. Outdoor places of assembly
 If the load is less than 50 is classified in the Group-B
B Business Office, education above 12th grade, etc.
E Educational High school, from K - 12
F Factory and Industrial Assembling, Disassembling, Fabricating, Finishing, Manufacturing, Packaging,
(Groups F-1, F-2) Repair and Processing Operations. Not classified as “H” or “S” Occupancy.
1. Factory Moderate Hazard
2. Factory Low Hazard
H High Hazard 1. Manufacturing of;
(Group H-1, H-2, H-3, H-4, 2. Processing of;
and H-5) 3. Storage of materials:
Constitute physical of health hazard
I Institutional 1. Group Home
(Groups I-1, I-2, I-3, I-4) 2. Hospitals
3. Jails
4. Daycare Infants
M Mercantile Mall, retail, etc.
R Residential R-1: hotels / R-2: apartments / R-3: bed and breakfast / R-4: small assisted
living
S Storage Not classified as “Hazardous Occupancy”
(Groups S-1, S-2)
U Utility and Miscellaneous not classified

o Types of occupancies:
• Mixed occupancy & Occupancy separation: it happens when a building or area of a building containing two
or more occupancies; each occupancy must be separated from other occupancies with a fire barrier. The
idea is to increase the fire protection between occupancies as the relative hazard increases.
• Accessory use occupancy: a space or room that is an accessory to a main occupancy but that does not
exceed 10% of the floor area of the main occupancy. It does not need to be separated from the main
occupancy with a fire barrier. Ex: a small gift shop in a hospital.
• Incidental use occupancy: a space or room, not exceeding 10% of the floor area of the story where it is
located, which is incidental to a main occupancy and has the same qualification has the nearest main
occupancy but must be separated from the main occupancy by a fire barrier. Ex: linen collection room on
the same floor as hotel rooms.

o Construction type
• Every building is classified into one of five major types of construction based on fire- resistance rating of its
major construction components. The purpose of this is to protect the structural elements of a building from
fire and collapse, and to divide the building into compartments so that a fire in one area will be contained
long enough to allow people to evacuate the building and firefighters to arrive.
• The five types of construction are: Type I, II, III, IV, and V
 Type I buildings are most fire resistive, while type V is the least fire resistive.
 Type I and II are noncombustible. Types III, IV, V are considered combustible.
• In combination with occupancy groups, construction type limits the area and height of buildings
 How to use the Allowable Floor Area and Height table: The concept is the more hazardous the building,
the smaller it should be. The table can be used to find solutions to several situations:
1. Situation 1: If the occupancy group and construction type are known, simply find the intersection of
the row “occupancy” and the column “type”, read the permitted area or height, and then increase
the areas according to the percentages allowed for sprinklers and perimeter space.

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2. Situation 2: required floor area and occupancy are known, the architect must determine the
construction type to meet the client size needs. This process is usually done during the pre-design
part of a project.
3. Situation 3: an architect may be asked to design for occupancy different than the original occupancy
as part of a remodeling project. If the existing building is too large, the project will be unfeasible,
unless significant steps are taken such as including a sprinkler system or adding a fire wall.
4. Situation 4: required floor space of a project exceeds that allowed by the code and for the
construction type the architect wants to use. In this case, the architect can subdivide the building
into smaller portions with fire walls; those portions are then considered as separate buildings.

• Construction type is influenced by fire zones. a municipality may divide a city into fire zones representing
the degree of fire hazard based on density, access for firefighting equipment, existing building height, etc.
the building code may then restrict the types of construction that are allowed in the various fire zones.

• Construction type influences the location of a building on a property – 2 choices:

1. Follow the code for setback requirements from the property line, which includes provisions for the
exterior bearing wall required fire-protection rating and limitations on openings;
2. Allow for a greater setback than required from the code to diminish the limitations on openings and fire-
protection rating for lower cost or other reasons.

FLOOR AREA
o Floor Area Ratio (FAR) is defined as:
• Diagram Legend: 1 story covering the entire lot; 2 stories covering half the lot; 4 stories covering a quarter
of the lot

• Formulas: FAR = (Gross floor area of buildings) / (Area of the lot)

 Example: 100,000 square foot site with a 3.0 FAR, how many stories will a maximum-sized building be if
half the site is set aside for parking?
- FAR = total allowable floor area / area of site
- 3.0 = total allowable floor area / 100,000

- total allowable floor area = area of site x FAR

- total allowable floor area = 100,000 x 3.0 = 300,000

- half the site = are of site / 2

- half of the site = 100,000 / 2 = 50,000

- Stories quantity = total allowable floor area / half of the site

- Stories quantity = 300,000 / 50,000 = 6

- Result: a maximum-sized building on a site of 100,000 ft2 with a 3.0 FAR can have a maximum of six
stories when half of the site is dedicated to parking.

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Note: FAR does not take into account setbacks just the buildable area.

• The following areas are included in GFA.

 Portion of parking garages situated aboveground (based on ground surface prior to manipulation or
grading);
 That portion of lofts with a ceiling height over 6 ft;
 And stairway openings, elevators, storage areas, and mechanical rooms.

• The following areas are excluded from GFA.

 Portion of parking garages situated underground (based on ground surface prior to manipulation or
grading);
 Basements (based on ground surface prior to manipulation or grading);
 Decks;
 Walkways; and
 Carports

o Setbacks: the amount of land that can be covered is also determined by setbacks. Setbacks are the minimum
distance a building must be placed from a property line. The front setback, usually the greatest setback, is the
distance from the property line facing the street or the primary front of the property. The rear setback is the
distance from the back of the lot, while the side setbacks are the distance from the side property lines.

o Bulk Pane Restriction: it sets up an imaginary inclined plane beginning at the lot line or the center of the street
and sloping at a prescribed angle toward and over the lot. A building cannot extend into this plane. The purpose
of the restriction is to ensure adequate light and air to neighboring properties and to the open space and
streets around the land.

o Road
• Roads should have a maximum of 10% grade for drainage.
• Roads provide primary means of access to a site. Their availability and capacity maybe prime determinants
in whether or how a parcel is developed. There are four basic road categories:
 Local streets: lowest capacity + provide direct access to building sites.
 Collector streets: higher capacity than local streets + connect local streets and arterial streets + not
usually intended for through traffic.
 Arterial streets: major continuous circulation routes that carry large amounts of traffic on two or three
lanes + usually connect expressways + parking is usually not allowed + avoid direct access to building
sites from arterial streets.
 Expressways: limited access roads designed to move large traffic between, through, and around
population centers.

