1.
Democracy: key patterns and characteristics (Dahl, Schmitter & Karl)
Powell et al. 2015: Chapter 1. (Textbook) – MANDATORY
Dahl, Robert Alan, 1971: Participation and Opposition. Yale University Press,
New Haven. – OPTIONAL
Schmitter, Philippe C. – Karl, Terry Lynn, 1991: What Is Democracy… And Is
Not. Journal of Democracy, 2(3), pp. 75-88. – OPTIONAL
Powell et al. 2015: Chapter 1 – Governance in the Era of Globalization
What is Comparative Politics?
Briefly describe the public and authoritative aspects of political decisions!
government:
o take policy actions
can foster or retard economic development
primary guarantor of the rights and liberties of citizens – also the
greatest threats to them
expand or retard the living conditions of citizens
o attend international conferences and sign treaties
o a state goes to war through their actions
o our lives are touched by their actions – jobs are structured by regulations,
homes are built to conform their housing codes etc.
politics deal with human decisions => pol. science is the study of such decisions
decisions can be public and authoritative
public sphere of politics:
o collective decisions that extend beyond the individual and private life,
involving gov. action
private sphere – family, friends – not controlled by the gov.
o in totalitarian states, the public sphere is large, private sphere is limited
o less developed nations – private sphere almost crowds out the public one =>
lot of people are uninvolved, untouched by the decisions
o Western democracies: balanced mix of private and public spheres
political decisions are authoritative
o formal power rests in individuals or groups whose decisions are expected to be
carried out and respected
o may use persuasion, inducement, or brute force to ensure compliance
politics: activities associated with the control of public decisions, this control may be
backed up by authoritative means
o politics involves the crafting of these authoritative decisions – who and for
what can make them
nature of good science, including political science, is comparison
end of the Cold War => new international order
globalization: citizens of different countries closer together, more dependent on each
other – some issue are transnational too, i.e., climate change, achieving international
peace
Challenges: Building Community
Discuss the challenges of building a national identity for a nonhomogeneous population!
first challenge new states face: to build a national community
establishing a sense of shared identity – difficult
important – conflicts over national, ethnic, religious identities can be explosive causes
of pol. turmoil, like i.e., in former Yugoslavia
Japan, easier: ethnically homogenous, common language, long national history,
Buddhism or Shintoism <-> Nigeria, difficult: artificial creation of British colonial
rule, no common precolonial history, divided between Muslims and Christians ,
various local languages
also part of the process of nation building
nation = group of people with a common identity
o may be built upon a common language, history, race, culture, same territory
o may or may not have their own state
o close correspondence between state and nation i.e., Japan
o multinational states i.e., former Yugoslavia, broke apart
o nations larger than corresponding state i.e., Germany for most of its history
o nations splitting into 2 or more states for pol. reasons i.e., Korea
o having no state at all i.e., Kurds
Ethnicity
ethnic groups, defined by common physical traits, languages, cultures, history
need not to have an objective basis in genetics, culture, history
Max Weber – belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type,
customs, or both, or memories of colonization and migration – doesn’t matter if blood
relationship actually exists
former colonial powers established boundaries that cut across ethnic lines, i.e., 1947
British withdrew from India, divided to a norther Muslim Pakistan and southern Hindu
India => civil conflict, ethnoreligious cleansing
migration across state boundaries – source of ethnic differentiation i.e., Turkish and
North African migrant relocating to Europe
Language
challenge in building community – language differences => difficult to function using
several of them
it can be a source of identity overlapping with ethnicity
5000 different languages, only 200 with at least a million speakers, 8 world languages
can cause controversies over educational policies, language use in the gov.
Religious Differences and Fundamentalism
states vary in their religious characteristics
in some, i.e., Pakistan, religion is the basis of national identity for most of the
population
Iran: theocratic regime, religious authorities govern, religious law is part of the
country’s legal code
can also be a point for pol. movement – getting together
religion guides the social and political behavior of its supporters
religious groups often battle over issues as rules of marriage and divorce, child
rearing, sexual morality, abortion, emancipation of women
religious fundamentalism:
o believe in the absolute truth of their religion in relation to other
o acts of terrorism
Fostering Economic Development
Explain the processes and challenges of economic development, giving specific examples
from various countries!
