The Amazing Architecture of

the Kailash
Caves of Ellora
An illustration depicting the Hindu holy family of Shiva at Kailasha (c.1810-1820)

The architectural elements of a Hindu temple have the capability to create a link between the divine
and the man. A temple created following all the rules can help in attaining the spiritual knowledge
and lead the soul to Moksh.

Hindu temple architecture is one of the most important forms of Hindu architecture. The
basic style of Hindu temples will always remain the same but there are differences in them
according to the architecture. The Technical architecture of the Hindu temple reflects a lot
about the synthesis of the values, believes, ideas and arts of those who built it. It is believed
that all the elements of the Cosmos that are responsible for creating and celebrating life
according to the Hindu culture from fire to water, on from feminine the masculine, from
kama to arth, etc. areingrained in Temples and it is believed that the solutions to all the
problems of life are in the temples and it is possible to manifest everything that you want by
getting them constructed rightly.
The Rashtrakuta king Krishna

The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I is credited with building the Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) at
Ellora. This magnificent temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is renowned for its rock-cut
architecture and was constructed during the 8th century CE. It is one of the 34 cave temples
and monasteries at Ellora, representing a blend of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain art and
[Link] Hindu belief, Lord Shiva, along with his consort Parvati and their children
Ganesha and Kartikeya, resides on Mount Kailash. It is considered his divine abode and the
center of the world in Hindu cosmology. For Buddhists, it's the dwelling place of the deity
Demchok (Chakrasamvara). Jains also revere the mountain as the place where their first
Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha, attained liberation. Ellora, also called Verul or Elura, is the short
form of the ancient name Elloorpuram.

The older form of the name has been found in ancient references such as the Baroda
inscription of 812 AD which mentions "the greatness of this edifice" and that "this great
edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura, the edifice in the inscription being the
Kailasa temple. In the Indian tradition, each cave is named and has a
suffix Guha (Sanskrit), Lena or Leni (Marathi), meaning cave. It is also thought to be derived
from Ilvalapuram, named after the asura Ilvala who ruled this region who was vanquished by
Sage Agastya.

Religion
The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of
religious tolerance. Scholars have offered various arguments regarding which specific
religion the Rashtrakutas favoured, basing their evidence on inscriptions, coins and
contemporary literature. Some claim the Rashtrakutas were inclined towards Jainism since
many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote in Sanskrit, Kannada and a few
in Apabhramsha and Prakrit were Jains.[127] The Rashtrakutas built well-known Jain temples
at locations such as Lokapura in Bagalkot district and their loyal feudatory, the Western
Ganga Dynasty, built Jain monuments at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. Scholars have
suggested that Jainism was a principal religion at the very heart of the empire, modern
Karnataka, accounting for more than 30% of the population and dominating the culture of the
region.[128] King Amoghavarsha I was a disciple of the Jain acharya Jinasena and wrote in his
religious writing, Prashnottara Ratnamalika, "having bowed to Varaddhamana (Mahavira), I
write Prashnottara Ratnamalika". The mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote in his Ganita
Sarasangraha, "The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of
grain. May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever
increase far and wide." Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainism in his old age.

However, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronised Hinduism's followers of

the Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta faiths. Almost all of their inscriptions begin with an
invocation to god Vishnu or god Shiva. The Sanjan inscriptions tell of King Amoghavarsha I
sacrificing a finger from his left hand at the Lakshmi temple at Kolhapur to avert a calamity
in his kingdom. King Dantidurga performed the Hiranyagarbha (horse sacrifice) and the
Sanjan and Cambay plates of King Govinda IV mention Brahmins performing such rituals
as Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Agnishtoma. An early copper plate grant of King Dantidurga
(753) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bear
the legend Parama Maheshwara (another name for Shiva). The kings' titles such
as Veeranarayana showed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganges
and Yamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas.

The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock-cut caves attributed to them show
that the Hinduism was flourishing. Their family deity was a goddess by name Latana (also
known as Rashtrashyena, Manasa Vindyavasini) who took the form of a falcon to save the
kingdom. They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of
different faiths. The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the
temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva, Vishnu and Bhaskara (Surya, the sun
god).

In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism,
Vaishnavaism and Shaivism. Buddhism too found support and was popular in places such
as Dambal and Balligavi, although it had declined significantly by this time. [3] The decline of
Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi
Shankara's Advaita philosophy. Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th
century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms
and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century [135] and
many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such
as Kayalpattanam and Nagore. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were
known as Mappilas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning
shipping fleets. The Rastrakuta kings were praised by an Arab traveller, Al-Masʿūdī, for
supporting the settlement of Muslim traders in the Konkan region and allowing them to
practice Islam. The Rastrakutas were also noted for providing great support to them and
establishment of Mosques in port towns located in Konkan by him during the early 10th
century. The Saymur district was inhabited by about 10,000 Muslims according to Al-
Masʿūdī.
 Kailashnath Temple
Explaining Kailashnath

Mount Kailash is sacred Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon [Link] Hindu art and
literature, the mountain is described as the abode of Shiva, who is depicted as residing there
along with his consort Parvati and their children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. In early Hindu
depictions, Kailash was described as one of the mountains in the Himalayas. In Hindu
mythology, Mount Meru is considered as a stairway to heaven, where the devas reside and
the Vishnu Purana states that it lies in the center of the world surrounded by six mountain
ranges similar to a lotus, one of which is the Himalayas. In the later Hindu theology, Kailash
came to be identified with Meru. Shiva is described as sitting in a lotus position, engaged in
meditation within the confines of the mountain. Kailash and Manasarovar are mentioned in
the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. According to the Hindu scriptures and
sculptural depictions, the demon-king Ravana shook the mountain after he was refused entry
to Kailash. This enraged Shiva, who pressed his toe upon the mountain, trapping Ravana in
between. Ravana sang hymns in praise of Shiva for a thousand years before he was
released. This representation of Shiva is also referred to as Ravananugraha (meaning "form
showing favour to Ravana").
According to Jains, Rishabhadeva, the first Tirthankar of Jainism attained moksha (liberation)
on Mount Kailash. It is believed by Jains that after Rishabhadeva attained moksha, his son
emperor Bharata Chakravartin had constructed three stupas and twenty four shrines of the 24
tirthankaras in the region with their idols studded with precious stones and named
it Sinhnishdha. He also performed a fortnight of worship termed Mahamaga and attained
moksha from Kailash. Large pits were dug around the mountain later and the River Ganges
was made to flow through it. The 24th and the last Tirthankara, Mahavira, was taken to the
summit of Meru by Indra shortly after his birth, after putting his mother into deep slumber.
There he was anointed with precious functions. In Hindu belief, Lord Shiva, along with his
consort Parvati and their children Ganesha and Kartikeya, resides on Mount Kailash. It is
considered his divine abode and the center of the world in Hindu cosmology. For Buddhists,
it's the dwelling place of the deity Demchok (Chakrasamvara). Jains also revere the mountain
as the place where their first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha, attained liberation.

Kailashnath mean the LORD of KAILASH- SHIVA

At ELLORA, 34 cave temples had been carved out of the hillside with hand tools. Only 12 of
these 34 caves within the centre are the most astonishing. The large Kailash Temple (cave
sixteen) is sort of one a half of instances taller than the Parthnon and occupies almost twice
its location. It is believed that it was constructed via excavating approx. 2 hundred,000 tones
of rock and is viable the world's largest monolithic shape. Representing Shiva's Himalayan
home, the temple is exquisitely sculpted with scenes from Hindus mythology, each pulsing
with drama, strength and passion. The Kailash Temple situated close to the village of Ellora.
It is taken into consideration as one of the maximum impressive 'homes' within the history of
structure. This temple is the sector's biggest monolithic shape carved from one piece of rock
and the rock - hewn temples and monasteries of Ellora that lies just 30 kms from
Aurangabad.. Kailash Temple at cave 16, have been a massive Shivalinga (form of Lord
Shiva) is worshiped. It is the largest building carved in a stone within the entire international.
Is a part of Ellora Cave Complex The Kailasanatha temple is the arena's biggest monolith
shape that become actually scooped out of the hill aspect. Lord Shiva is worshipped within
the form of a giant lingam in the garba griha. Beautiful sculptures from Ramayana and
Mahabharata are carved on the partitions of this cave temples.
The Kailasa Temple, located in Ellora, Maharashtra, India, is a remarkable monolithic rock-
cut temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. It's renowned as the largest of its kind in the world,
carved vertically from a single rock face. The temple, part of the UNESCO World Heritage
site of Ellora Caves, is a testament to ancient Indian architecture and engineering. The great
Kailash monolithic complicated at Ellora is remarkably one of the maximum ambitious rock-
architectural initiatives ever undertaken anywhere in the world. It merits the top place by
using its aesthetic balance, formal majesty and iconographic profundity in terms of temple
modeling. It become conceived and accomplished at a time when structural structure within
the stone medium had already been evolved. The carving of rock as monolith turns into an
excellent degree makes this magnum opus of the rock-artwork of the Rashtrakutas. It may be
 noted that, besides for the Pallava monoliths at Mahabalipuram there has been no
contemporary success to take instant thought from. The visionary electricity of imagination at
Ellora of the Chalukyas and of Dantidurga Rashtrakuta, tried a bold and novel
experimentation of a loose-standing version. Krishna, the Rashtrakuta King, had that
visionary experience who placed his capital near Ellora. The capability of the area for
crafting the monolith genus must have already reassured him the achievement of this
challenge. But it is actually undeniable that the royal patronage supplied conducive
surroundings for the rock-cut architecture. The patronage of Rastrakutas invoked a brand new
spirit of religion and resurgent artwork in growing this miniature Kailash. In accordance with
the same old Indian practice, the completed surface of the Kailash temple and its surrounding
chapels have been coated with excellent lime plaster, suggesting the Shivas's snow-capped
Himalayan Hermitage. The body mass of Deccan trap rock was carved down by means of a
holistic imaginative and prescient of the royal customer to a sanctuary of immaculate
cadence. It resulted into the treasure of legend, mythical and canonical iconography that
embellished the shrine. The model is the expression of the unequalled god-mindedness of the
craftsmen.

Key Features of the Kailasa Temple:

 Monolithic Structure:
Carved from a single, massive rock, it is a unique example of rock-cut architecture.
 Dedicated to Lord Shiva:
The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is designed to resemble Mount Kailash, his
Himalayan abode.
 UNESCO World Heritage Site:
It is one of the 34 cave temples that make up the Ellora Caves, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site.
 Size and Dimensions:
The temple is approximately 164 feet (50 meters) long, 108 feet (33 meters) wide, and 100
feet (30 meters) high.
 Architectural Marvel:
It features intricate sculptures, carvings, and pillars, showcasing the architectural and
artistic skills of the era.
 Vertical Excavation:
The temple was excavated vertically downwards from the top of the scarp, a process that
involved removing an estimated 200,000 tonnes of rock.
Historical Context:

 Built by Rashtrakuta King Krishna I:

 It is believed to have been commissioned by the Rashtrakuta ruler King Krishna I during
the 8th century AD.

 Construction Timeline:
The construction of the temple is estimated to have taken place between 757 and 783 AD.
 Inspired by Mount Kailash:
The temple's design and layout are inspired by Mount Kailash, the mythical abode of Lord
Shiva.
The Kailasa Temple is a must-visit for anyone interested in ancient Indian history, art, and
architecture. Its sheer scale and intricate details make it a truly awe-inspiring monument.