Note: Entrance location to a site is most desirable to be located on a collector street rather than an arterial street.

• Access entrance to site location in relation to intersections:

 at a minimum of 150ft to an intersection
 a minimum of 80° angle to an intersection
 avoid slight offsets to an intersection
 avoid two-way intersections

o Parking
• For parking and circulation, there should be 400 [Link]. of space per car

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 Drainage slope in parking lots: 1 ½ % minimum to 5% maximum (2% and 3% are preferred)
• Most efficient parking:
 Double loaded configuration
 Utilize a drive as a backup space
• Dead end parking:
 Require a back-up space
 Appropriate for parking with few cars
• 90° parking:
 Most efficient in terms of land use – 11 cars per 100 lineal feet of curb;
 Most difficult for a driver to maneuver within;
 Only configuration that allows for 2-way traffic.
• 60° parking:
 Relatively economical
 Less total width for either a single or double loaded layout
 Allows easy access to and from parking spaces
 One-way circulation pattern
 9 cars per 100 lineal feet of curb
• 45° parking:
 Relatively economical
 Less total width for either a single or double loaded layout
 Allows easy access to and from parking spaces
 One-way circulation pattern
 8 cars per 100 lineal feet of curb
• 30° parking:
 Least efficient
 Uneconomical
 One-way circulation pattern
 5 cars per 100 lineal feet of curb

ADA
o Accessibility Guideline: state that all newly designed or newly constructed areas must meet accessibility
requirements. It includes all employee work areas and all temporary construction that is open to
public. (such as a protected walkway, temporary seating for a special event)
• Following areas are not required to be accessible:
 Temporary facilities associated with the process of construction (job site trailer, scaffolding)
 Raised areas used primarily for security or life safety (lifeguard tower, security guard tower)
 Non-occupiable service areas accessed infrequently for maintenance or monitoring (catwalks,
penthouses, pump rooms)
 Single occupant structures accessed from above or below grade (such as a tollbooth accessed through
an underground tunnel)
 Raised structures for officiating sporting events
 Water slides
 Nonpublic animal containment areas
 Raised boxing and wrestling rings

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I Additional - Arch Term Definition I
-A-
Abatement: a reduction in the price of a property due to the discovery of some problem that tends to decrease the
property's value
Abutment: a buttressing or supporting structure.
Accessory: building: a building whose function is secondary to that of the main structure.
Acoustics: the branch of physics that deals with sound. In architectural application, the sound qualities of a room or
space.
Acropolis: In an ancient Greek City, a citadel, usually on a high plateau.
Adobe: a sun-dried brick of earth, used in the American Southwest.
Aesthetics: the branch of philosophy that deals with the quality, aspects, and perception of beauty.
Air Rights: the rights to the use or control of space above a property, such as highways, railroad tracks or buildings.
Albedo: reflectivity measured as the relative permeability of a surface to radiant energy flowing in either direction.
Alignment: horizontal or vertical deviation from the straight or level centerline of the road.
Amenities: desirable features of a building or near a building that have the effect of increasing the property's value
Amortization: the payment of a loan over the life of the loan using equal payments at equal intervals. Each payment
provides for a portion to be applied to the principal and the remainder to be applied to the interest.
Amphitheater: an arena encircled by tiers of seats.
Anchor Tenant: a major tenant in shopping mall, such as a department store, that in theory serves to attract shoppers to
the mall to the benefit of other, smaller stores. See also Satellite tenant.
Annunciator: an electromagnetic device that indicates the activation of certain circuits; a device to signal the existence
and location of a fire in a building.
Appraisal: an estimation of a property's value made by a qualified appraiser.
Apse: the eastern or altar end of a church, usually semi-circular in plan.
Aquifer: a natural, underground reservoir from which wells draw water.
Ashlar: Masonry having a face of square or rectangular stones.
Assessed value: the value given to a piece of property by a local jurisdiction, to be used to assess taxes on the property.
The assessed value is a percentage of the actual value, that is, the value.
Azulejo: a glazed decorative tile with the color blue most prominent.

-B-
Backfill: Earth or other fill material placed between an outside foundation wall and the excavation.
Baffle: a partial obstruction against flow, in a duct or pipe.
Balance: the proportioning of components by offsetting or contrasting so as to produce an aesthetic equilibrium in the
whole.
Baroque: a style of European architecture developed in the late Renaissance in reaction to classical forms, containing
elaborate curves, scrolls, and ornament.
Base Lines: East-west lines from which townships are established on government surveys. They run perpendicular to
meridian lines.
Bat: a part, usually half, of a broken brick; also a unit of flat insulation.
Batten: a cleat-like member placed across a series of boards to tie them together; also, a narrow strip covering the joint
between two vertical boards.
Bedroom Community: a region or small town that contains mainly housing and offers few employment opportunities
Belvedere: Roofed structure or pavilion located to command a view.
Bench: an excavated level terrace in a slope used to collect running water.
Bench Mark: a relatively permanent surveyor's mark of known location and elevation.
Berm: a bank of earth, often piled up against a wall.
Bituminous: describing cement, mastic, or roofing material which contains asphalt as a principal ingredient.

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Blighted Area: an area, usually urban, that has deteriorated in quality and value, and which functions well below its
economic and social potential. Also, an area of a City that has been determined to contain buildings and infrastructure
that are in a state of decay and in need of improvement
Block: a division of urban land, normally private property, that is surrounded by public streets, and which is officially
established and recorded.
Boilerplate: a standard portion (generally a paragraph or more) of a written document, such as a contract or
architectural specification, that appears in all similar documents
Bollard: a stone guard to prevent damage to a wall; also, a free-standing stone or metal post to divert vehicular traffic.
Boring: drilling into the earth to obtain soil samples in order to determine soil bearing capaCity.
Brise-Soleil: a sun break, an architectural shading device for blocking unwanted sun rays.
British Thermal Unit (BTU): the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water 1 °F.
Buffer Zone: a piece of land used to separate two incompatible uses
Building Line: a defined limit within a property line beyond which a structure may not protrude.

