Digital & Analog Lab

Experiment No. 2

Objectives :-
2(a): To study and plot the input, output and transfer characteristics of a
BJT (NPN) in different configurations.
2(b): To find the input impedance, forward current gain, output
admittance, Reverse voltage gain from the plotted curve.
 The Structure
The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

➢ Bipolar: both electrons and holes are involved in current flow.

➢ Junction: has two p-n junctions.
➢ Transistor: Transfer + Resistor.
➢ It can be either n-p-n type or p-n-p type.
➢ Has three regions with three terminals labeled as
i. Emitter (E)
ii. Base (B) and
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iii. Collector (C)
 The Structure: npn & pnp
➢ Base is made much narrow.
➢ Emitter is heavily doped (p+, n+).
➢ Base is lightly doped (p-, n-).
➢ Collector is lightly doped (p, n).

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 The Structure: npn & pnp
 Transistors can be constructed as two diodes that are
connected together.

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 Circuit Symbol
Layout and Circuit Symbol: n-p-n Transistor

➢ The arrow indicates the direction

of current flow.
➢ The current flows from collector
to emitter in an n-p-n transistor.
➢ The arrow is drawn on the
emitter.
➢ The arrow always points towards
the n-type. So the emitter is n-type
and the transistor is n-p-n type.

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 Circuit Symbol
Layout and Circuit Symbol: p-n-p Transistor

➢ The arrow indicates the direction

of current flow.
➢ The current flows from emitter to
collector in an p-n-p transistor.
➢ The arrow points towards the n-
type.
➢ So the base is n-type and
transistor is p-n-p type.

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 Modes of Operation
➢ Based on the bias voltages applied at the two p-n
junctions, transistors can operate in three modes:
1. Cut-off (both EB and CB junctions are reversed
biased)
2. Saturation (both EB and CB junctions are
forward biased)
3. Active mode (EBJ is forward biased and CBJ is
reversed biased)
➢ Cut-off and Saturation modes are used in switching
operation.
➢ Active mode is used in amplification purposes.

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Modes of Operation

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 Modes of Operation
Cut-off
-
➢ Both the junctions are VBC
reversed biased.
➢ No current can flow through +
either of the junctions. +
➢ So the circuit is open. VBE
-

Ideal model of BJT

in cut-off.

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 Modes of Operation
Saturation: Ideal Model

-
➢ Both the junctions are
forward biased. VBC
➢ So the equivalent circuit can
be represented by short-circuit
+
between the base, emitter and +
collector. VBE
-

Ideal model of BJT

in saturation.

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 Modes of Operation
Saturation: Practical Model

VCE(sat) = VCB + VBE = −VBC + VBE

VCE(sat) is in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 V, as VBC and VBE are both approximately
equal to the diode forward drop.
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 Terminal Currents
Reference Positive Current Directions

IC Collector current

IB Base current

IE Emitter current

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 Active Mode Operation
EBJ: CBJ:
Forward Biased Reverse Biased

◦ Forward bias of EBJ injects electrons from emitter into base (Emitter current).
◦ Most electrons shoot through the base into the collector (Collector current).
◦ Some emitted electrons recombine with holes in p-type base (Base Current)

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 Hole
N electron P N

+ - - +

+ - - +
C
E + - - +

+ - - +

+ - - +

B
 Electron diffusion

Hole diffusion

E-Field
N P N

- +

- +
E C
- +
+ -
- +

- +

VBE VCB

B
 E-Field
N P N

- +

- +
E C
- +
+ -
- +

- +

Electron hole recombination

VBE VCB

B
 Collector current

Electrons that diffuse across the base to the CBJ junction are swept
across the CBJ depletion to the collector because of the higher potential
applied to the collector
v BE
iC = I s e VT

• The equation above shows that the BJT is indeed a voltage-

dependent current source; thus it can be used as an amplifier.
 Active Mode Operation
Biasing for Active Mode

EBJ: Forward Biased

CBJ: Reverse Biased

Carriers injected from forward bias junction (from the emitter labeled E)
travel through the intermediate layer (BASE, labeled B) and swept into the
COLLECTOR, labeled C by the reverse biased voltage.
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 Active Mode: Terminal Currents
Current Relationships and Amplification

IC 
I C =  .I E IB = − IC IC = I B = I B
 1−
I E = IC + I B 
1− =
I
and C = 
I B = I E − IC = IC
 1− IB

 As  is close to unity,  is very large, typically around 100.

  represents the current amplification factor from base to
collector.
 The base current is amplified by a factor of  in the collector
circuit in the Active mode.
  is called the Forward Current Gain, often written as  F.