Kailash temple
Historical Development
In the historical references, the manipulate of Deccan become taken via the Raśtrakutas from
the early Western Chaluky as round 750 CE. In this manner they began a supremacy that
became lasted around 973 CE. Though the political would possibly of this own family has
been broadly recounted, little is thought about the creative traits that passed off for the
duration of the length in their supremacy. The most important web page associated with those
rulers is Ellora. Several cave excavations have been carried out at Ellora beneath the aegis of
Raśtrakutas. Its boldness recommend centuries of traditions in which carving strategies and
an expertise of the rock medium had been advanced. It enabled craftsmen to push the
architectural type to its limits.4It can be stated that the Kailaśa temple is extra than truly a
building. It is a large complex with all of the architectural members of modern unfastened
standing southern kind temple.
It is difficult to mention how lengthy it took to create the principle temple and its
environment elements or the ideal series of the excavations. Most students nowadays sense
that the most important part of the monument, consisting of the critical temple and Nandi
shrine in addition to the gateway belong to the reign of the Rastrakuta king Krishna I, who
ruled from round 757 to 773 AD. However, it is able to be feasible that the temple turned into
deliberate and begun beneath his predecessor, Dantidurga. It is evident from the cave prior to
the Kailaśa temple cave no. 15 which bears an inscription of the earlier king reigned from
735 to 757 CE.6These cave temples are very similar in terms of stylization.
There may be a few conceptual relation among Kailaśa temple and the Virupaksha temple at
Pattadakal and Kailaśanath temple of Kanchipuram.7 But right here Soundrarajan8has opined
that „Undeniably, all the three are of the identical genre the southern architectural style.
However perhaps the resemblance nearly ends right here. The integrally constructed seven
subsidiary shrines of equal form constructed within the thickness of the wall across the
relevant shrine of Kailaśanath each no longer handiest showing same god-head within,
specifically, the Somasakanda panel, however additionally having only a limited eastward or
westward orientation and under no circumstances having any front vestibule beyond it
transept passage as emerges from the cella, is so absolutely and substantially exclusive from
the phrasing implicit inside the Virupaksha and the one occur inside the Kailaśha.’
From an analytical point of view it may be surmised that monolithic Pallava Rathas at
Mahabalipuram have been the initiator of this typology in southern a part of the u. S...9The
Kailaśa temple was conceived and finished while structural temple architecture in the stone
medium had already evolved. It is likewise thrilling that there has been no cutting-edge
monolithic architecture to take instant proposal besides for Rat has of Mahabalipuram.10 It
have to have been a novel experimentation in terms of freestanding monolithic complex hewn
in the residing rock. The most distinguished and a revolutionary experimentation turned into
achieved by the King Narsimhvarman I, Māmalla. Mamallapuram become the famous sea-
port of the Pallavas. King Narsimhavarman may have selected it implements his dream to
make sanctuary of vestured legends.
At the time of initiation of Kailaśa temple, as already referred to, Mahabalipuram institution
of temples served as a model. But inside the late eighth century monolithic architectural
fashions were well patronized. The earliest of those temples are- Vettuvankoil15 (800 CE) at
Kalugumalai in the Pandyan country, after that Dhamner (850 CE) in Madhya Pradesh, the
Chaturbhuj Vi ṣ nu on Gwalior Hill17 at some stage in overdue ninth century. The series of
seven monoliths at Masseur in Kangra valley18 of the same time. The small square
unfinished shrine with wagon sorts sikhara at Coglong in Bihar, someday later. The
excavation of monolithic temples is nearly go out of fashion after ninth century A. D.
The significance of Ellora largely stems from the brilliant showpiece of the Kailaśa temple.
Ellora was a part of a chain of monolithic carvings of architectural bureaucracy set in motion
from the time of Dantidurga. It carried on up to the second zone of the ninth century CE, past
the time of Govinda III.21There is a whole lot variety in this series of 5. The Kailaśa temple
built by means of Krishna I is the maximum bold, complete and intricate of the collection at
Ellora.22 It is overwhelming and attributed to the best rhythm and concord of factor
components. The double story excavation of Kailaśa temple complicated is a surprise
instance in realm of monolithic architectural edifices. It is located within the principal region
within the 34 caves at Ellora.23 Not only the region but also the fashion of execution gives an
essential area in the records of structure.

It is concept that paintings on the Kailasha temple became began inside the mid-8th century
and below the route of King Krishna I (757-775) of the Rashtrakutadynasty, the rulers of the
western Deccan region. One of the India's fine architectural treasures, come to be hewn out of
the solid rock of the hillside to form a unfastened-repute temple in conjunction with a
gateway, two-storied halls and the main shrine inner. The maximum majestic advent is the
Kailash Temple, a entire-sized freestanding temple flanked with the aid of large elephants all
carved from strong rock, pillars and pondiums, because the workers dug away some 2
hundred,000 plenty of rock. The give up result is an awe-inspiring representation of Shiva's
Himalayan domestic. Nearby caves are alive with stone paintings of art depicting divine
struggles and victories. With those caves earlier than us, it's miles clear that India some
distance surpasses the rest of the sector within the glory of its rock-reduce shape.

Geography of the Region

There are the 1200 rock-cut caves in India. Among them approximately 1000 are located in
western India, extra mainly in the kingdom of Maharashtra. The vicinity is dominated
through the Sahayadri hill ranges, the basalt rock of which is good for carving. The Sahayadri
hills lie on a north-south axis, separating the coastal location from the mainland. Its sub-tiers
run in most cases west-east. Caves had been excavated in these sub-ranges as nicely. Most of
the caves are Buddhist, however there are a few Hindu and Jaina caves as properly. The
earliest rock-cut interest, but, began in the north, in Bihar, in which caves had been excavated
within the Barabar and the Nagarjuni hills in the course of the Mauryan duration (1/3 century
BCE). The rock-cut activity then shifts to western India in Maharashtra, where the caves at
Bhaja were the primary to be excavated in 2 hundred BC. The rock-cut idiom persisted to
flourish in Maharashtra until about the tenth century CE, and then structural temples came to
be constructed on a big scale.

The Buddhists had been the primary to construct caves in Western India. Their caves fall into
two classes: the chaitya and vihara. Rock cut edifices are copies of structural ones, also on
occasion enshrine the reliefs of a few venerable Buddhist monk. They are deposited in a
reliquary in a small hollow cut in the dome of the sputa. Consequently the early rock-reduce
caves are simply copies of wooden structures in stone. There have been numerous wood
attachments within the early caves. The Buddhist rock-cutting activity in western India is
divisible into two stages. In the first phase (200 BCE-2 hundred CE), the Buddha photo is
conspicuously absent. After a lapse of about three centuries, hobby begins once more and the
Buddha pictures this time are carved. The former organization belongs to the Hinayana
(Lesser Vehicle) phase and the latter to the Mahayana (Greater Vehicle).

The earliest caves in western India are the ones at Bhaja (two hundred BCE), Next so as is
the Kondanechaitya, which has a facade of stone pillars. At Pitalkhora and Ajanta (Cave 10),
the ribs of side aisles had been reduce inside the rock. The Beds cave has an problematic
facade and the pillars have capitals with human and animal figures. The Ajanta Cave nine is
rectangular on plan and the ceiling of aspect aisles is flat. The Karle chaitya is maximum
outstanding with animal riders as capitals and pot bases. At Nasik, there may be no wooden
attachment in any respect. The rock-slicing interest of the Hindus starts from the 6th century
and the early cave temples are located in Mumbai at Jogeshwari and the close by island of
Elephant. Excavation paintings in Ellora commenced almost at the identical time. A most
noteworthy function of Hindu cave temples is that they may be richly adorned with excellent
sculptures of gods and goddesses on their partitions.

Monolithic architecture reaches its zenith in Ellora Cave sixteen (Kailas), a lofty monolithic
temple carved in a massive block of stone remote from the surrounding hills. The Jainas too
carved their cave temples at Ellora, which are not very exclusive in concept from their Hindu
counterparts.
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Ellora is the one of the most complex group of caves with a large quantity of sculptures and
architecture.

The scheme of genesis of monolithic shape at Ellora is given in the Agnipurana if one
ventures to look. The Agni Purana, estimated to date between the seventh and twelfth
centuries CE, is a Hindu text that discusses various aspects of life, including temple
construction and iconography. While the Agni Purana doesn't directly focus on the Ellora
caves, it provides a framework for understanding the religious and artistic context in which
they were created. The Ellora Caves, particularly the Kailasa Temple, showcase a synthesis
of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain art and architecture, reflecting the religious tolerance of the
time. The Kailasa Temple, a monolithic rock-cut structure, is attributed to the Rashtrakuta
king Krishna I and is a prime example of the fusion of different architectural styles and
religious influences.

Agni Purana's Relevance- Agni Purana contains information about temple construction,
deities, and iconography, which can be applied to understanding the art and architecture of
the Ellora Caves. The Kailasa Temple (Cave 16), a masterpiece of rock-cut architecture, is
dedicated to Lord Shiva. It's a free-standing structure carved out of a massive basalt cliff,
showcasing the skills of the Rashtrakuta dynasty's artisans.
 Rashtrakuta Patronage:The Rashtrakuta rulers, particularly Krishna I, played a significant
role in the construction of the Kailasa Temple and other cave temples at Ellora.
 Architectural Styles:The Kailasa Temple incorporates elements of Dravidian and Nagara
architectural styles, demonstrating a blending of different regional [Link] temple's
carvings depict scenes from the Mahabharata and Ramayana, highlighting the religious
narratives and cultural values of the time.
 Monolithic Construction:
The Kailasa Temple is a remarkable example of monolithic architecture, where the entire
structure was carved out of a single rock. with their diverse religious and artistic
expressions, offer a glimpse into the rich cultural and historical landscape of ancient India.
 The "Aparajitaprccha" is a significant ancient Indian text on architecture, particularly
known for its detailed descriptions of temple construction, especially in the Nagara
style, prevalent in western India. While the text also touches upon other topics, its
value lies in its comprehensive guidelines for temple design, housing, water
structures, sculpture, and more. It is considered a key source for understanding the
principles behind the intricate architecture found in temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
2. The Aparajitaprccha covers a wide range of architectural topics, including the
design of temples, houses, water structures, sculpture, and the arrangement of
architectural space.
It's one of the few valuable texts on the Nagara school of architecture, offering
insights into the construction of temples in northern and western [Link] text's
 canonical guidelines are thought to have influenced the construction of many ornate
Hindu and Jain temples, especially those built after the 11th century. The text is
available in multiple volumes and editions, including those published by Exotic
India. The holistic vision of the artists encompassed the concept that the location
grow to be no longer handiest constructed as sacred spot however additionally
become deemed a sacred area of royalty (Aparajitaprccha 2013).

3. Especially in Raśtrakutas times, multiple fashions inside the caves and monolithic
patterns were added from degree to level, in caves of Western India which resulted
inside the herbal grouping of the numerous creations. Most of the western caves
together with Ellora, have been studied by means of numerous western students
Indian and European.
4. Researches on Ellora are restrained to research articles and few books
(Bhagvatapurana 2014). The first exhaustive work on Ellora turned into achieved by
way of way of Dr. R. S. Gupta who wrote his thesis on the iconography of the
Buddhist sculptures at Ellora and an earlier e-book on Buddhist, Jain and Hindu
iconography at Ellora. Others were Charles Mallet, Thomas Daniell, John Seely,
James Fergusson, James Burgess and R.G. Bhandarkar, Herman Getoz, Sengupta,
M.K. Dhavlikar, K.V. Soundra Rajan, Walter Spink, Ratan Parimoo and Geri H.
Malandara.