-C-
Caisson: an air chamber without a bottom, used in excavation through water or mud.
Campanile: bell tower.
Cant: to set at a slant from the horizontal or vertical.
Capital Expenditure: an amount of money used to make physical improvements to a property to enhance the property's
value over an extended period of time
Carrel: a small room in a library.
Cash Flow: the amount of money that is net income from a property after expenses are paid
Catch Basin: a sieve-like device at the entrance to a storm sewer to trap matter that could block up the sewer.
Catchment: a geographical area from which the participants in an activity are drawn, such as the customers of a
shopping center, or the employees of a manufacturing plant.
Caulk (or Calk): to fill a joint with mastic, usually done with a pressure gun.
CC&Rs: abbreviation for "covenants, conditions, and restrictions," which are all the rules that apply to a property owner
in a subdivision, condominium, or cooperative housing facility
Cella: the inner enclosed room of an ancient temple.
Channelization: the separation of traffic lanes by use of islands or dividers.
Check Valve: a valve in a pipe that permits water to flow only in one direction.
Circulation: the flow or movement of people, goods, vehicles, etc., from place to place.
Climate: the prevailing or average weather conditions of a place as determined over a number of years.
Clinker: a brick that has been over burned by being near the fire in a kiln.
Cloverleaf: a type of grade-separated interchange used in highway design. Named for its shape.
Cluster: a method of residential siting in which a series of housing units are grouped to form common interior spaces, as
well as a unified peripheral space.
Cluster Housing: a particular type of housing development in which the houses or apartments are placed close to each
other and have access to nearby common open spaces
Collector Street: a street to which minor streets connect and that, itself, leads to a major arterial.
Color: the sensation resulting from stimulation of the retina of the eye by light waves of certain lengths; the property of
reflecting light of a particular wavelength.
Common Area: a portion of a building or development that is available for the use of all the tenants or unit owners.
Typically, common areas are owned by the property owners in the development or homeowners' association, and
property owners subsequently pay the maintenance fees.
Concave: Hollow and curved inward (e.g., the inside surface of a hollow sphere).
Conditional use permit (CUP): a permit given by a City or other zoning jurisdiction for a proposed use that would
otherwise not be allowed in a particular zoning district. The conditional use permit provides the zoning jurisdiction with
the means to impose special conditions on the proposed development, to ensure that the development will not
adversely affect the surrounding neighborhood or the public safety and welfare.

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Condominium: a development in which residents own their own living units but share common areas, which are
maintained by the condominium corporation
Conductivity: the speed with which energy (normally heat energy) passes through a given material after penetrating its
surface.
Coniferous Trees: are perennial woody plants with secondary growth. The great majority are trees, though a few are
shrubs. Examples include cedars, Douglas firs, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauri, larches, pines, hemlocks, redwoods,
spruces, and yews.
Constellation Pattern: a pattern of land use in which random clusters of development are connected to one another.
Construction Management: a procedure in which an owner contracts with a construction manager (CM), who is
generally responsible for control of a project's time, cost, and quality.
Contingency Allowance: an amount included in a construction budget, normally 5 to 10 percent, to provide for
unforeseen or unpredictable costs.
Contour: an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface used to designate elevation and describe the
form of land surface graphically.
Convection: the distribution of energy (normally heat) by fluid movement of air or water.
Convex: curved outward (e.g., the surface of a sphere).
Conveyance: the act of transferring an interest in a property to another person, or the document written to formalize
such a transfer
Cooperative (or Co-op): a type of land ownership where the residents of individual units own an interest in the
corporation that owns the entire property. Unlike the residents of a condominium, the residents of a cooperative do not
own their own units directly.
Covenant: a deed restriction that regulates land use, construction materials, appearance, and aesthetic qualities of an
area.
Craze: to develop minute surface cracks in stucco, concrete, or glaze.
Critical Path Method: a system of planning and scheduling construction operations that analyzes sequences and
durations of time using network diagrams and identifies construction tasks that have great impact in schedule.
Cul-de-sac: a short road with no outlet, serving only those buildings or properties that front on it; a dead-end street that
has only one way in and often features a large circular turnaround space at the end
Culvert: a length of pipe, running under a road or other barrier, used to drain or carry water.
Curb: a raised margin running along the edge of a street pavement, usually of concrete.
Cut and Fill: Earth that is removed and earth that is added in grading.

-D-
Dais: a platform raised above floor level.
Datum: a horizontal plane elevation used as a reference for other elevations in surveying and mapping.
Deciduous Trees: can be found in most regions of the planet. Common examples of deciduous trees include oak, maple,
and hickory trees. Oak trees are characteristic deciduous trees that lose their leaves in the fall and re-grow them in the
spring.
Dedication: the donation of a parcel of land by a developer for public use, such as for a park or school
Deed: a written instrument that is used to transfer property title from one party to another.
Demising Wall: see Party wall
Density: a measure of the number of people, families, etc., that occupy a specified area.
Design: the arrangement of parts, details, form, color, etc., so as to produce a complete entity.
Despoil: to remove items of value from a site
Development Rights: the legal ability of a developer to develop a parcel of land
Dew Point: the temperature at which air becomes saturated with moisture and condensation occurs.
Double Glazing: two sheets of glass with an air space between, to insulate against the passage of heat or sound.
Downzoning: a change in zoning resulting in a decrease of allowable density
Drain Tile: clay pipe, usually with open joints, to convey water away from a footing or to disperse fluid in a septic tank
field.

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Drainage: the system by which excess water and wastes are controlled, collected, transported, and disposed.
Dry Well: a pit, usually filled with coarse stone, into which water is conducted for leaching out into surrounding soil.
Duomo: a dome, hence often a cathedral.
Dwelling Unit: an independent living area that includes its own private cooking and bathing facilities.