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 Amplification Action
Voltage Amplification: Active Mode
 As the base-emitter junction is
forward biased, the source at the
input between EBJ sees a low
resistance.
 However, as the CBJ is reverse
biased, the output resistance is
Basic voltage amplification action of
very high, typically in the range of
the common-base configuration.
hundreds of kΩ to MΩ.

 Therefore, it is unlikely that the value of collector current IC will be affected by

a load resistance usually in the range of a few kΩ.
 As such, a large load resistance will result in a large output voltage.
 Therefore, the transistor is capable of both voltage and current amplification.
 Voltage amplification is achieved by transferring the current from low
resistance to high resistance circuit and, thereby, the name TRANSISTOR.

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 Conceptual Biasing Circuits
npn Transistor

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 Conceptual Biasing Circuits
pnp Transistor

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 Transistor Connection
• Transistor can be connected in a circuit in
following three ways-

1)Common Base
2)Common Emitter
3)Common Collector
 Common Emitter Connection
• The common-emitter terminology is derived from
the fact that the emitter is common to both the
input and output sides of the configuration.

• First Figure shows common emitter npn configuration and second

figure shows common emitter pnp configuration.
 Common Emitter Connection
• Base Current amplification factor ( ) :
• In common emitter connection input current is base
current and output current is collector current.
• The ratio of change in collector current to the
change in base current is known as base current
amplification factor, .
 = IC
IB
•Normally only 5% of emitter current
flows to base, so amplification factor
is greater than 20. Usually this range
varies from 20 to 500.
Relation Between and
Expression for Collector Current
Characteristics of common emitter
configuration
• Input Characteristics:
• →VBE vs IB characteristics is
called input characteristics.
→ IB increases rapidly with
VBE . It means input
resistance is very small.
→ IE almost independent of
VCE.
→IB is of the range of micro
amps.
 Characteristics of common emitter
configuration
• Output Characteristics:
• →VCE vs Ic
characteristics is called
output characteristics.
• → IC varies linearly
with VCE ,only when VCE
is very small.
• → As, VCE increases, IC
becomes constant.
 Characteristics of common emitter
configuration
• Transfer Characteristics:

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Input and Output Resistance of
common emitter conf.
• Input Resistance: The ratio of change in
emitter-base voltage to the change in base
current is called Input Resistance.
VBE
ri =
I B
• Output Resistance: The ratio of change in
collector-emitter voltage to the change in
collector current is called Output Resistance.
VCE
r0 =
I C
 Transistor as an amplifier in CE conf.

• Figure shows CE amplifier for npn transistor.

• Battery VBB is connected with base in-order to
make base forward biased, regardless of input ac
polarity.
• Output is taken across Load R
 Transistor as an amplifier in CE
conf.
• During positive half cycle input ac will keep the emitter-
base junction more forward biased. So, more carrier
will be emitted by emitter, this huge current will flow
through load and we will find output amplified signal.
• During negative half cycle input ac will keep the
emitter-base junction less forward biased. So, less
carrier will be emitted by emitter. Hence collector
current decreases.
• This results in decreased output voltage (In opposite
direction).
 Transistor Load line analysis
• In transistor circuit analysis it is necessary to
determine collector current for various VCE
voltage.
• One method is we can determine the collector
current at any desired VCE voltage, from the
output characteristics.
• More conveniently we can use load line
analysis to determine operating point.
Transistor Load line analysis
→Consider common emitter
npn transistor circuit shown
in figure.
→There is no input signal.
→ Apply KVL in the output
ckt-
Transistor Load line analysis
 Operating Point

→It is called operating point because variation of IC

takes place about this point.
→ It is also called quiescent point or Q-point.