5. A National Seminar on Ellora Caves sculptures and architecture was held in

November 1985, jointly organized by the Department of Art History & Aesthetics and
the Indian Association of Art Historians, with the support of the University Grants
Commission. The seminar took place at the Ellora Caves site and brought together
scholars to discuss the caves' art and architecture across Buddhist, Brahmanical, and
Jain traditions. For full papers ownload from
[Link]
Title- Ellora Caves, sculptures and architecture : collected papers of the University Grants
Commission's National Seminar. The seminar provided a platform for scholars to
examine various aspects of the Ellora Caves, including:
 Iconography and Architectural Features:

Analyzing the symbolism and stylistic features of the sculptures and architectural
elements within the caves.
 Religious Sects:
Studying the distinct characteristics of Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jain caves and
their interrelationships.
 Sculptural Workshops:
Investigating the possibility of identifying different sculptural workshops based on
stylistic variations.
The seminar is considered a significant event for rethinking Ellora's art and architecture. The
collected papers from the seminar, including 450+ pages of text and 60+ pages of
photographs, are being reprinted due to high demand, according to Aprant Books.
Thisattempt has been made to take a look at those caves exhaustively via this seminar in 1985
covered an extensive range of subject matters and exceptional views it got here in a e-book
shape in 1988. Because of multi-faceted factor of the seminar no attempt became made for its
systematic integration. Scholars to these days were seeking to achieve highbrow ownership of
Ellora in distinct components of the artwork and structure.
The maximum exhaustive paintings on Ellora has been by way of K. V. Soundra Rajan.

PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECT OF THE KAILASH TEMPLE

It is quite extraordinary that the vastu-sastras are nearly quiet in this fashion of structure. M.
N. Deshpande in his paper has proposed that the monolithic temples in standard and the
Kailaśa temple at Ellora specifically had the effect of Śankara ‟ s philosophy of Advaita
(monism). Here, it's miles important to mention that the very first reference of monolithic
temple’s affiliation with Advaita philosophy is from Am ṛ tanubhava in Marathi. It is written
by using Jnanesvara, a thirteenth century saint poet of Maharashtra.

“Deva deūla parivāru kīje korunī dongaru

Taisā bhaktīkā vyavashāru kana vhāvā”

Meaning: “God, shrine and devotee carved inside the rocky hill, such is the affair of
non-dualist team spirit of know-how and devotion.

The bodily relationship between the caves and the cliff is a bizarre one. They range from it
whilst they're of it, and they're visible within it whilst they every so often seem to disappear
in its very own variegated surface. There additionally have physical, philosophical and
spiritual grounding which stimulated the development of the caves. While the connection a
mong a religion or philosophy and its bodily manifestations is a complicated one, the cave
temples at Ellora really depict Indian beliefs about and dreams for architecture, pilgrimage
websites and ritual. Stella Kramrisch has written that “tirthas and ksetras on Indian soil are
mighty sites in which a presence is felt to live. Its aid is inside the region itself.
Whatever makes the web page conspicuous or memorable is strengthened in its effect
through the attention of the people directed towards and focused on that spot.”

The textual content of Am ṛ t ā nubhava additionally gives information about the technique of
carving. Interestingly, Saint expresses his surprise about the reverse process of beginning the
carving of the Kailaśa temple from pinnacle to backside in a very mystic fashion. He says,
„The space become created out of a tamarind leaf and the development laid down the
pinnacle first and the foundation closing ‟ while praising the skill of the artisans at Ellora,
Carmel Berkson has said, “The Raśtrakutas artists seem too had been pushed additionally
through the philosophy which denied through absolute with corollary. It might nullify a
special focus on the principle that the vital factor influences all forces in the configuration of
the panel. The conceptions which dispose of God and might additionally show to be useful
tool by way of which to approach the artwork in the remedy panels, for the reason that
magnetic forces outdoor the panel now and again force a relative view of all of the
elements.”It indicates the qualities of the absolute exist within the vital point. In this way, a
positive ambiguity arises out of the query of what is past the circumference of the cave.
The association of the call Ilapura and Ellora represents a protracted mythological subculture.
Ila is the Goddess of priests and the kings inside the Vedic period. The Puranas mention a
river Ela someplace inside the Deccan and a tribe referred to as Elikas or Ailikas. There is
also reference of Chalukyan King Vijyaditya issued a furnish at some stage in his navy
encampment at Elāpura in 704 A.D. It may be proposed that the circumference which exists
in Ellora became occupied by using many powerful dynasties.
Micaela Soar has pressured at the quasi legendary tales presenting a paradigm for worship at
Ellora. This story in keeping with jump, advise lingam worship with the aid of women at
Ellora. Another medieval Marathi tale about the queen Manikavati and the king of Elapura
was also mentioned by Dr. M.K. Dhavalikar. Dhavalikar has additionally written a stylistic
evaluation of Kailasha every other interesting look at.
The Mansara, a text on architecture describes in information that every one such cities have
unique significance as they're based on cosmic geometry additionally called vastu-purush
mandala. It is typically rectangular is form. All the 4 corners of this rectangular represent the
4 cardinal guidelines of the arena. Within this rectangular there's a circular design. This round
layout represents the universe. Square and circle these geometrical symptoms also constitute
the celestial and domestic fires. Fire in Vedas is omnipotent. It is the most essential source of
power. This energy is both spiritual and temporal. It incorporates occult potentiality. So
cosmic city additionally consists of non secular electricity that is subtle and chic and it is
inherent inside the sacred ecology of the cosmic town.
ANALYSIS- Architectural Plan
After visiting Kailash, one should take into account that the ground plan of the Kailaśa
approximates in location that of the Parthenon at Athens. Its top is one and 1/2 instances that
of the same Greek masterpiece, a few concept of the value of the task can be conceived.38In
its plan and fashionable arrangements the Kailaśa bears a certain resemblance to the
Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, even then a latest constructing, and one that was absolute
confidence at the time considered the ultimate word in temple layout. But despite the fact that
the early Chalukyan example may also have provided some concept. The Kailash is greater
than twice its size, and is in reality an illustration of the normal development of the Dravidian
temple-kind, tailored to comply to the specific method involved.
It is best logical that each individual temple at this formative duration of the artwork, must be
a duplicate of its predecessor, however advanced and enriched by means of the buildup of
previous experience. Once the concept of the Kailash turned into conceived, its
manufacturing have become a rely of time, endurance, and skilled labour, all of which appear
to were quite simply forthcoming. It was an expression of exalted spiritual emotion. It is
plain, however even this circumstance could not have made this kind of monument feasible.
It should had the patronage of a ruler with limitless resources and who was at the same time
moved by means of the loftiest ideals.
DESCRIPTION OF THE KAILASH TEMPLE
Describing Kailash is the most tough and stupendous job. The sheer significance of the
monolithic temple excavated and carved into large shape. Its returned cliff growing and
falling into a massive significant mass of stone. Significantly, a maze of courtyard, galleries,
porches, porticoes, a courtyard surrounding the primary temple. The mahamandapa, the
dhwajastambhas, the elephants and semi divinities and divinities are definitely a advent of no
everyday mortals. It is a most stunning example of the mixture of the north and south, both at
its best. It can be called as one of the well-deliberate and well-designed temple, excavated
with the aid of the wealthy Rashtrakuta dynasty.

Figure 1.2 Roof of the Rangamandapa has been Decorated with Moving Lions
It rises to a rocky top of approximately a 100 feet, its duration about one hundred forty five
feet almost 250 feet deep and one hundred fifty toes huge. While making notes on
architectural plan, Percy Brown had observed, "3 trenches have been made at proper angles
and cut down at right angles to the extent of the base of the hill. First a mass of rock 200 ft
long, one hundred feet huge, one hundred feet in top become isolated. Than the mass turned
into hammered into form. Then the sculptors started their paintings.

Figure 1.3: Lion trampling elephant on the sukanasa

Each part of the carved details appears to had been absolutely completed because the
paintings stepped forward downwards. It might be obvious that the complete plan of the
temple turned into conceived before beginning the excavation which can be postulated on the
premise of its dimensions, the place of the halls and pillars, staircases, the panels, the shikaras
of the principle and sub shrines, lotuses, elephants, lions at the roof, then the karnakutas, the
salas, the kapota etc., all were pre-conceived
 .
Figure1.5: Adhisthana of the temple is supported by the elephants/
Figure 1.4: Lion on the karankuta
The walls of the main shrine that have been carved with flying gandharvas above and other
deities. The most important corridor, then the big adhisthana (plinth) with a vyalavari, the
jagati (tall flat route). The upama of the adhisthana (plinth) showing lions attacking elephants
at corners and eventually the upapitha growing from the floor level with a series recessed
offsets.
The paintings turned into started out via cutting 3 effective trenches inside the stable rock two
of them at right angles to the front of the rock. More than 90 yards in period, and the third
connecting their internal ends, over 50 yards lengthy and 107 ft deep. Forty four A fantastic
mass of rock turned into left in front of the court to represent the gopura of Dravidian temples
which is here in storeys. The lower one with rooms inside and the exterior embellished with
figures of Siva, Vishnu and different Hindu pantheon. The gopura is pierced in the centre, via
an entrance passage with rooms on each facet. Beyond this, a big sculpture of Lakshmi seated
on lotuses with her attendant elephants has been carved. The leaves of the lotuses include
some letters and a date, probable of the 15th century CE. There were inscriptions at the bases
of the pilasters on every side, which endure characters of the 8thcentury CE.

REFERENCES
1. Agnipurana: Translated by M. N. Dutta, Vol. I and II, Calcutta, 1903-04.
2. Aparajitaprccha: By Bhuvanadeva, Ed, P.A. Mankad, Gaikwad's Oriental series, No. CXV,
Baroda, 1950.
3. Bhagvatapurana: Published by Gita Press, Gorakhpur, San, 2010.
4. Devi Bhagavata: Ed. by Ramtej, Pandey Pustakalaya, Kashi, 1956.
5. Devibhagvata Purana: Sri Venkatesvara Stream Press, Bombay, San, 1982.
6. Durga-Sapasati: Gorakhpur, 1956.
7. Kumarsambhavam: Acharya N.R. (Ed.), with the commentary of Mallinatha, Bombay,
1946.
8. Mansollasa: Gaewad, Oriental Series, Baroda 1939.
9. Markandeya Purana: Ed. by K.M. Banerjee, Bibliotheca Indica, Calcutta, 1862.
10. Matsya Purana: Translation by Rama Prakash Tripathi Sastri, Hindi Sahitya Sammelan,
Prayag, San. 2003
Corresponding Author
Dr. Vijay Kumar Yadav*
History Department, MSY College, Gaya [Link]
 III
Other Caves

Ellora Cave 16
Location: Maharashtra, India
Status: UNESCO World Heritage Site
Ticket: INR 30 for Indians. Extra charge if you want to carry video cameras.
Time: Sunrise – Sunset ( Closed every Tuesday)
Basic bathroom facility is available in front of cave 16 (entrance).
Important Caves- 2,5,10,11,12,14,15,16,21,29,30,32,33
The History And Geography
The Ellora caves are an example of what mankind can do with a hammer and chisel. They
comprise of 34 caves in total, stretching for 2 kilometres in North-South direction along the
slopes of the Sahayadri mountains. The caves were hewn out of the basalt rocks which are
popularly known in this region as the ‘Deccan Trap’. These types of rocks formed by lava
flow are generally ideal for sculpting since, they are soft during exhumation but exposure to
environment hardens them up.

The noteworthy fact about the Ellora Caves is that they house caves which served as both
living quarters and shrines of three religions- Buddhism, Hunduism and Jainism. The co-
existence of all the caves side by side reflects religious tolerance of a bygone era.
Unfortunately, these exquisitely built caves lack proper evidence in form of inscription, so
the history of the caves is fuzzy.