-E-
Earthwork: the modifications involved in altering existing topography.
Easement: a legal right that an individual or the public may have to use or have access to a portion of another person's
land; a portion of land of one ownership that another owner or a governmental agency has the right to use for a specific
purpose
Effective Temperature: sensation produced by the combined effects of absolute temperature, relative humidity, and air
movement.
Elevation: the height above a known point of reference, often taken as the height above sea level.
Eminent Domain: the right of a public agency to expropriate private property for public use; the right of a governmental
jurisdiction to take ownership of private property for the public good while paying fair market value compensation to
the owner
Encroachment: an intrusion onto one property by the improvement to an adjoining property
Entasis: the slight convexity of a column, used to give an impression of vertical strength.
Equity: the amount of money an owner of a property keeps after selling the property and paying off any mortgages; that
is, the difference between the fair market value of a property and the amount of debt on the property
Erosion: the gradual wearing away or disintegration of land caused by water running over its surface, wind, etc.
Esquisse A preliminary sketch or plan.
Evergreen: Having green leaves throughout the year, as opposed to deciduous. See also, Coniferous.
Excavation: the digging or removal of earth or soil, as for a foundation.
Exedra: a semi-circular open area, with or without a roof, providing a continuous seat.
Expressway: see Freeway.

-F-
Façade: the exterior face of a building, usually the front.
Faience: enameled clay products.
Fair Market Value (or Market Value): the value of a piece of property that a buyer would pay a seller in a free
transaction for the property
Fast Track: a construction technique in which construction on each phase of a project is begun when its design is
completed, without waiting for overall project design completion.
Fault: the boundary between adjacent rock plates along which movement may take place during an earthquake.
Federal Housing Administration (FHA): Founded in 1934 to provide mortgage insurance.
Fire Brick: brick composed of clay not containing any fusible material, which can resist high temperatures.
Fire Wall: a wall resistant to the spread of fire.
Fixture: an item that is attached to a building and is typically included in the sale of the building
Floor Area Ratio: the ratio between the gross floor area of a building and its site area.
Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA, Fannie Mae): an agency whose function is to stabilize the housing
market by purchasing mortgages or providing mortgage money directly.
Form: the shape, outline, or configuration of a structure or the parts of a structure that gives it its distinctive
appearance.
Freeway: a high speed, multiple-lane highway designed to move traffic smoothly and without interruption.
Frieze: a horizontal band on a vertical surface, located beneath a cornice, sometimes decorated with relief sculpture.
Frost Line: the limit of penetration of soil by frost.
Furring: attaching wood or metal strips to a rough wall, to provide a flat plane for the finish or to provide an air space.

-G-

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Gazebo: a belvedere or viewing place.
Ghetto: a specific residential area in which people of a particular ethnic identity are concentrated.
Glare: Extreme contrast between light and dark in the visual field, which can cause discomfort.
Government National Mortgage Association (GNMA, Ginnie Mae): an agency that functions in the secondary mortgage
market.
Grade: the degree of rise or descent of a sloping surface. Also, the act of altering or finishing existing topography.
Granolith: concrete used for paving, which uses crushed granite as the coarse aggregate.
Greenbelt: a belt-like area around a City, reserved for park land, farms, open space, etc.
Grid Pattern: a pattern of land division for development as well as circulation, so named for its shape.
Ground Lease: a long-term lease of a property that allows the tenant to use and improve the land, but that reverts to
the owner at the end of the lease
Guaranteed Maximum Cost: an amount established in an agreement between an owner and a contractor as the
maximum cost of performing specified work.

-H-
Harmony: agreement or proportionate arrangement of parts in size, color, form, etc.
Height Zoning: restrictions on the heights of buildings and structures established by local laws
Hippodrome: a race course bordered by tiered seating.
Housing: the type, arrangement, and quality of dwelling units distributed over a given area.
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD): Federal agency concerned with all phases of housing activities.
Humidity: the amount or degree of moisture in an area expressed as a percentage, a determining element of weather.

-I-
Icon: a sacred picture or object.
Ice Dam: is a ridge of ice that forms at the edge of a roof and prevents melting snow (water) from draining off the roof.
The water that backs up behind the dam can leak into a home and cause damage to walls, ceilings, insulation, and other
areas.
Impost: the cap of a pier or pilaster that supports the spring of an arch.
Improvement Ratio: the ratio of the value of improvements on a property to the value of the property alone
Ingress: an entrance.
Inner City: the sections of a large City in or near its center, especially when crowded or blighted.
Intaglio: a surface decoration formed by a slightly depressed plane of lines and patterns.
Interchange: an access and egress point on a freeway that permits traffic to enter, exit, or change direction.
Intersection: the point at which two streets come together or cross.
Inverse Condemnation: a remedy by a court for a private land owner whose land has been taken away by a
governmental body. See also Eminent Domain.
Inversion: a situation, generally the reverse of normal, in which cold air is close to the ground and a layer of warm air is
above it.
Invert Elevation: the elevation of the lowest inside surface of a pipe or sewer.
Incentive Zoning Plan: it means a zoning in which, an incentive such as a relaxation in zoning restrictions are offered to a
developer for providing public benefits like building a desired public improvement, or building in areas that requires
economic development. It is also termed as bonus zoning.

-J-
Jalousie: a window or door blind made of movable horizontal slats.

-K-
Keystone: the wedge-shaped top member of an arch.
Kiosk: a small pavilion, usually in a public place.

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-L-
Lanai: a Hawaiian terrace or veranda.
Land Sale Leaseback: a legal arrangement in which the owner of a property sells the property to someone else but then
immediately leases it from the purchaser
Landlocked: descriptive of a parcel of land that does not border any public road
Landscaping: the design and arrangement of natural elements on a site.
Lantern: a superstructure on a roof, dome, or tower, glazed along its sides, that admits light to the area below.
Lien: a legal claim on property, as security for money owed. See also Mechanic's and materialman's lien(s).
Lien waiver: a document that gives up a person's right to claim a lien against property
Light: Radiant energy that is perceived by the human eye.
Linear Pattern: a pattern of land use that develops along a line, such as a highway or river.
Lintel: a structural member placed over an opening and supporting construction above.
Loop Street: a street that starts at a major street, extends in curvilinear fashion for a short distance, and then returns to
the major street.
Louver: One of several horizontal slats, slanted to exclude rain but allow the passage of air.