nation of Bhutan – national goal to develop its level of Gross National Happiness
(GNH)
but, people in most pol. systems want to foster social and economic development =>
important state goals
economic development = people can enjoy new resources and opportunities
in advanced industrial societies, living standards provide for basic social needs
current pol. challenge: problems resulting from the economic successes
o environment protection
o aging population
but, substantial economic needs still exist
UN Development Program => shows improvement in life conditions in many regions
of the world
process of economic development:
o transformation of the structure of the labor force from agrarian to industrial
and then advanced industrial economy
o linked to urbanization – new opportunities for workers, new economic and
social policy challenges for governments
gross national income: measure of national wealth – it is strongly related to the
educational levels of a nation’s people
income levels + education related to other measures of social development
o countries with fewest literate citizens have the fewest radios and television sets
economic development =>
o better nutrition and medical care
o less infants die
o increased life expectancy
differences in living conditions are a global concern
Problems of Economic Development
economic development – partial solution to a country’s needs, but can also create new
challenges
unequal distribution of resources and opportunities => stimulate pol. conflict
high national income may conceal poverty, lack of opportunities in some sectors
high rate of national growth may benefit only a particular region or social group
rapid economic development may increase inequalities
wealthiest 10% in Japan receives the same total income as the poorest 40% receive –
large gap between the life conditions of the rich and poor
if there’s equality of opportunity and high social mobility, inequality may decline
+ investment in education, in agricultural inputs and rural infrastructure (road, water),
labor-intensive industries - can lessen inequality as well
another correlate of development: population growth – can pose new policy challenges
o it’s one of the first effects of modernization
o over time, changing conditions reduce fertility <= improved education of
women, health, welfare
o pop. growth declines on the long run
other social costs:
o increasing industrialization, urbanization => environmental problems
o in less developed countries, shortages of clean air, clean water, adequate
sanitation
to sum up, economic development generally improves the living conditions of the
public, but in the process, it produces new policy problems that governments must
address
Fostering Democracy, Human Rights, and Civil Liberties
Describe the characteristics of representative democracy and the connections between
economic development and democratization!
major force transforming political systems: democratization process, includes human
rights, expansion of freedom
democracy (=government by the people): political system in which citizens enjoy a
number of basic civil and political rights, and in which their most important political
leaders are elected in free and fair elections and are accountable under a rule of law.
in large pol. systems, like in states, democracy is achieved through citizen
representation
o elections, competitive political parties, representative assemblies
<-> authoritarian pol. systems
o oligarchies = “rule by the few” – small pol. elite withholds rights from the
majority of the population
o party, military, personal dictatorships
totalitarian systems
o i.e., Nazi Germany, USSR under Stalin
o gov. constricts the rights and privacy of its citizens in a particularly severe and
intrusive manner
societies becoming more complex, richer, technologically advanced => probability of
democratization increases
first wave: first half of the 20th century, Western state
second wave: 1943-60s, newly independent states i.e., India, Nigeria + defeated
authoritarian powers i.e., Germany, Japan
third wave: 1974-, Southern Europe, East Asia, Latin America, number of African
states + collapse of USSR => Eastern and Central Europe (many joined the EU)
result of these waves: common goal of the global community became achieving
democracy
1970s: 1/3 of world’s countries had competitive party and electoral systems
2013, almost 2/3
democratization process is linked to the social modernization (also shown by the
GDP) of nations
o economic development => transforming societies in ways that encourage
democratization by creating autonomous pol. groups that demand pol.
influence, expanding the pol. skills of the citizenry, creating economic
complexity that encourages systems of self-governance
o transforms the pol. values and pol. culture of the public
new democracies are more likely to endure when founded in economically developed
societies
China: major economic advances, but still, regime limits factors that might press for
democratization
democratization: ongoing process – even by adopting democratic institutions, there’s
no guarantee that states will grant human rights and civil liberties to everyone
need for balancing between the will of majority and protecting the rights of the
minority
definition of appropriate rights and liberties evolve
The Contribution of Globalization
Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization!
international trade of goods and services => massive investments in the economic
infrastructure of developing nations
product production where costs are the lowest or production is most efficient
positive economic effects of globalization:
o lower prices – benefits costumers
o expands choices
o production nation benefits from foreign investment, increased employment
negative effects of globalization:
o outsourcing
o loss of jobs – unemployment
o downward pressures on salaries – companies exploiting workers, sweatshop-
like conditions
globalization, other than economic aspects, has social and political effects as well
o promotes the diffusion of international norms as societies interact more
o pressures to lessen economic corruption
o benefiting the social and economic status of women
What Governments Do
List five ways in which a government can help its citizens!