Buddhist Caves: Cave 1 – Cave 12 (600 – 800 AD)

Hindu Caves: Cave 13 – Cave 29 (600 – 900 AD)
Jain Caves: Cave 30 – Cave 34 (800 – 1000 AD)

The Kalachuris of Mahishmati and the Chalukyas of Badamis are considered to have had an
active role in establishing the cave temples 1 – 10 and 21. The construction of cave 11, 12
and all the Hindu caves excepting cave 21 is attributed to the Rashtrakutas. The only
inscription was found in cave 15 which related these caves to Rashtrakuta Dantidurga. The
Jain cave temples are considered to be the newest by observing the change in style and by
deciphering whatever little inscription was found in them. The Yadavas of Deogiri, who are
popular for providing patronage to Jainism might have planned and funded the Jain cave
temples construction.

There is a lot of debate among the history experts regarding the accuracy of this information
and chronology of cave construction.

Aesthetics – Sculpture and Architecture

To call the Ellora caves ‘caves’ will be an utter insult to the brilliant artistry of ancient India.
It is unimaginable how such intricate designs were chiselled out of mere rocks. We were
fascinated that sculptures with minute details depicting stories from the Jatakas and religious
scriptures on the walls of the cave temples stand strong even to this day. Climate change,
weathering, exposure to a crowd of people — nothing could take their glory away.

Imagine a rock carved in such a way so as to build a three-storeyed building. What marvel of
an architect could have planned and executed that so flawlessly without access to modern
technology!
Entry point to the cave premises is in front of cave 16, the Kailasha cave, the most popular
and awe-inspiring one. The road to the right (with respect to a person standing facing cave
16) takes you to caves 1-15 and the road to the left, to caves [Link] order to go to cave 29-
34, we had to return back to the entry point of cave 16 and take a bus from there. In about 5
minutes we reached a bifurcation point. One route from this point leads to cave 29 which
must be covered on foot, and the other to cave 30-34. The bus continued rolling on the route
to cave [Link] returning from cave 30-34, the same bus dropped us off at the
intersection point to reach cave [Link] our way back from cave 29, we waited for the next bus
from cave 30-34 to stop at the intersection and take us back to the gates of Ellora caves.

The Buddhist Caves

These caves are categorised into viharas and chaityas. Viharas are the place where the
Buddhist monks lived, worshipped and did daily chores whereas chaityas are assembly halls.

Ellora Cave 1
The directions to the caves are well marked with white ink on the broad streets of the Ellora
caves complex. We turned to the right (south) of cave 16 and followed the markings until we
reached cave 1. Cave 1 can be considered as the southern terminal end of the entire cave
complex. To reach it, one has to cross all caves 1-16 in the reverse [Link] we read in the
guidebooks, cave 1, was not an impressive one. It was the simplest and smallest vihara; some
guidebooks say it may have served as a [Link] are 8 cells in this cave, 4 on the rear
wall and 4 on the right wall.
Ellora cave 1- Central hall. And an incomplete cell adjacent to the right wall outside the cave.

cave 1- Facade (Notice the unfinished cell on the right)

The facade of the cave is unimpressive but there are some interesting holes on the left wall of
the cave. It is believed these holes were made on a much later date and they were used to tie
ropes by slipping a rope in through one hole and taking it out through another!
Ellora cave 1- Holes on the wall

Ello
ra cave 1- View from inside the cave

Ellora cave 2
Cave 2 is adjacent to cave 1. The doorway is guarded by two massive Bodhisattvas.
Ellora cave 2- Bodhisattva
Inside the cave we found a hypostyle wall flanked by twelve pillars.
 Ellora cave 2- Central Hall/The cushioned pillars have carvings belonging to Buddhist
pantheons.
Ellora Cave 2- Pillar Details show embellishment on the inside walls of the right window. It
represents the seated Buddha.

Ellora cave 2- Shrine

The tale of how Lord Buddha created trees by just planting a toothpick in the ground or how
he created the jewel lake are famously known as the Miracles of Shravasti. In this cave we
found Miracles of Shravasti finely chiselled on the volcanic rocks.///Ellora cave 2- Seated
Buddha flanked by Bodhisattva

The central shrine consists of Lord Buddha seated on a lion throne in Bhadrasana pose.
Ellora cave 2- Miracles of Shravasti
On the walls of the cave we found giant sculptures of seated Lord Buddha surrounded by
flying dwarfs and Bodhisattvas.

Ellora cave 2- Walls with seated Buddhas

Ellora cave 2- Seated Buddha

Here we see an incomplete sculpture of Buddha.
 Ellora cave 2-
Incomplete sculpture
Ellora Cave 3
Not much literature exists about this cave. We did not photograph it as it seemed really tiny,
dark and nothing fancy or different about it. The sculptures inside the cave were mostly
incomplete. Figures from Miracles of Shravasti, Bodhisattvas and seated Buddha were the
common sculptures here.

Ellora Cave 4
Cave 4 is unfinished and not well maintained. It is almost in ruins and it looked like a part of
it had already collapsed. We did not venture in as there were signs of maintenance work
under progress.

Ellora cave 4-
FacadeEllora cave 4- Facade
Ellora Cave 5
This is one unique cave in Ellora and the largest vihara. What make it unique are the parallel
running end to end low rock-cut benches.

Ellora cave 5 – Central Hall

El
lora cave 5- Central hall with rock cut benches.
The consensus is that cave 5 was used as an assembly hall for dining purpose or for carrying
out regular religious practices. We have been to the Buddhist monasteries in Himalayas a ton
of times and I have seen monks practice religious rituals exactly in the same settings as I
found carved out here!
The main shrine has a seated Buddha with Bodhisattvas on both his sides and flying figures
around him. Due to the darkness, we were unable to take a close picture of the main shrine.

Ellora Cave 6
Ellora Cave 6 – Entry
The seated Buddha with Bodhisattvas on his either sides is found in the main shrine.

Cave 6- Main Shrine/Tara cave 6 – Tara

The sculpture of Tara (in the picture) and Mahamayuri is what sets this cave
apart. Mahamayuri is a Goddess of learning, though I felt it is Tara who strikes a remarkable
resemblance with the Hindu Goddess of learning – Saraswati.

Ellora Cave 7
In the guidebooks cave 7 is mentioned as a passage to cave 8. We mistakenly thought of it as
a passage to cave 9. The cave is mostly unadorned but it may have a couple of unfinished
sculptures of Tara and Mahamayuri (which we missed noticing).
Ellora cave 7

Ellora Cave 8
Now what I have gathered is that cave 8 is the downstairs of cave 7 in the present day Ellora
caves. Its sanctum is detached from the rear wall to make way for a circumambulatory
passage encircling the shrine.

Ellora cave 8 – Sculpture …The inside of cave 8 is dark; the circumambulatory passage is
pitch dark. There are cells attached to the two walls./8- The circumambulatory passage
 Ellora cave 8- View from the cave
Ellora Cave 9
The upper facade of cave 9 has elaborate carvings of the seated Buddha and various other
significant characters in Buddhism. Our eyes were overwhelmed with all the detailed
carvings.

Ellora cave 9 – Façade/ RIGHT- Detailed artwork.

In the shrine beyond the cushioned columns was the usual seated Buddha. On the nearby
walls were eloquent carvings of female attendants. The picture I took came very bad, even
though there was sufficient light. The presence of too many strangers severely staring at my
camera and questioning if I am a pro photographer or just a girl pretending to be one (which
is true) made me nervous I guess.
Ellora cave 9- Main shrine/// Ellora cave 7 , 8, 9

Ellora Cave 10 (Vishwakarma Cave)

It is one of the popular caves in Ellora and the only chaitya cave among all the Buddhist
[Link] facade and courtyard of this cave is massive both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Wild animals like elephants were carved out of the rocks to form the frieze of the primary
entrance passage. The cave facade is heavily decorated with carvings of sexual couples.
cave 10 – Detailed Artwork///–Ellora cave 10 – Central Hall with arched ribs

What makes cave 10 stands out is the ceiling of its central hall. We were left in total awe on
entering the hall. The ceiling has arched ribs carved out of solid rock mimicking wooden
ribbed vaults. The imposing 27 feet tall stone made Buddha seated in the middle of this hall is
softly illuminated by the natural light that pours in from the window on top of the entrance
door. When the crowd left, the surroundings felt surreal.

The lintel was decorated by panels of seated

Buddha.

Ellora cave 10 – StaircaseEllora cave 10 –Ellora cave 10- View of outside from top floor
The surroundings of the window and opening through which the natural light enters the hall
had been widely decorated with detailed sculpting of male, female figures and architectural
patterns.
 Ell
ora cave 10- Level twoEllora cave 10- Level two
Ellora Cave 11
The cave is three storeyed.

The pillars of this cave are rather simple and not embellished by fancy images. The flooring
of the second and third level is smoother compared to its counterpart in level one.

Ellora cave 11- Lower level corridor//11- Second storey shrine

The shrine on second storey has a seated Buddha with folded legs and right hand touching
Earth. This is popularly known as the ‘Earth touching Buddha’, whereas, the shrine on third
storey has a seated Buddha with legs down.
 11- Third Storey Shrine

Ellora cave 11- Rock cut drainage channelsEllora cave 11- Rock cut drainage channels
The interior halls on all three floors were as imposing as I imagined them to be with
intricately carved out decorative panels. But due to lack of proper light, images of the interior
couldn’t be properly captured.

Interior of hall/porch

Ellora Cave 12 (Teen Thal)

Ellora cave 12- FacadeEllora cave 12- Facade
The cistern chamber is to the left of the entry passage to cave 12.

Ellora cave 12- Cistern chamber

There are several panels on the first level of the cave with intricately carved out figures of the
Buddhist pantheon. The most notable among these is the centrally seated Buddha surrounded
by eight Bodhisattvas.

12- Seated Buddha surrounded by Bodhisattva/// Wall carvings

There is a middle floor in between first and second levels. This little space is a storehouse of
awe inspiring artistry. We saw on its wall panels an impression of Avalokiteshwara in a
seated position with Jambala to his right and Tara to his left.
Ellora cave 12- Avalokiteshwar with Jambala and Tara/ The stone lotus on the ceiling blooms
gracefully. The seated Buddha is Avalokiteshwara and Vajrapani.

Ellora cave 12- Middle floor

In the second level the entry to the main hall is flanked by a seated Bodhisattva on the right
wall in company of four females SEE BELOW picture

On the left wall is seated Rakta Avalokiteshwar with Bhrikuti and Tara.
The shrine is proudly guarded by Avalokiteshwara and Vajrapani. They stand on a lotus as
they guard the shrine.

Ellora cave 12- Second level shrine HALL

The rear wall both left and right around the shrine has 7 chiselled meditating Buddha. These
are thought to represent the seven historical Buddha.
Ellora cave 12- Third level hallEllora cave 12- Third level hall
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshwar and Vajrapani guard the door to the shrine. The adjacent walls to
the shrine have seated female Bodhisattvas engraved over them.

Third level hall- Female Bodhisattva

Ellora cave 12- Third

level hall- Shrine guards
 Ellora cave 12- Third

level hall Ellora

cave 12- Third level hall
The Hindu Caves
Ellora Cave 13
It was nothing more than a hole in the rock. The cave is incomplete and some argue it
probably served as a granary.
Ellora cave 13- Facade
Ellora Cave 14
The sculpture details of cave 14 overwhelmed our visual senses. We still cannot fathom how
thousands of years back in time humans created such fine features out of rock faces without
the aid of any technology.
Ellora cave 14 – Facade
The illustrations on the panels of this cave are obviously different from those of cave 1-12
owing to the fact that this is a Hindu cave.

Surrounding the shrine of this cave is a circumambulatory passage. On one of the walls of
this passage Saptamatrika is found clearly engraved.
Ellora cave 14- Saptamatrika
Saptamatrika are the seven mothers and they are identified by their mounts.
The Brahmani has goose, Vaishnavi has Garuda, Maheshwari has bull, Indrani has
elephant, Kumari has peacock, Varahi has boar, Chamunda has a jackal. They all have babies
with them.