-M-
Macadam: Paving using crushed stone.
Macroclimate: the general climate over a large geographical area.
Manhole: a hole through which a person can enter a sewer, pipe, conduit, etc., in order to inspect, repair, or service a
utility.
Market Value: see Fair market value
Master Plan: Long range, overall concept of an area's development.
Mastic: Caulking that remains elastic.
Mechanic- and materialman- lien: a claim placed against a property's deed by someone who provided work or materials
to improve the property but was not paid for the work. Typically just called a Lien.
Megalith: a stone of great size.
Megalopolis: a term referring to a group of large cities or metropolitan areas that merge.
Metes and Bounds: a description of property boundaries expressed by directions (bearings) and distances.
Metropolitan Area (or Region): the characteristic form of large scale American urbanization; a City form with an
operating radius of 30 miles or more.
Microclimate: the general climatic characteristics that are peculiar to a very small area.
Minimum property standards: minimum standards for residential building required by the Federal Housing
Administration for construction or for underwriting a mortgage
Module: a repetitive dimension used in architectural design and planning.
Mortgage: an agreement to pay for the cost of a property over a long period of time, in which the property is pledged as
security.
Mullion: the vertical division member between windows or doors.
Muntin: a wood or metal member used to hold the panes within a window.

-N-
Naos: an inner chamber of a classical temple.
Narthex: the entrance vestibule of a church.
Nave: the main longitudinal portion of a church interior.
Neighborhood: a community of people living in a general area. The area can generally support an elementary school.
Net leasable area: the area of a building that is available for rent, which does not include common areas, structure,
stairs, and the like
Network: a system of circulation channels that covers a large area.

-O-

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O.C.: an abbreviation for "on-center," used in dimensioning.
Obelisk: a commemorative shaft, square in section, with a small pyramid on top.
Occupancy permit: a document, issued by a City's building department, giving permission for a building to be occupied.
More commonly called the Certificate of occupancy. The occupancy permit is part of the building permit process, and its
cost is included in the building permit fee paid by the contractor.
Orientation: the positioning of an object in relation to certain directions; the sense of direction as disclosed by an object
in a particular position.

-P-
Pad site: a separate location for development of retail space near (but not in) a shopping center
Pagoda: In Far Eastern architecture, a tower like structure.
Palazzo: a palace.
Panopticon: a building planned so that a person at the center can observe converging corridors.
Parterre: a level and patterned garden.
Parti: the general scheme of a design.
Party Wall: a wall built astride a property line. Also, the shared wall between two leased spaces or between two
residential units. Often called a Demising wall.
Patio: an open court enclosed by the walls of a building.
Pediment: the triangular face of a roof gable.
Planting Strip: a landscaped strip of ground dividing a pedestrian walk from a street.
Plat: a plan of a land area, lots, streets, etc.
Plot: a parcel of land.
Prefabricated: Constructed off-site in standardized sections for shipment and quick assembly, such as a prefabricated
house.
Pro forma: a financial projection for a development project meant to determine if the project is feasible, given estimates
on potential income and the cost of developing the project
Proportion: a system of sizing and division to establish harmonious relationships between component elements.
Planned Unit Development (PUD): a zoning designation that allows greater freedom in site planning, while usually
maintaining the same density. Similar to cluster developments but larger in scale, including commercial and industrial
developments, in addition to housing.

-R-
Radial Pattern: a circulation pattern in which channels spread out from a central point.
Recess line: is an "informal setback" Setbacks are legal requirements describing the offset from the property line to
where you can start building. The "Recess line" is where the majority of contextual buildings have aligned their front
facades.
Rake: a slope or incline, as on a roof.
Restriction: a limit on how the owner of a property or building can use or improve the property. Often called a
Restrictive covenant, it is usually contained in the deed to the property.
Rhythm: the recurrence of design elements in space.
Right-of-Way: a path of circulation conveying persons, vehicles, services, etc.
Ring Pattern: a land use pattern that is developed in a circular or doughnut form, the center being relatively unused.
Ring Road: a circumferential or loop roadway around an urban area or development.
Riparian: related to a body of water
Riparian rights: the rights of a landowner to use or control all or a portion of the water in a body of water bordering his
or her property
Rotary or Roundabout: a device used at an intersection of streets in which all vehicles merge and then diverge at
relatively low speeds.
Rotunda: a circular space covered by a dome.

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Runoff Coefficient: the fraction of total rainfall that is not absorbed in the ground and, hence, runs off. It must be
collected in a system of surface and sub-surface drains.

-S-
Satellite: In urban planning, an outlying community of secondary importance, dependent on a larger City.
Satellite tenant: a minor or smaller tenant in a shopping center. See also Anchor tenant.
Scale: the relative measurement of an object, with reference to the dimensions of the human body.
Setback: a legally defined distance from the property line into which a structure may not project.
Sewer: an underground pipe or drain used to carry off rain water (storm sewer) or waste matter (sanitary sewer).
Site Planning: designing the external physical environment in which buildings and structures are placed.
Slope: the amount of deviation from the horizontal or vertical.
Slum: an urban area that is overcrowded and whose buildings may be unsafe and unhealthful to inhabit.
Special Use Permit: an exemption from zoning regulations given to a jurisdiction
Spot Zoning: zoning of a parcel of land that is different from that of the surrounding area; the application of specific
zoning regulations to specific properties when nearby land is under different zoning
Six Sigma: is a disciplined, data-driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects (driving toward six standard
deviations between the mean and the nearest specification limit) in any process – from manufacturing to transactional
and from product to service.
Star Pattern: a pattern of land use developed in the shape of a star.
Stoa: a portico used in Greek architecture, often as a covered shopping way.
Storm Sewer: a sewer for carrying away surface rain water, as opposed to sanitary sewage.
Style: specific or characteristic manner of expression, execution, construction, or design, in any art, period, work, etc.
Subdivision: the division of vacant land into smaller parcels to be used as sites for individual buildings, together with
public rights-of-way affecting these sites.
Subsoil: the soil layer beneath the topsoil.
Suburb: an outlying portion of a City, which is largely residential.
Superblock: a very large area of land in which all through traffic is eliminated, but which may be penetrated by cui-de-
sacs or minor loop roads.
Survey: the process of determining location, form, and boundaries of a parcel of land by measurement, computation,
and drawing.
Symmetry: a mirror image arrangement of elements on either side of a dividing line or plane.

