Modeling:

Modeling is a psychotherapy technique utilized to produce changes in

a client’s behavioral repertoire by providing a demonstration of the desired

behavior patterns and then affording opportunities for imitation.

As an intervention technique, modeling is relatively simple and is designed

to assist clients in learning new behavior patterns. The procedure involves two

primary components.

✓ First, the client is provided with an opportunity to observe the correct

or desired form of behavior.

✓ Second, the client imitates the observed behavior, demonstrating

learning.

For modeling to be effective as an intervention, the client must be able to

demonstrate an imitative response. In other words, the client must be able to

observe (i.e., pay attention to) the model (i.e., the person demonstrating the

desired response) and then implement the skill that was just demonstrated.

Observational learning can be further divided into two forms of learning:

Imitation : Imitation involves simply matching the topography of the

observed behavior. Imitation involves the client simply repeating or

matching the demonstrated introduction responses.

Vicarious learning: Vicarious learning, involves a change in the

likelihood of the targeted response being imitated as a function of

targeted behavior.

Modeling can produce three different effects: -

1. Observing a model can result in the acquisition of previously

unlearned behaviors. Thus, modeling can be used to increase a

person’s behavioral repertoire.

2. Modeling can result in a strengthening or weakening of inhibitory

responses, referred to as inhibitory or disinhibitory effects,

respectively. Regarding the former, modeling can strengthen

inhibition to engage in a particular response via exposure to a model

who is punished for engaging in the targeted behavior. The

disinhibitory effect occurs when behavior was previously punished.

3. Modeling may evoke previously learned behavior patterns, referred

to as the response facilitation effect. The response facilitation effect

produces an increase in the likelihood of the occurrence of a

response pattern that was not previously punished.

In 1977, Albert Bandura described the factors that influence the effectiveness

of modeling as a behavior change technique:

1. If modeling is being used to facilitate the demonstration of a

particular behavior pattern by the observer, then the modeled

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 behavior should result in successful (i.e., reinforcing) consequences

for the model.

2. Modeling is more likely to produce the desired impact if the model

is similar to the observer(s), or has a high status.

3. The complexity of the behavior modeled should be appropriate based

on the abilities and developmental level of the observer.

4. The observer has to attend to the model for the exposure to have an

effect.

5. The modeled behavior should occur within the proper context.

6. The modeled behavior should be repeated as frequently as necessary

for the learner to demonstrate correct imitation. To facilitate

generalized learning, the desired behavior should be modeled in

various situations and context.

7. The observer should be given opportunities to imitate the modeled

behavior as soon as possible after modeling has occurred, with

corrective and positive feedback provided.

Format of presenting the modeling procedure to the client:

Live, or in vivo: The client watches the model and then is provided

with the opportunity to demonstrate the imitative response. Live, or in

vivo, modeling is advantageous because of the ability to adapt and

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 modify the model selected and the demonstration of the desired

response to best meet the needs of a particular client.

Symbolic modeling: Symbolic modeling can be achieved via the use

of several different modeling formats, such as use of video, film, slide

presentation, and so on.

Covert modeling: Covert modeling involves carrying out the

intervention via the use of imagery. With this variation, the client is

instructed to imagine the model demonstrating the desired response,

rather than actually witnessing the scenario in vivo.

There are several components to the use of the intervention that should be

considered, as described by Sherry Cormier and Bill Cormier (2000):-.

1. The client should be provided with a rationale for the use of the

modeling procedure.

2. Cormier and Cormier recommend addressing five components of the

actual modeling scenario:

(a) specifying and dividing desired goals into identifiable

behavioral responses,

(b) arranging the actual behaviors into a logical order of

presentation,

(c) selecting the appropriate model,

(e) demonstrating the targeted behaviors repeatedly.

3. The client needs to be provided with an opportunity to demonstrate

the modeled responses, and offer positive and corrective feedback.

4. Critical to the success of any modeling situation, the therapist should

ensure that the imitated behavior produces desired, positive outcomes.

According to Bandura, there are four main processes that influence the

observational learning that occurs as a result of modeling:

1. Attentional processes: Attentional processes are important in that

they affect how much of an impact the modeled event will have on

the observer. Attentional processes are affected by variables related

to both the modeling stimulus (e.g., salience, distinctiveness,

complexity, prevalence) and the observer (e.g., sensory capabilities,

emotional arousal, past reinforcement history).

2. Retention processes: Retention processes are involved, including

such factors as symbolic coding of the modeled behavior, cognitive

organization of the observed information, and symbolic and motoric

rehearsal (i.e., imitation).

3. Motor production processes: Motor production processes are

important influences in observational learning. Someone unskilled

reproduce the performance by simply watching an accomplished

musician play the peace. The component skills of making the right

muscle movement will have to practice.

4. Motivational processes: Motivational processes such as external

reinforcement, vicarious reward and punishment, and self-reward or

punishment all are relevant to determining whether observing a

model will produce imitation.

Application of modeling technique:

✓ Modeling may be used with people with severe or profound retardation,

autism spectrum disorders, and clients with psychoses who do not

already demonstrate the imitative response.

✓ Evidence suggests that coping models may produce more beneficial

outcomes for clients, particularly when targeting fears, phobias, or

other avoidance-based clinical problems.

✓ Wolpe & Lazarus (1966), have often used modeling in combination

with role-playing or behavioural rehearsal to help client develop social

skills.

Efficacy:

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✓ Bandura et al. (1968) studies the effects of modeling on snake-fearful

adults.

✓ Thomas G. Haring, et al. (1987) found effectiveness of video

(symbolic) modeling with individuals with autism.

✓ Harris & Johnson (1983) treated 63 test anxious students by using

covert modeling.

✓ In 1996, Rutger W et al. utilized participant modeling to treat phobic

reactions to injections

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