The Saptamatrika are attended by Virbhadra to the left and Lord Ganesha, Goddess Kali and
a skeleton to the right. The skeleton is representative of ‘kaal’ or time.

The panel which comes next to the Saptamatrika is Andhakasuravadha. Here

the Bhairav avatar of Lord Shiva is portrayed. He is seen here killing the
demon Andhaka as Parvati and Ganesha rest at his feet. A little dwarf gives company to the
party.
Ellora cave 14- Andhakasuravadha
In the next panel Ravana is found trying to shake Mount Kailasha, the abode
of Shiva and Parvati. Ravana struggles to shake the home of Shiva with all his legs and ten
heads; Shiva responds to this by putting just one of his legs down. Parvati is seen romancing
here with her husband Lord Shiva.
 El
lora cave 14- Ravana Shaking Kailash
Another panel to the right of Ravana shaking Kailasha depicts the dancing Shiva. Parvati is
seen standing near his leg. In the sky Agni, Brahma and Vishnu roam with their vahana.

Ellora cave 14- Nataraj (Dancing Shiva)

Scenes from Mount Kailasha are depicted on the next panel. Shiva and Parvati sit on
Mount Kailasha with Ganesha. They are attended by several others. On the lower panel the
bull is representative of Nandi.

Ellora cave 14- Shiva and Parvati on Mount Kailasha

On the left wall of the aisle we found illustrations of Varaha. The curl under his right foot is
supposed to represent underwater forces, which he is trying to calm down in his attempt to
save the Earth Goddess.

Ellora cave 14- Varaha

The panel beside Varaha presents a seated Vishnu and Laxmi, attended by many females.

Ellora cave 14 – Wall details

Goddess Durga is found on both the left and right panels of the aisle near the entrance door.
Mounted on her lion, the Goddess is ready to kill the buffalo demon. Sculptures of Durga are
found abundantly in this cave — sometimes on the panels, sometimes on the pillar;
sometimes complete and sometimes incomplete.

Durga on left wallEllora cave 14 – Durga on right wall

The central shrine is devoid of any idol. Historians say that it is highly possible that the
central deity of the cave used to be Goddess Durga. This was later misplaced either by an
accident or on purpose. The cave clearly worships the Hindu female divine characters.
cave 14 – Durga toi RIGHT– Floor pits

Mysterious pits on the floor were found in this cave. These could be attributed to ancient
religious rituals.

Ellora Cave 15 (Das Avatar or ten incarnations of Vishnu)

The gorgeous cave 15 completely prepared us for the upcoming cave 16. A flight of steps led
us to the courtyard of the massive double storeyed cave 15.

Ellora cave 15 – Facade

The arresting mandapa centrally positioned in the open courtyard has many tales to tell.
Some wish to refer this as the Nandi mandapa, others call it the dancing hall. The exact
nature of the mandapa cannot be ascertained; what remains with us are theories. The outer
walls of the mandapa are well decorated with carvings of male and female figures. The
ornamental windows make it more beautiful.

Ellora cave 15 – Mandapa

 window

details Ellora cave 15 –

Mandapa Windows. The second floor of this cave has a rich portrayal of several Hindu
mythological characters and stories.
 Ellora
cave 15 – Hall
On the pillars of the second floor there are carvings of Buddha images along with Tara. Due
to these engravings and the fact that the cave closely resembles cave 11 and 12, experts are of
the opinion that this cave might have been a newly constructed Buddhist vihara which was
later transformed into a Hindu cave.

The story of Hiranyakasipu is depicted on the left wall of the hall on second floor. The
legend is that demon Hiranyakasipu pleased the Gods and he was successful in getting the
boon of immortality that he cannot be destroyed either indoor or outdoor, either by beast or
by men, either during daytime or night. But Lord Vishnu took form of a half beast half man
and killed the demon on a “veranda”, or porch, which is a surface neither outdoor nor indoor,
during dusk which is considered neither day nor night.

Ellora cave 15 – HiranyakashyipuEllora cave 15 – Hiranyakashyipu

This panel describes the Trivikrama of Vishnu.

Ellora cave 15 –
Trivikrama
The next panel is attributed to Varaha.
Ellora cave 15 – Varaha
The brilliant story of Gajendra being saved by Vishnu when he prayed to him; the
reclining Vishnu creating the universe with his companion Lakhsmi; Lord Krishna — an
incarnation of Vishnu — saving the villagers from the angry Indra, make up the contents of
the consecutive panels. I was so lost in appreciating the perseverance that must have went
into recreating these stories on rocks that I forgot to take pictures.

The corner panel on the right rear wall describes Tripurantaka. It shows Shiva riding a
chariot driven by Brahma. The tale is all about how Shiva destroyed the three demon cities
with a single arrow, the only way to destroy them.

Ellora cave 15 –
Tripurantaka
The panel adjacent to Tripurantaka represents Shiva emerging from Lingam. Awe struck by
the infinite size of the lingam, Brahma and Vishnu offer him their praise.
Initially Brahma had the task of finding the upper end of the lingam and Vishnu took the
responsibility of finding the lower end; however both of them failed.

Ellora cave
15 – Shiva emerging from lingam
Elaborate couples on pillar brackets adorn the pillars around the central shrine.

Ellor
a cave 15 – Couples on pillar brackets.
 Ellora
cave 15 – Couples on pillar brackets.
The shrine consists of the lingam.

Ellora cave 15 –
Shrine
Ellora Cave 16 (Kailash Cave – The most important and the most stunning cave)
King Krishna I is credited with the construction of the Kailasha cave — the world’s largest
monolithic structure. The grandeur of this cave overshadows all others. It will forever be the
finest thing that man has created with a chisel and hammer.

Its sheer size and heavy artwork took a toll on our confidence, and we hardly consider
ourselves able enough to document such fine detailed work of expertise.
The facade of the cave itself speaks of what can be expected inside it. The wall of the fort-
styled facade flaunts carved images of Naga-Nagin, the various avatars
of Vishnu — Trivikrama, Varaha, Narasimha and the river Goddess.

Ellora cave 16 – Facade

 Ellora
cave 16 – Facade
The left side is dominated by images of Kartikeya, Agni, Vayu and the dancing Shiva.

In the main entrance to the courtyard dwarapalas guard Gajalaxmi. The panels surrounding
dwarapalas portrays battling Goddess Durga, Ganesha, Vishnu and so many others that it is
really hard to remember.

Ellora
cave 16 – Narasimham avatar of Vishnu
Ellora cave 16 – Gajalaxmi
The entire entrance panel is richly carved with figures from the Hindu pantheon.
The Narasimham avatar of Vishnu is the most eye catching one here. Meditating Vishnu is
found on many panels of the temple exterior.

Ellora cave 16 – Wall sculpture

Ellora
cave 16 – Wall sculpture
The most striking structure in this entire cave temple is the intricately designed tall pillar and
the free standing rock cut elephant on the courtyard. A pillar and an elephant stand on each
side of the central entrance.
Ellora cave 16 – Pillar

Ellora cave 16 – Pillar

Ellora cave 16 – Elephant Sculpture
The exterior of the main temple within this cave is also adorned by minute carvings of scenes
from Ramayana like the Samudramanthan. It occupies a vast area on the panel. On a large
panel we again found a huge effigy of Ravana shaking Kailasha.
Ellora cave 16 – Samudramanthan from Ramayana
Ellora cave 16 – Ravana shaking Kailash
All around the central shrine’s plinth huge beasts like elephants and lions are sculptured.
 E
llora cave 16 – Beasts on the plinth

Ellora cave 16 – Beasts on the plinth

 Ell
ora cave 16 – Beasts on the plinth
Ellora cave 16 – Beasts on the plinth

Ellora cave 16 – Beasts on the plinth

Cloisters surround the central courtyard of the cave.
Ellora cave 16 – Courtyard and cloisters
Ellora cave 16 – Courtyard and cloisters
On the south walls of it are 12 panels. Starting from the entrance going inwards the panels
depict the following:
1. Goddess Annapurna
2. Vishnu
3. Krishna incarnation of Lord Vishnu
4. Boar incarnation of Lord Vishnu
5. Vishnu riding sun bird Garuda
6. Vishnu as Trivikrama
7. Krishna incarnation of Lord Vishnu lifting Mount Govardhana
8. Sheshayivishnu
 El
lora cave 16 – Sheshayivishnu
9. Narasimham avatar of Vishnu
10. Demon Ravana trying to lift the Lingam
11. Lord Shiva
12. The half man and half woman avatar of Lord Shiva

On the eastern walls there are 19 panels dominated by several avatars of Lord Shiva. Starting
from south going towards north the panels depicts the following:
1. Shiva
2. Shiva and Parvati– The lotus pond scene
3. Shiva and Parvati
4. Shiva
5. Nataraj avatar of Shiva
6. Bhikshatana Shiva
7. Shiva
8. Shiva
9. Brahma
10. Shiva
11. Harihara
12. The descent of Ganges from Shiva’s jata
13. Vishnu
14. Shiva emerging from Lingam in the act of rescuing his bhakt (follower) from Yama (God
of death)
Ellora cave 16 – Shiva emerging from lingam to save bhakht from Yama

15. Lakulisa Shiva

16. Seated Shiva and Parvati in Kailash
17. Tripurantaka (Shiva)
18. Andhakasuravada (Shiva)
 Ellora
cave 16 – Andhakasuravadha
19. Marriage scene of Shiva and Parvati
The 12 panels on the northern walls moving from east to west are-
1. Markandeya is rescued from Yama by Shiva.
2. Heroes of the epic Ramayana, Ram and Lakshman worship Shiva.
3. Shiva and Parvati sitting in Kailash, on the lower panel nandi (the bull) is standing.

Ellora cave
16 – Shiva and Parvati
4. Shiva is sitting with a veena in his hand alongside Parvati. On the lower panel is nandi (the
bull).
5. An incomplete impression of Ravana shaking Kailasha.
6. Kubera– The Lord of wealth.
7. Seated Parvati and Shiva.
8. Shiva.
9-11. Seated Shiva and Parvati in various postures.
 E
llora cave 16 – Shiva and Parvati
12. Ravana offering his heads to Shiva.
 Ellora
cave 16 – Ravana offering his heads to Shiva
When we were completely done exploring the entire courtyard and checking out the galleries
on all sides, we climbed the steps up to reach the main temple. It was extremely crowded and
most of the domestic tourists worship and offer puja at this particular shrine. Removal of
shoes was mandatory.
Ellora cave 16 – Shrine temple
Taking a photograph in the crowd was extremely difficult. But we anyways found our quite
corners in the terrace path around the main shrine walls.

Faint lights lit the interiors of the main shrine. Dwarapalas guard the garbhagriha where a
huge lingam rests.

Ellora cave 16 – Interior of the main temple Ellora cave 16 – Main

shrine- The Lingam
The interiors has well grooved sculptures and half worn painted ceilings, but photographing
them was almost impossible due to low light.
Ellora cave 16 – Interiors of the main temple.
Ellora cave 16 – Interiors of the main temple.
On the terrace around the main shrine have many other sub shrines. These are not popular
with the religious folk so expect them to be quite empty. With bated breaths we appreciated
the delicate works of the artists and photographed the lower level from the upper level.
Ellora cave 16 –
Subshrines
Ellora cave 16 – Sculptures around subshrines
 Ellora cave 16 –
Patterns on walls around subshrines
Ellora cave 16 – View of the pillar from the top of the temple
Ellora cave 16 – View of the cloisters from the top of the temple
From the veranda the entry point flanked by the garden was visible. Sadly we couldn’t enjoy
the view as much as we would have liked to since the place had turned into a selfie spot.

Ellora
cave 16 – Veranda with view
Ellora Cave 17
Cave 17 is quite a distance away from cave 16. The road to it was pretty scenic. We visited
during the advent of monsoon when greenery was in full swing. More than the cave I admired
the little trail between the grasses which took us to the caves.