many reasons why people create government and prefer to live under such a social
order
they are important vehicles for addressing challenges that face societies
Community and Nation Building
create and maintain a community in which people can feel safe and comfortable
by teaching a common language, instilling common norms and values, creating
common national myths and symbols, supporting national identity
sometimes this can create controversy, there’s disagreement about norms and values
= shared political culture: public’s expectations about the pol. process and its role
within the process
Security and Order
protecting from attacks against the country – army, navy, air force
protect internally, against theft, violence by members of the society – police
Protecting Rights
prime goal: protect social and political rights like freedom of speech and association,
protection against discrimination and harassment
protecting the rights of religious, racial, other social groups
John Locke – unless property rights exist and contract can be enforces, people will be
hesitant to trade and invest
Promoting Economic Efficiency and Growth
markets are efficient when property rights are protected, when competition is rigorous,
when information is freely available
providing public goods: clean air, national defense, disease prevention – if one person
enjoys them, can’t be withheld from other members of the public
address the problems when an economic activity has consequences that are not borne
by the producer or user – company may produce environmental pollution if it ignores
the impact of its production methods
promote fair competition, minimum standards of worker protection and product
liability + control potentially monopolistic companies so they don’t abuse their market
power
Social Justice
gov. can redistribute resources from the better-off to the poor to lessen inequality and
maximize a society’s potential
private individuals, organizations, foundations can help the poor, but no capacity to tax
the wealthy
Protecting the Weak
protect individuals and groups that aren’t able to speak for themselves
disabled, young, future generations – i.e., preventing future generations from being
saddled with economic debts or environmental degradation
When Does Government Become the Problem?
List five ways in which a government can harm or hinder its citizens!
anarchism, libertarianism – critical of the role of modern gov.
libertarianism: greatest problem of governments is its encroachment on individual
freedoms
anarchists: concerned with the threats that governments pose to social communities
Destruction of Community
government destroy natural communities
those who have power are corrupted, those who don’t are degraded and alienated
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: only people unfettered by gov. can form bonds that allow
them to develop their full human potential
by imposing an order based on coercion, hierarchy, and threat of force – gov.s destroy
natural communities
strong the gov. the greater the inequalities of power
Violations of Basic Rights
govs. can use their power to violate essential rights
challenge of creating a gov. strong enough to govern effectively but not so strong that
it could destroy the rights of its citizens
libertarians – concerned about the abuses and violations of basic freedoms
20th century – Nazi Germany, China, Cambodia, Rwanda, USSR
Economic Inefficiency
governments can distort and restrict a state’s economic potential
regulations of the economy may distort the terms of trade and lower people’s
incentives to produce
when governments own or manage economic enterprises, further inefficiencies can
occur
if the gov. holds a monopoly – causes a good to be undersupplied and overpriced
Government for Private Gain
possible that gov. officials make decisions to benefit themselves personally, select
policies to get themselves reelected
pol. exploitation is a serious problem in poor societies
also, people often expect those in gov. to use their power to benefit themselves, their
families, and their neighbors
despite legal rules, press scrutiny, and citizen concerns, few governments anywhere
finish their terms of office untained by some corruption scandal
Vested Interests and Intertia (=tehetelenség)
gov.-created private gains are difficult to change or abolish once they have been
established
some people enjoy gov. jobs, contracts, or other favors
any gov. will foster officeholders and beneficiaries with and interest in maintaining or
enlarging the gov. itself
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
How has globalization affected your country?
How has socioeconomic modernization transformed the conditions of women in
developing nations and advanced democracies?
Why is a comparative study of different nations useful?
Why is building a common national identity considered important?
How does economic development pose new policy challenges for governments in
developing countries?
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS:
authoritarian: in an authoritarian system, political plurality is rejected and citizens
submit themselves to authority.
democracy: government by the people; a political system in which citizens enjoy a
number of basic civil and political rights, and in which their most important political
leaders are elected in free and fair elections and are accountable under a rule of law.
democratization: the process of introducing a democratic system or democratic
principles into a country.
ethnicity: an ethnic group is defined by common physical traits, language, culture and
history, people of a similar ethnic group don’t have to have an actual blood
relationship.
globalization: the process by which businesses or other organizations develop
international influence or start operating on an international scale.
gross national income (GNI): a way of measuring national wealth, it is strongly related
to the educational level of the nation’s people.
human rights: introducing them is part of the process of democratization, they are
rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity,
language, religion, or any other status.
nation: A group of people with a common identity, which can be common language,
history, race, culture, or the occupation of the same territory. They may or may not
have their own state.
religious fundamentalism: they believe in the absolute truth of their religion in relation
to other and may turn to force (even to terrorism) in order to prove it.
oligarchy: “rule by the few”, a small political elite withholding rights from the
majority of the population.
socioeconomic modernization: It is linked to the democratization process. The
economic development means that people can enjoy new resources and opportunities
and that living standards provide for basic social need. The social development means
that societies are encouraged to create autonomous political groups that demand
political influence, expanding the political skills of the citizenry, creating an economic
complexity that encourages systems of self-governance.
political culture: A set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments, which give order and
meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules
that govern behavior in the political system.
public goods: If one person enjoys these goods they can’t be withheld from other
members of the public. For example clean air, national defense, disease prevention.
totalitarian systems: In totalitarian systems, the government constricts the rights and
privacy of its citizens in a particularly severe and intrusive manner, which results in
the public sphere being large and the private sphere being very limited. For example
Nazi Germany, USSR under Stalin.