-T-
Tar: a dark sticky oil, dry distilled from resinous woods, coal, or peat; used in roofing and road surfaces.
Texture: the arrangement of particles of a material that affects the appearance or feel of the surface.
Topography: the configuration of the surface features of an area of ground.

-U-
Underimproved land: property that is not producing the maximum income it is capable of producing given its size,
zoning, and so on
Underpass: a road that crosses under another road.
Urban Renewal: a process of public intervention in the development of an existing urban area, in which the public
acquires ownership of property and administers its resale and development to mainly private owners.
Usury: the illegal practice of charging exorbitant interest rates on a loan
Utility: a public service, such as telephone, water, gas, or electriCity.

-V-
Variance: permission granted by a local jurisdiction to deviate from the literal provisions of a zoning ordinance where
strict adherence would cause undue hardship because of conditions or circumstances unique to an individual property
Viaduct: a bridge across a valley.

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Vomitorium: an entrance (or exit) passage in a large amphitheater.

-W-
Water Table: the level below ground at which water is found flowing.
Wetlands: land that has development restrictions placed on it because it is commonly flooded and may be
environmentally sensitive
Windbreak: structures or plants that, because of their form and location, reduce wind velocities.

-Y-
Yard: an area of land not built upon, which may be used for exterior activities.

-Z-
Zero lot line: part of a zoning regulation's setback requirements that allows a building to be constructed up to the
property line with no setback
Zoning: the legal means whereby land use is regulated and controlled for the welfare of the community.
Zoning by-law: the set of zoning regulations established by a local jurisdiction that regulates certain building practices
within the jurisdiction

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I Additional – Arch Brief History I

Prominent Architects Known For

William LeBaron Jenney • “The Father of the American Skyscraper”
• Notable Project: The Home Insurance Building, in Chicago the first 8 story fully metal
framed building, considered to be the first skyscraper. He used masonry, iron, and
terra cotta flooring and partitions for fireproof construction
Le Corbusier • One of the pioneers of Modern Architecture
• Distanced himself from the past, and based designs on functionality without
ornamentation
• Developed the Five Points of Architecture which included:
 pilotis (reinforced concrete stilts)
 a free facade (non supporting walls designed however)
 open plan (no structure in the way)
 ribbon windows (for unencumbered views), and roof garden (green area
consumed by the building on the ground was relocated to the roof)
• Developed The Modulor Man a continuation of architectural scale and proportion
based off the human body, the golden ratio, Fibonacci numbers, and the double
unit.
• Notable Project: Villa Savoye, Notre Dame du Haut
Ludwig Mies van der • Pioneer of modern architecture,
Rohe • “Less is more” and “God is in the details”
• He strived towards an architecture with a minimal framework of structural order
balanced against the implied freedom of free-flowing open space. He called his
buildings "skin and bones" architecture. He sought a rational approach that would
guide architecture through a creative process
• Notable Project: Barcelona Pavilion, Farnsworth House
Louis Henri Sullivan • Father of the modern skyscraper, father of modernism
• Inspiration to the Chicago group of architects who have come to be known as the
Prairie School
• Used steel frames with terra cotta to create tall buildings that emphasized
verticality
• “Form follows Function” - Believed that the exterior of a building should reflect
its inner structure and function. Ornamentation must be derived from nature
rather than classical architecture of the past
• Notable Project: Guarantee Building (Prudential Building)
Frank Lloyd Wright Leader of the Prairie School
Emphasized structures built in harmony with humanity and its environment, which
he called organic architecture.
Notable Project: Falling water, Robie House, Johnson Wax Headquarters building
Buckminster Fuller Developed the Geodesic Dome, and futuristic prototype housing
Walter Gropius Founder of the Bauhaus School, pioneer of modern architecture, and the
International Style.
Emphasized the gesamtkunstwerk or total work of art
Notable Project: Fagus Factory, Bahaus school
Charles McKim • Member of McKim, Mead, and White, a prominent architectural firm
• Brought Beaux-Arts architecture to America.
• Beaux-Arts: Beaux-Arts architecture depended on sculptural decoration along
conservative modern lines, employing French and Italian Baroque and Rococo
formulas combined with an impressionistic finish and realism. Slightly overscale
details, bold sculptural supporting consoles, rich deep cornices, swags and sculptural
enrichments in the most brilliant finish the client could afford gave employment to

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several generations of architectural modelers and carvers of Italian and Central
European backgrounds.
Notable Projects: Boston Public Library, Penn Station, New York Herald Building

Phillip Johnson • Modern architect that worked in simple materials and glass. Notable project: Glass
House , The Seagram Building
Louis Khan Influenced by ancient ruins, Kahn's style tends to the monumental and monolithic;
his heavy buildings do not hide their weight, their materials, or the way they are
assembled. Louis Kahn's works are considered as monumental beyond modernism
Notable projects: Salk Institute, Philips Exeter Academic Library, Kimbell Art Museum
Richard Meier rationalist buildings make prominent use of the color white
Notable Projects: Getty Center, Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art
Henry Hobson Richardson The style he popularized is named for him: Richardsonian Romanesque. Along with
Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of "the recognized trinity of
American architecture"
Notable Projects: Trinity Church
Joseph Paxton Iron work
Notable Projects: Crystal Palace
Gustave Eiffel Iron work
Notable Projects: Eiffel Tower

Architectural Style Characteristics Image

Nature as A source of • Human all carry in their memories and
Inspiration experiences of nature.
Crystal Palace • Human continue to bear within a sense
1851 of structure in nature.
Designer: Joseph Paxton • Objects found in nature, being the
English products of evolution, of the natural
response to particular forces, are well-
suited to their purposes.
• Crystal palace is just one of many
examples which was a reflection of
applying a use of mother nature.
• Commercial structures have been
designed as tree-like forms, in which
the floors are cantilevered like
branches.