Way to cave [Link] to cave 17.

The facade of cave 17.

Ellora cave 17 – facade

The female figures on the pillars are the most noteworthy in this cave. The central shrine
consists of the shivling.

Ellora
cave 17 – Female figures on pillars and the shrine
On the left and right wall of the cave there is one panel each with effigies
of Mahishasurmardhini and Ganesha eating ladoo in the company of dwarfs.
Ellora Cave 18
A brisk walk through patches of greenery brought us to cave 18. Absolutely no literature was
available on this cave.

It has a simple facade and a simple pillared hall. The central shrine is occupied by a shivling.

Ellora cave 18 – Facade

Ellora Cave 19
The main shrine of cave 19 also houses a shivling. The pillared hall consists of a panel
on Lakulisa and Kirtimukha. The doorway to the shrine is flanked by Dwarapalas.

Ellora Cave 19 – Facade

There are two entrances to the cave, identified as cave 19A and cave 19B. The facade and
entry to cave 19A was shut for some reason.
 Ellora Cave 19 –
FacadeEllora Cave 19
Ellora Cave 20
I went up the flight of steps to check cave 20 and the husband remained in the premises of
cave 21 and took two snaps of me climbing up. We were too tired and we still had 14 more
caves to check.

Ellora cave 20
– Facade
Cave 20 is also a simple cave with a central lingam flanked by dwarapalas. Some ruined
impressions on walls remained which must have been sculptures. The lower cave has a basic
hall, which was probably used as living quarter with veranda.
Ellora Cave 20
Ellora Cave 21 (Ramesvara Cave)
The impressive facade of cave 21 has a ‘Nandipitha’- a shrine for the bull Nandi. The pitha is
very well decorated with patterns and rich imaginations carved everywhere around it.

Ello
ra Cave 21 – Facade
Ellora Cave 21 – Nandipitha

Ellor
a Cave 21 – Nandipitha
On the left and right wall, outside the veranda are two sculptures of river
Goddess Ganga and Yamuna.
Ellora Cave 21 – Sculpture of river Goddess Ganga
 Ellora
Cave 21 – Ganga
The cave is adorned by pillars with curvy female brackets.
 Ell

ora Cave 21 – Curvy female figures Ellora Cave

21 – Pillar brackets
The left wall portrays the details of Shiva – Parvati marriage, popularly known
as Kalyanasundaramurti. On another panel Mahishasur
Mardhini and Ravana shaking Kailasha are clearly engraved.
Ellora Cave 21 – Ravana shaking Kailash

Ellora Cave 21 – Kalyanasundaramurti and Goddess Durga

On the right wall the seven mothers- Saptamatrikas are carved out in detail. On an adjacent
panel, 3 skeletons are found. Two of them are supposed to represent Kala and Kali– The male
and female versions of the forces of time. They are usually associated with fierce violence,
death and corpses.

Ellora Cave 21 – Saptamatrika

 Ellora Cave
21 – kala and kali
 Ellor
a Cave 21 – kala and kali
Dwarapalas are present on the two sides of the door to shrine. A shivling rules the shrine.
There is a circumambulatory passage around the shrine.

Ellora Cave 21 – Dwarapalas

Ellora Cave 22
The nandimandapa welcomed us in cave 22. It is centrally positioned in the small courtyard.
To the left are the detailed model of Saptamatrika and the skeletons representing the force of
time. Further into the cave, images of dwarapalas could be found.
 Ell
ora Cave 22- Facade
Around the main shrine which is dedicated to Lord Shiva, we found his family members
— Parvati, Saraswati, Lakhshmi and Kartikeyya.

Ellora Cave 23
The cave is extremely underrated in all guidebooks and the sparse information I received
made me believe that entering the cave is not worth it. Though the cave is mostly in ruins and
much of the important artistry is broken and eroded, I wish I could have reconsidered my
decision.

Way to cave 23
. I don’t remember coming across it in other caves. Shrine 6 houses Illika Torana.

Ellora Cave 24
The cave consists of a group of 5 shrines with a lingam in each of them.
Sculpted Ganesha, Lakulisha and river goddess Ganga are engraved in 3 panels of the wall.
Ellora Cave 24- Facade
The veranda of the cave and the flight of steps to reach a shrine within the cave were taken
over by modern day couples and people enjoying an afternoon nap. We felt odd and intrusive
in that setting so just photographed the facade and returned back on the trail.

Ellora Cave 24 – The

water bottle and bag of the person enjoying afternoon nap.
Ellora Cave 25
The courtyard of the cave flaunts an eroded Nandipitha. The left side of the Veranda has tiny
carvings of standing Saptamatrika and an elaborate panel of Kubera.
 Way
to Ellora cave 25

E
llora cave 25 – Facade
The ceiling of the pillared hall has a lotus medallion.
Ellora Cave 25 – Lotus Medallion
Near the shrine the ceiling has a striking sculpture of the Sun chariot, which, unfortunately,
we missed seeing.

Ellora Cave 26
Just like the rest of the caves, this cave is also devoted to Shiva and the shrine has a lingam.
The door to the shrine is flanked by dwarapalas. Some of the sculptures of figures of the
Hindu pantheon are found inside the cave but most of them are broken or missing.

Ellora Cave 26 – Facade

Ellora Cave 27
The location of cave 27 is beautiful, particularly in the monsoon season. A waterfall gorges
down over the cave opening and forms a seasonal pool popularly known as “Sita-ki-nahani”.
The waterfall was still there when we visited but it wasn’t as vigorous as it is expected to
become midway into monsoon. The entry to the cave is through a wafer thin passage.

View around Ellora cave 27.

Dangerous and non functional way to reach Ellora cave 29

Waterfall around Ellora cave 27-29

Ellora cave 27- Facade
The veranda of this cave is richly embellished with carvings
of Varaha, Mahishasurmardini, Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Balaram, Subhadra,
Jagannath and Sheshayi Vishnu. The main hall is as simple as anyone could imagine. The
shrine meant to hold the shivalinga is attended by dwarapalas.

Ellora Cave 27- Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva(left); Balaram, Subhadra, Jagannath (right)
Ellora Cave 28
The modern day form of cave 28 appeared to us as a tiny opening in the cliff. We believe
most of the cave has eroded and what remains is too treacherous to explore. The way from
cave 27 to cave 28 is blocked by some boulders. The ‘way’ is anyways almost nonexistent. It
moves through a passage exactly behind the waterfalls.

Ellora Cave 29 (Dumar Lena)

Cave 29 is visible from cave 27 and the ‘path’ which takes us to cave 28 also takes us to cave
29; however, it is an unsafe way and it had been blocked by some boulders to stop accidents.
So we walked all the way back to cave 16 and took a bus from there.

Proper
way to reach Ellora cave 29
This is the only cave which can be entered from three sides. Each entrance is guarded by a
couple of lions.

Fantastic view of cave 27 and cave 26 from cave 29 compound

Ello
ra cave 29 – facade
Ellora cave 29 – Lions guardingEllora cave 29 – Lions guarding
We went in through the western entrance. On the interior wall of the cave to the right of the
western entrance (facing the cave) is the chiselled out version
of Ravananugrahamurti — Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha.
Ellora cave 29 – Ravana shaking Kailash
On the left panel is the Andhakasuravadha avatar of Lord Shiva.

Ellora
cave 29 – Andhakasuravadha
The northern entrance to the cave is also flanked by seated lions. One of the panels here is
ornamented by the dancing Shiva — Nataraja. The other one has Lakulisa.
Ellora cave 29 – Nataraja
The northern entrance does not enjoy any open space. It is in very close proximity with the
next chunk of rock. Bats fly around this area. On lifting my head up, I saw the sky – a mere
slit between two rock walls. I(Tania) walked through this stinky (bat shit?) narrow alley and I
would be lying if I said it didn’t give me goosebumps.

Ellora cave 2

9- Northern entrance
Ellora cave 29- Northern entranceEllora cave 29- The sky as seen from the ground
The southern entrance of the cave is very scenic as from here cave 28,27,26,25 are visible
along with the waterfalls and the stream “Sita-ki-nahani”. The walls around this entrance are
enhanced with panels of Shiva – Parvati scenes. One of them shows the marriage known
as Kalyanasundaramurti and the other one shows “Shiva and Parvati playing Chausar”.

Ellora cave 29- Kalyanasundaramurti

El
lora cave 29- View of cave 28,27 and 26
 Ellora
cave 29- View of Sita-ki-Nahani
In front of the southern and northern gates of the cave are two mysterious sculpted
depressions.

Ellora cave 29-

Sculpted depressions
The sanctum is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It has a lingam protected by dwarapalas.
 Ellora
cave 29- Sanctum guarded by dwarapalas
The Jaina Caves
Ellora Cave 30 (Chota Kailash)
Cave 30-34 are all Jain caves. This cave is referred to as “Chota Kailash”. We missed seeing
this incomplete cave as a result of sheer confusion. The overnight journey, the constant
walking with limited food and water and an overwhelming amount of information definitely
affected our minds.

We later realised the area marked to house cave 30-34 had two caves missing from it — the
two which we missed. Proper directions to reach these two caves were not given. If you plan
to visit, please do thorough research and rely only upon that.

Cave 30 has two parts. The one which is farthest from caves 31,32 and 33 is the one which is
often referred to as “Chota Kailash”. Though incomplete the architecture and style of this
cave closely resembles that of cave 16.

The entrance flanks three huge rock hewn images of Mahavira on one side and a sculpture of
Goddess Chakreshvari seated on her vahana Garuda on the other. The entrance to the front
porch has chiselled out dancing figures on its walls. These dancing figures are assumed to be
influenced by Nataraja– Dancing Shiva. A lotus medallion on the ceiling stares down upon
the visitors. Dwarapalas guard the doorway.

Inside the hypostyle hall, the walls are embellished by impressions of seated and
standing Jinas including Parsvanath– the 23rd Tirthankara.

Seated Mahavira in the company of Tirthankaras, Jinas and many other flying celestials, rule
the main shrine.

There is a right wing of this cave on the walls of which several other stories from Jain
mythology are engraved. Tales of Bahubali, Parsvanath, Ambika are some of them.
The portion of cave 30 which is closer to caves 31,32,33 is majorly unfinished. The most
noticeable is the triple layered lotus medallion on both the interior ceiling and the exterior
roof of the cave temple.

Ellora Cave 31
Cave 31 is unimpressive and incomplete. From the facade it seemed completely tucked under
a cliff. It is a small cave with carvings of seated Jinas and Parsvanath on its walls.

Ellora cave 31- Facade

 Ellora cave
31- Facade
Ellora Cave 32 (Indra Sabha)
There are so many shrines in this double storeyed cave that it’s hard to keep track. The
architecture and design of this cave felt a bit complex to a layman’s mind like mine.

Ellora cave
32- Facade
To the right of the main entrance of the cave was another cave, which I assume is a part of
cave 32. The ceiling of the cave flaunts a much eroded lotus medallion. On the left wall of the
interiors of this cave is a well sculpted story portraying “Kamatha’s attack
on Parsvanath”. Nagins are seen here protecting Parsvanath with their hood. To the opposite
panel, on the right wall “Penance of Bahubali” is depicted.

On the left rear wall, Sarvanubhuti sits upon his mount, the elephant, with one leg upon a
long stemmed lotus. Four parrots eat fruits from the tree shading Sarvanubhuti. On the right
rear wall, Ambika sits upon her mount, the lion, with one leg upon a lotus flower. On her lap
is a child and she is under the shade of the mango tree. Between the left and right rear wall is
the shrine dedicated to Mahavira.

On entering the main gateway to cave 32, a strikingly designed pavilion housing
a Chaumukha with seated Tirthankaras seeks our attention. The exterior walls of the pavilion
have been painstakingly carved with fine designs.