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Romanesque • Walls of massive thickness with few
St Michaels Church and comparatively small openings
(shown) /Trier Cathedral • Buttresses are not a highly significant
/Pisa feature, as they are in Gothic
Cathedra architecture. Romanesque buttresses
are generally of flat square profile and
do not project a great deal beyond the
wall.
• The arches used in Romanesque
architecture are nearly always
semicircular, for openings such as
doors and windows, for vaults and for
arcades.
• Arcades are also used: an arcade is a
row of arches, supported on piers or
columns.
• Piers were often employed to support
arches
• Columns and vaults are an important
structural feature of Romanesque
architecture.

Gothic • Emphasizes verticality (height) and

Cathedral de Notre Dame light (expansive area of windows)
de Paris achieved by the development of
(shown)/ Reims certain architectural features:
Cathedral/ Chartres clustered columns, pointed ribbed
Cathedral vaults, and flying buttresses = thinner
walls
• Religious structures were often
surmounted by one or more towers
and pinnacles and perhaps tall spires.
• Gothic cathedrals were intended to
convey a theological message: the
great glory of God. Symbolically and
through ornamentation.
• Most Gothic churches, unless they are
entitled chapels, are of the Latin cross
(or "cruciform") plan, with a long nave
making the body of the church, a
transverse arm called the transept and,
beyond it, an extension which may be
called the choir, chancel or presbytery.

Renaissance • The plans of Renaissance buildings

San Augustino have a square, symmetrical
(shown)/St Peters appearance in which proportions are
Basilica / Santa Maria usually based on a module
Novella / Palazzo Medici • The “Golden Section” was a
/ St Peters Renaissance concept of proportion in
Piazza which a whole is divided so that
smaller part is to the larger as the
larger is to the whole
• Façades are symmetrical around their
vertical axis
• Arches are semi-circular or (in the
Mannerist style) segmental.
• Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-
circular or segmental and on a square
plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is
frequently rectangular.

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• The dome is used frequently, both as a
very large structural feature that is
visible from the exterior, and also as a
means of roofing smaller spaces where
they are only visible internally

American Georgian • A 1–2 story box, 2 rooms deep, using

strict symmetry arrangements
• Panel front door centered, topped with
rectangular windows (in door or as
• a transom) and capped with an
elaborate crown/entablature
supported by decorative pilasters
• Cornice embellished with decorative
moldings, usually dentil work
• Multi-pane windows are never paired,
and fenestrations are arranged
symmetrically (whether vertical or
horizontal), usually 5 across
• Roof: Side-gabled; Gambrel; Hipped
• Chimneys on both sides of the home
• A portico in the middle of the roof with
a window in the middle is more
common with post-Georgian styles
• Larger windows with 9 or 12 panes on
the
• main floors

Federal/Adamesque • Differs from preceding Georgian

colonial interpretations in its use of
plainer surfaces with attenuated detail,
usually isolated in panels, tablets and
friezes.
• Flatter smoother facade and rarely
used pilasters.
• applied to the balanced and
symmetrical version of Georgian
architectureGothic ornamentation and
details

Greek Revival • Thomas Jefferson was to prove

instrumental in introducing Greek
revival architecture to the United
States.
• A rebirth of classical Greek
architectural elements
• Some larger or commercial buildings in
this style are loosely based on the
Greek temple, with a low triangular
roofline and a facade of columns.
Usually includes rectangular balanced
compositions with sash windows,
elaborate entrances with transoms,
projecting porticos, and large
ornaments

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Gothic Revival • a.k.a Victorian Gothic
• The Gothic Revival style was based on
the churches and homes of Europe in
the Middles Ages and is considered the
first true Victorian style. They have
irregular pitched gable roofs, fanciful
eave treatments, pointed arch
windows, and sometimes elaborate
Gothic ornamentation and details

Italianate • Borrowed Italian Renaissance motifs

synthesized with picturesque
aesthetics.
• They are rectangular in shape, with
two to three stories, tall and narrow, a
balanced composition with bracketed
cornices, parapets and false fronts,
elongated, arched, wooden sash
windows, large paneled doors, and
facades decorated with molded panels,
friezes, pilasters or quoins.

Second Empire • In the United States, the Second

Empire style usually combined a
rectangular tower, or similar element,
with a steep, but
• short, mansard roof; the roof being the
most noteworthy link to the style's
French roots.
• This tower element could be of equal
height as the highest floor, or could
exceed the height of the rest of the
structure by a story or two.
• The mansard roof crest was often
topped with an iron trim, sometimes
referred to as "cresting".
• Floor plans for Second Empire
residences could either be
symmetrical, with the tower (or tower-
like element) in the center, or
asymmetrical, with the tower or
tower-like element to one side.
Shingle • McKim, Mead and White and Peabody
Style and Stearns were two of the notable
firms of the era that helped to
popularize the Shingle style
• Aside from being a style of design, the
style also conveyed a sense of the
house as continuous volume. This
effect—of the building as an envelope
of space, rather than a great mass, was
enhanced by the visual tautness of the
flat shingled surfaces, the horizontal
shape of many Shingle-style houses,
and the emphasis on horizontal

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continuity, both in exterior details and
in the flow of spaces within the houses
• This impression of the passage of time
is enhanced by the use of shingles.
• Shingle-style houses often use a single,
large roof, such as a gambrel or hip
roof. The houses thus emanate a more
pronounced mass and a greater
emphasis on horizontality
Richardsonian • It is a style of Romanesque Revival
Romanesque architecture named after architect
Henry Hobson Richardson, whose
masterpiece is Trinity Church, Boston
(1872–77), designated a National
Historic Landmark.
• It emphasizes clear, strong picturesque
massing, round-headed "Romanesque"
arches, often springing from clusters of
short squat columns, recessed
entrances, richly varied rustication,
blank stretches of walling contrasting
with bands of windows, and cylindrical
towers with conical caps embedded in
the walling.
Queen Anne • Originating in England's pre-Georgian
period, the Queen Anne style usually
includes Classical ornamentation
added to a building with medieval
forms. The American Queen Anne
period began at the end of the 19th
century, and is characterized by spool
work, shaped shingles, foliated
plasterwork, irregular, gabled, hipped
and conical roofs, complex
compositions emphasizing varied,
surface textures, varied entrance
designs frequently with porches, and a
mixture of various ornamentation.
They may include a turret or brick
chimney, or fish scale shingles,
combining various elements of earlier
styles.
American Foursquare • A reaction to the ornate and mass
produced elements of the Victorian
and other Revival styles popular
throughout the last half of the 19th
century, the American Foursquare was
plain, often incorporating handcrafted
"honest" woodwork (unless purchased
from a mail-order catalogue). This style
incorporates elements of the Prairie
• School and the Craftsman styles.
• The hallmarks of the style include a
basically square, boxy design, two-and-
one- half stories high, usually with four
large, boxy rooms to a floor, a center
dormer, and a large front porch with
wide stairs. The boxy shape provides a
maximum amount of interior room
space, to use a small city lot to best
advantage. Other common features
included a hipped roof, arched entries

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between common rooms, built-in
cabinetry, and Craftsman-style
woodwork
Colonial Revival • Sought to revive elements of Georgian
architecture
• usually being two stories in height with
the ridge pole running parallel to the
street, a symmetrical front facade with
an accented doorway and evenly
spaced windows on either side of it
• Elaborate front doors, often with
decorative crown pediments and
• overhead fanlights and sidelights, but
with machine-made woodwork that
had less depth and relief than earlier
handmade versions. Window
openings, while symmetrically located
on either side of the front entrance,
were usually hung in adjacent pairs or
in triple combinations rather than as
single windows. Side porches or
sunrooms were common additions to
these homes, introducing modern
comforts. Also distinctive in this style
are multiple columned porches and
doors with fanlights and sidelights.
Prairie School • The works of the Prairie School
architects are usually marked by
horizontal lines, flat or hipped roofs
with broad
• overhanging eaves, windows grouped
in horizontal bands, integration with
the landscape, solid construction,
craftsmanship, and discipline in the
use of ornament. Horizontal lines were
thought to evoke and relate to the
native
• prairie landscape.
• The Prairie School was also an attempt
at developing an indigenous North
American style of architecture that did
not share design elements and
aesthetic vocabulary with earlier styles
of European classical architecture.
American Craftsman • the movement emphasized the hand-
made over the mass-produced
• kitchen be integrated into the main
house with easy sight lines to the
common areas of the main floor as
well as the backyard
• built-in "breakfast nook"
• Low-pitched roof lines, gabled or
hipped roof
• Deeply overhanging eaves,
• Exposed rafters or
• decorative brackets under eaves
• Front porch beneath extension of main
roof
• Tapered, square columns supporting
roof
• 4-over-1 or 6-over-1 double-hung
windows

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• Frank Lloyd Wright design motifs
• Hand-crafted stone or woodwork
• Mixed materials throughout structure
Art Deco • art deco was purely decorative
• Deco is distinctive in its use of
geometric designs in low relief. It
borrowed from other cultures, Egypt,
Central America and Asia and even
from the machine age, in its
incarnation as Streamline Modern. This
innovation softened the hard edges of
1920's Deco with aerodynamic curves
suggestive of airplanes and ocean
liners in the 1930s

International Style • The term International Style came

from the 1932 exhibition at the
Museum of Modern Art, organized by
Philip Johnson, and from the title of
the exhibition catalog for that exhibit,
written by Johnson and Henry Russell
Hitchcock
• Three principles: the expression of
volume rather than mass, the
emphasis on balance rather than
preconceived symmetry, and the
expulsion of applied ornament.

Classical Orders: Each style is distinctive by their capital (topmost feature of a column) and entablature (upper part
of a Greek or Roman order)
Greek Orders Characteristics Image
Doric • Doric columns are the simplest.
• The Shaft (the tall part of the column)
is plain and is channeled with 20 flutes
(lines carved into them from top to
bottom)
• There is no base in the Doric order;
they instead are placed directly on the
stylobate.
• The Capital (topmost part of the
column) is made of a circle (Echinus)
topped by a square (Abacus).
• In the entablature (area above the
column), composed of the architrave,
frieze and cornice; the architrave is
smooth or is divided by horizontal
lines, the frieze is divided into metopes
and triglyphs.
• The Metope is a plain or carved
section between triglyphs – a unit
consisting of three vertical bands.

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Ionic • The Ionic style is a little more
decorative than the Doric.
• Ionic Shafts are taller than the Doric
ones which make the columns look
slender. They also have flutes; 24. The
shafts have a special characteristic:
entasis, a curved tapering of the
column shaft that make the columns
look straight; even at a distance the
shafts would appear to get narrower as
they rise, so this bulge makes up for
that.
• The Frieze is plain, but sometimes
comes with a continuous ornament
such as carved figures.
• The bases were large and looked like a
set of stacked rings.
• Ionic capitals consist of two opposed
volutes or scrolls in the echinus of the
capital.
• The architrave of the entablature
commonly consists of three stepped
bands, fasciae.
Human Form • Such Caryatid / Atlantad
• Indicating an impression of vertical
strength, as in a leg.
• These subtleties of form reflect the
eye’s and mind’s dependence on an
association with forms found in nature,
particularly the human body.
• We often refer to various elements
with the same names that are applied
to parts of the human body.

Roman Orders
Roman Orders: The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own,
basically modification of Greek orders. The Romans also invented the superposed order. A superposed order is
when successive stories of a building have different orders. The heaviest orders were at the bottom, whilst the
lightest came at the top. This means that the Doric order was the order of the ground floor; the Ionic order
was used for the middle story, while the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the top story. The
Colossal order was invented by architects in the Renaissance. The Colossal order is characterized by columns
that extend the height of two or more stories.

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Tuscan • The Tuscan order has a very plain
design, with a plain shaft, and a simple
capital, base, and frieze.
• It is a simplified adaptation of the
Doric order by the Romans.
• The Tuscan order is characterized by
an unfluted shaft and a capital that
only consist of an echinus and an
abacus.
• In proportions it is similar to the Doric
order, but overall it is significantly
plainer.
• The column is normally 7-diameter
high.
• Compared to the other orders, the
Tuscan order looks the most solid.

Composite • The composite order is mixed order,

combining the volutes of the Ionic with
the leaves of the Corinthian order.
Until the Renaissance it was not
ranked as a separate order. Instead it
was considered as a late Roman form
of the Corinthian order.

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