Ellora cave 32 – Pavilion Ellora

cave 32 – Chaumukha
A pillar and a giant elephant adorn the main courtyard. This is where the similarity of this
cave with cave 16 is apparent.
Ellora cave 32 – Sculpted Elephant
Ellora cave 32 – Sculpted Elephant
The two shrines to the left of the pavilion are dedicated to Mahavira and one is dedicated to a
seated Jina. The two shrines to the right of the pavilion are dedicated to seated Jinas. Almost
all the shrines are flanked by detailed sculptures
of Bahubali, Ambika, Sarvanubhuti and Kamatha’s attack on Parsvanath.

The main shrine on the ground floor of the cave is occupied by a seated Tirthankara. The hall
is comparatively simple without much decoration.

The staircase which took us to the second storey was extremely steep. People suffering from
vertigo may feel a minor sting of fear while climbing down.
Ellora cave 32 – Staircase
Life sized sculptures of characters of the Jain pantheon adorned the hall. The first one whom
we noticed was the huge idol of Sarvanabhuti.

Ellora cave 32 – Sarvanubhuti

On the opposite end of this corridor is Ambika seated on her mount lion. The face of the lion
is missing though.

Ellora
cave 32 – Ambika
The entire hall is beautified by stunning giant sculptures of seated Tirthankaras. The pillars
had intricate motifs all over them.
 Level Hall Ellora cave 32 – PillarsEllora
cave 32 – Pillars
The central ceiling of the hall has a lotus medallion.

Ellora cave 32 – Lotus Medallion/ The shrine is dominated by a seated [Link] -Shrine
On the left and right panel of the door to the shrine are two huge models
of Parsvanath and Bahubali.
 Ellora cave 32 – Penance of Bahubali

Ellora cave 32 – Temptations of Parsvanath

The uniqueness of this cave lies in its murals. The remains of murals and paintings on the
ceilings and walls of this cave is eye catching. Even a layman could easily spot them!
 Ellora cave 32 – Colourful Murals

Central hall upstairs – Painted pillars and

ceilings
There are two more shrines on this floor to the left and right of the main hall. These shrines
and the halls attached to them can be reached via a passage in the main hall of the second
storey. These side shrines and attached halls bear similarities with usual Jain sculptures but
the paintings on the rock faces are better preserved here than any other cave of Ellora.

We missed going to these parts of the cave as the passage was blocked for some reason.

Ellora Cave 33 (Jagannath Sabha)

This is another cave which is highly underrated in most of the cheap guidebooks. This cave is
two storeyed with extremely well detailed artistry all over it. Figures of
seated Tirthankaras, Parsvanath, Bahubali, Ambika and Sarvanubhuti dominate the lower
level and paintings in comparatively good condition are found across its upper level.
 E

Facade
Sculpted PillarsEllora cave 33Ellora cave 33 – Shrine

Ellora cave 33 – Subshrine

The only drawback is that, since the inside of the cave is very dark, photographic possibilities
are limited.

Ellora Cave 34
Pillar details of this cave make it unique. Sculptures of Jain deities are engraved all around its
walls.
Cave 10,11,12,14,15,16,21,29,30,32,33 are considered to be the important ones, owing to
their grandeur. Of all these, cave 16 is the most important and striking one.

O0 o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o
 The Jain monuments at ELLORA: Caves 30–
34
Dr Uday Dokras

Mahavira/Bahubali

At the north end of Ellora are the five Jain caves belonging to the Digambara sect,
which were excavated in the ninth and early tenth centuries. These caves are
smaller than the Buddhist and Hindu caves but nonetheless feature highly detailed
carvings. They, and the later-era Hindu caves, were built at a similar time and both
share architectural and devotional ideas such as a pillared veranda, symmetric
mandapa and puja (worship). However, unlike the Hindu temples, emphasis is
placed on the depiction of the twenty-four tirthankaras (spiritual conquerors who
have gained liberation from the endless cycle of rebirths). In addition to these Jinas,
the works at the Jain temples include carvings of gods and goddesses, yaksha (male
nature deity), yakshi (female nature deity) and human devotees prevalent in Jain
mythology of 1st millennium CE.

Chhota Kailasha: Cave 30

[edit]
 Chhota Kailasha
The Chhota Kailasha, or the little Kailasha, is so named due to the similarity of the
carvings to those in the Kailasha temple. This temple was likely built in the early 9th
century, concurrent with the construction of the lower level of the Indra Sabha, some
decades after the completion of the Kailasha Temple.[85] It features two larger-than-
life size reliefs of dancing Indra, one with eight arms and another with twelve, both
adorned with ornaments and a crown; Indra's arms are shown in various mudra
reminiscent of the dancing Shiva artworks found in nearby Hindu caves.[86] However,
the iconography has several differences that indicate this cave shows a dancing
Indra and not a dancing Shiva. The Indra panels at the entrance also feature other
deities, celestials, musicians and dancers.[87]

Art historian Lisa Owen has raised questions concerning whether music and dance
were part of 9th-century Jainism, given that Jain theology focuses on
meditative asceticism. Rajan, for example, has proposed that Cave 30 May have
originally been a Hindu monument that was later converted into a Jain temple.
However, Owen suggests that the celebration-filled artwork in this temple is better
understood as part of the Samavasarana doctrine in Jainism.[87]

The overlap between Jain and Hindu mythologies has caused confusion, given Book
Three of the Hindu Mahabharata describes Indra's abode as one filled with a variety
of heroes, courtesans, and artisans, within a paradise-like setting.[88] This imagery is
repeated throughout Cave 30, similar to the Hindu caves, setting the context of the
temple.[88] However, the symbolism closer to the centre of the temple is more aligned
with the core ideas of Jainism: a greater prevalence of meditating images and Jinas,
the place where the Jain devotee would perform his or her
ritual abhisheka (worship).[89]

Cave 31
[edit]

Mahavira with yaksha Matanga and yakshi Siddhaiki

Cave 31, consisting of four pillars, a small shrine a number of carvings, was not
completed. Carvings of Parshvanatha, guarded by yaksha Dharanendra with his 7
hoods, and Bahubali were made into the left and right walls of the hall, respectively,
while within the shrine resides an idol of Mahavira. The idol is seated in a padmasan
position on a lion-throne and a chakra is seen in the middle panel of the throne. The
figure of yaksha Matanga on an elephant is on the left side of shrine while one of
yakshi Siddhaiki, seated in savya-lalitasana on a lion with a child on her lap, is on the
right.[90][91]

The Indra Sabha: Cave 32

[edit]

Indra Sabha is the largest of the Jain series and dates

from the 9th century, Rashtrakuta patronage. A simple gateway leads to a courtyard in which
there is a monolithic shrine with a pyramidal roof. The double-storey temple is excavated in
the rear of the courtyard. The interior of the cave has a columned mandapa or hall with niches
on the three sides and the sanctuary in the middle of the back wall. Carved figures of the Jain
Tirthankharas decorate the walls.
The Indra Sabha (Cave 32), excavated in the 9th century, is a two-storey cave with a
monolithic shrine in its court. 19th-century historians confused the Jain yakshas for
alternate images of Indra that were found in Buddhist and Hindu artworks, thus
leading to the temple being given the misnomer "Indra Sabha".[92] Indra is an
important deity in all three major religions, but is of particular importance in Jainism
as not only is he one of 64 deities who reign over the heavens, but also he is,
specifically, the king of the first Jain heaven, Saudharmakalpa, and the chief
architect of the celestial assembly hall according to the Adipurana, a Jain holy text.[93]

The Indra Sabha Jain temple is historically significant as it contains evidence, in the
form of layered deposits and textual records, of active worship inside by the Jain
community. In particular, rituals were known to have been held in the upper level,
where the artwork may have played a central role.[94]

As with many caves in Ellora, numerous carvings adorn the temple, such as those of
the lotus flower on the ceiling. On the upper level of the shrine, excavated at the rear
of the court, is an image of Ambika, the yakshi of Neminath, seated on her lion under
a mango tree, laden with fruit. The centre of the shrine presents Sarvatobhadra,
where four tirthankaras of Jainism – Rishabhanatha (1st), Neminatha (22nd),
Parshvanatha (23rd) and Mahavira (24th) are aligned to the cardinal directions,
forming a place of worship for devotees.[95]

The Jagannatha Sabha: Cave 33

[edit]

Seated Jinas
The Jagannatha Sabha (Cave 33) is the second-largest Jain cave at Ellora and
dates to the 9th century according to the inscriptions on the pillars. It is a two-
storeyed cave with twelve massive pillars and elephant heads projecting towards a
porch, all carved from a single rock. The hall has two heavy square pillars in front,
four in the middle area, and a pillared interior square principal hall with fluted shafts,
all intricately carved with capitals, ridges and brackets. Inside the major idols are of
Parshvanatha and Mahavira, the last two tirthankaras in Jainism.[96][97]

Cave 34
[edit]

Goddess Ambika sitting on a lion, Cave 34

Certain inscriptions in Cave 34, or J26 according to historian José Pereira,[75][98] are
not deciphered as yet but were likely to have been executed between 800 and 850
CE. Other inscriptions, such as the one by Sri Nagavarma, are thought to date from
the 9th or 10th century.[99]

This cave features a large seated Parshvanatha with four camara attendants, two of
whom hold fly-whisks and seemingly emerge from the back of the Jina's throne.
[100]
As with many other Jain excavations, a large pair of yaksha-yakshi is also found
in this cave near the Jina.[101] In the back of the cave is a bearded figure with a bowl
containing round sacrificial offerings, which have shapes reminiscent of pindas (rice
balls) or laddus (sweetmeat). This suggests the scene may be related to Jain
devotional worship, possibly a shraddha ceremony.[102] The Parshvanatha in the cave
is paired with a standing Bahubali,[103] and accompanied by other carvings showing
musicians playing a variety of instruments such as horns, drums, conchs, trumpets,
and cymbals.[104] A particularly notable feature of the cave is a giant, open lotus
carving on its ceiling and rooftop, which is found in only one other Jain excavation
and one Hindu Cave 25 in all of Ellora. The placement of the lotus on the cave rather
than a sculpture symbolizes that the temple is a divine place.[105]

Rock carved image of Parshvanatha

[edit]

4.9 m (16 ft) rock-carved image of Lord Parshvanatha

On the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves is a Jain temple containing
a 4.9 m (16 ft) rock-carved image of Parshvanatha from the Rashtrakuta period with
an inscription dated AD 1234. The well-preserved image is flanked by Dharaıendra
and Padmavati. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site.[106]: 255 It
is still in active worship and thus not protected by the ASI. Six hundred steps must
be climbed to reach it. It is managed by a Jain Gurukul in the village.[107]

Visitors, desecration and dam

 Shikhar of Indra Sabha
The five caves were actually 23 distinct excavations, over different periods. A 13 of
these are in Indra Sabha, 6 in Jagannatha Sabha and rest in the Chhota Kailash.
Jain caves at Ellora likely began in the late 8th century, with construction and
excavation activity extending beyond the 10th century and into the 13th century
before coming to a halt with the invasion of the region by the Delhi Sultanate. This is
evidenced by votive inscriptions dated to 1235 CE, where the donor states to have
"converted Charanadri into a holy tirtha" for Jains by gifting the excavation of lordly
Jinas. Particularly important Jain shrines are the Chhota Kailash (cave 30, 4
excavations), the Indra Sabha (cave 32, 13 excavations) and the Jagannath
Sabha (cave 33, 4 excavations); cave 31 is an unfinished four-pillared hall, and
shrine Cave 34 is a small cave, which can be accessed through an opening in the
left side of Cave 33. The Jain caves contain some of the
earliest Samavasarana images among its devotional carvings. The Samavasarana is
of particular importance to Jains being the hall where the Tirthankara preaches after
attaining Kevala Jnana (liberating omniscience). Another interesting feature found in
these caves is the pairing of sacred figures in Jainism,
specifically Parsvanatha and Bahubali, which appear 19 times. Other artworks of
significance include those of
deities Sarasvati, Sri, Saudharmendra (Indra), Sarvanubhuti, Gomukha, Ambika, Ch
akreshvari, Padmavati,
The famous idol of Shree Mahavir Swami at Shri Digambar Jain Atishay Kshetra, Shri
Mahavir Ji depicting Digambar Iconography. Image depicting Acharya Kundakunda
Digambara ("sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other
being Śvetāmbara (white-clad). The Sanskrit word Digambara means "sky-clad", referring to
their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing nor wearing any clothes. Nakedness
was the ideal practice of lord Mahavira and his immediate followers Mahavira emphasized
the importance of nakedness for monks. It symbolizes complete detachment and is an ideal
form of conduct Mahavira believed that renouncing clothes made the body immune to
external influences like heat and cold, increasing resilience. Without clothes, a monk would
avoid the distractions of acquiring, maintaining, and washing garments, allowing him to
focus on spiritual growth and self-discipline.

Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress
code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards female monastics, their legends, and
the texts they consider as important. Digambaras maintain that women cannot attain nirvana.
However, Śvetāmbaras differ and maintain that women as well as eunuchs can attain nirvana,
having more inclusivity.

Digambara monks believe in the virtue of non-attachment and non-possession of any material
goods. Monks carry a community-owned picchi, which is a broom made of
fallen peacock feathers for removing and thus saving the life of insects in their path or before
they sit.

The Digambara literature can be traced only to the first millennium, with its oldest surviving
sacred text being the mid-second century Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama "Scripture in Six Parts" of
Dharasena (the Moodabidri manuscripts). One of the most important scholar-monks of the
Digambara tradition was [Link] Jain communities are currently found
mainly in most parts of India in states like Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Delhi, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamilnadu.
Less than one fifth of all Jains in India have a Digambara heritage.

Nomenclature
The word Digambara is a combination of two Sanskrit words: dik (दिक्) (space, sky)
and ambara (अम्बर) (garment), referring to those whose garments are of the element that
fills the four quarters of space. The Digambaras and Śvetāmbara disagree on how the
Digambara subtradition started in Jainism. According to Digambaras, they are the original
followers of Mahavira and Śvetāmbara branched off later in the time of Bhadrabahu when
their forecast twelve-year famine triggered their migration from central India. One group of
Jain monks headed west and north towards Rajasthan, while the second group headed south
towards Karnataka. The former became Śvetāmbara and retained their "heretic" beliefs and
practices such as wearing "white clothes" they adopted there, say the Digambaras

oooooooooooooooooooooooooo

Mystery of the Tantric Dwarpals (Door Guardians)

in the ELLORA Hindu Temple Architecture amongst other
edifices of South East Asia
Dr Uday Dokras and Ms. Nguyễn Thị Tâm
Anh

INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE

Ma Kali is kala shakti or the power of time. She
indicates the impermanence of all things, which is
why she wears a garland of skulls. Yet she is also the
ultimate transforming power of time, which is to take
us from death to immortality. Along with endless
time, Kali is boundless space, the limitless void,
indicated by her dark blue colour. Her magical dance
of transformation is all existence.

Kali holds the vidyut Shakti, the lightning or electrical

force of consciousness that is the supreme power. All
the goddesses and the entire universe manifests from
her indomitable force. Kali's seed mantra is "kreem,"
which is the kriya shakti or power of transformation
behind the vast movement of life.

Kali is not the goddess of death and destruction as

some see her but, on the contrary, represents the
complete victory of the Divine over all death and
destruction. Her warrior goddess form removes all the
illusions of the mind and reveals the undying presence
of our inmost Self that is one with all.

Kali is the inner power of yoga or yoga shakti. Yoga

in the true sense is a practice of mergence and return
to the Divine source of existence. Yoga rests upon
nirodha, the full concentration of the mind and
dissolution of the ego. Kali is the nirodha shakti, the
power of negation, neti-neti, not this, not that, of the
Upanishads.

Kundalini shakti, the secret yogic power of

transformation within us, works through Kali's grace
and motivation. Kundalini ascends and dissolves all
the chakras, or energy centres within us, back into the
state of pure unity consciousness that is Ma Kali's
ultimate abode.

Kali is the Shakti inherent in Shiva as Mahakala, the

great lord of eternity. She dances on Shiva in a prone
form, showing the Divine life and joy that manifests
out of absolute stillness and transcendence.
 The Mystery of the Tantric Dwarpals or Door Guardians
in the ELLORA Hindu Temple Architecture
Dr Uday Dokras and Nguyễn Thị Tâm Anh

The architectural elements of a Hindu temple have the capability to create a link between the divine
and the man. A temple created following all the rules can help in attaining the spiritual knowledge
and lead the soul to Moksh.

Hindu temple architecture is one of the most important forms of Hindu architecture. The
basic style of Hindu temples will always remain the same but there are differences in them
according to the architecture. The Technical architecture of the Hindu temple reflects a lot
about the synthesis of the values, believes, ideas and arts of those who built it. It is believed
that all the elements of the Cosmos that are responsible for creating and celebrating life
according to the Hindu culture from fire to water, on from feminine the masculine, from
kama to arth, etc. areingrained in Temples and it is believed that the solutions to all the
problems of life are in the temples and it is possible to manifest everything that you want by
getting them constructed rightly.

Chapter I
Yakshas as Door Guardians in South East Asian Temple
Architecture

Yaksha is the name of a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, who are caretakers
of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots. They appear in Hindu, Jain and
Buddhist mythology. The Ramakien is the Thai version of the Indian epic, the Ramayana or
the 'Romance of Rama', and has an important influence on Thai literature, art and drama. It is
regarded as the National Epic of Thailand. Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha);
full official name Wat Phra Si Rattana Satsadaram is regarded as the most sacred Buddhist
temple in Thailand. It is located within the pre
Indonesian

White Yaksha and dancer statues in Wat Arun temple in Bangkok, Thailand. The demon-
gods statues are a common sight in Buddhist temples in Thailand, but also feature in Hindu
Temples
Two Yaksha Guardians of WAT ARUN Bangkok, Thailand 🇹🇭 1. Thotsakan (ทศกัณฐ์) -
Green Color 2. Sahassa Decha (สหัสเดชะ) - White Color Credit: Nate Hilti,
Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) is regarded as the most sacred Buddhist
temple (wat) in Thailand. It is located in the historic centre of Bangkok (district Phra
Nakhon), within the precincts of the Grand Palace.
The main building is the central ubosoth, which houses the statue of Emerald Buddha. The
Emerald Buddha, a dark green statue, is in a standing form, about 66 centimetres tall, carved
from a single jade stone (Emerald in Thai means deep green colour and not the specific
stone). It is carved in the meditating posture in the style of the Lanna school of the northern
Thailand. Except for the Thai King, no other person is allowed to touch the statue. The King
changes the cloak around the statue three times a year, corresponding to the summer, winter,
and rainy seasons, an important ritual performed to usher good fortune to the country during
each season.
The Wat Phra Kaew Temple

In the 18th century, world architecture had pretty much become European architecture. But
there was a wonderful exception and that was the Wat Phra Kaew in Thailand. As an
independent kingdom, called Siam back then, this nation combined traditional and foreign
elements, creating a unique building of astonishing beauty. Let's find out more.
The Wat Phra Kaew is a Buddhist temple located in the center of Bangkok, the capital of
Thailand. It was built by the end of the 18th century, inside the grounds of the Royal Palace
close to the banks of the Chao Phraya river and it consists of a series of structures, all
enclosed by a perimeter wall.

History of Wat Phra Kaew

The Kingdom of Siam emerged in the 14th century when most of the area covered by today's
Thailand was controlled by King Sukhothai. The former capital was located about 60 miles
north of Bangkok. In 1782 King Rama I succeeded to the throne and he decided to move the
capital down the river to Bangkok. He ordered the construction of the new Palace.

The Royal Palace along with the Wat Phra Kaew was built to be the heart of the new capital
and they were located close to the river, on a strategic ground that was previously inhabited
by the Chinese community. The Wat Phra Kaew was completed in 1784. The temple has
maintained its general appearance since its construction and only minor renovations have
been made, mostly to the paintings on the perimeter wall, which are restored regularly.
 Exterior view of the Wat Phra Kaew

Architecture of Wat Phra Kaew

The temple ground is formed by different structures and elements, all enclosed inside a
perimeter wall. Each structure of the temple was constructed and decorated with an individual
character. The interior side of this wall is decorated with large murals that go all the way
around the compound. The motifs are representations of the Hinduist and Buddhist beliefs.
 The Building of the Emerald Buddha

In the southern part of the complex, we see the temple where the Emerald Buddha is. It is a
rectangular building with an ornate roof, which has painted tiles and plenty of golden
embellishments. The interior space is a single undivided room. The Buddha is located at the
end, on a very elaborate golden setting.

The Royal Pantheon of Wat Phra Kaew

In the center of the compound, there is large marble platform working as a pedestal for three
smaller constructions. These are a library, a temple called the Royal Pantheon, and a golden
stupa, which is a rounded pointed structure used for meditation. These three buildings were
intentionally located close to each other so that they could be seen as a continuity,
as different elements of a bigger whole. This had much to do with Buddhist philosophy
about the cosmos and reincarnation.

The Golden Stupa in Wat Phra Kaew

All the structures of the compound have an elaborate decoration. There are plenty of golden
elements throughout the different areas. The golden stupa is covered in golden stucco. The
building for the Emerald Buddha and the Pantheon have a wooden roof covered with orange,
green and dark blue polished tiles on the outside. These two structures, as well as the library,
are very ornamented. The columns and the outer walls of the buildings are covered with a
combination of mosaics, golden reliefs and inserts of glass and mirror.

The library inside Wat Phra Kaew

Throughout the temple, many mythological creatures were placed. They are a delicate
combination of realistic human figures and the mythical beings. The Kinara are among those
creatures. They are half man, half bird and are believed to come from the Himalayas and
watch for people in times of danger. There are also statues of giant demons, known as Yaksha
who guard the exit of the temple. These figures have a green body and golden clothes and
ornaments.

Statue of a Yak in Wat Phra Kaew

 Buu Long Pagoda
in District 9 on the outskirts of HCMC attracts Buddhist worshipers due to its unique
architecture. Buu Long Pagoda in District 9 on the outskirts of Ho Chi Minh City
In Burma
Temple Guardian Yaksha Wat Don Mueang Phra Arramluang Bangkok Thailand Stock
Image - Image of statue, guard

Chapter 2
FROM IMAGES TO GUARDIANS
 The Journey of the Yak- in the Thervada Buddhist Ethos of
South East Asia
(CASE STUDY IN KHMER CULTURE by Nguyễn Thị Tâm
Anh)
Abstract:
Khmer people are a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to Cambodia, also found in
parts of Southeast Asia (including Vietnam and Laos), parts of central, eastern, and
northeastern India, parts of Bangladesh in South Asia, in parts of Southern China and
numerous islands in the Indian Ocean. The majority of the Khmers follow the orders
of Dhammayuttika Nikaya and Maha Nikaya of Theravada Buddhism. Significant
populations of Khmers reside in adjacent areas of Thailand (Northern Khmer) and
the Mekong Delta region of neighboring Vietnam (Khmer Krom), while there are over one
million Khmers in the Khmer diaspora living mainly in France, the United States,
and Australia.
Thus South East Asia cultures have shown as their characteristics the idea of “Unity in
diversity” - a cultural aspect mixed with national and regional cultural characteristics that
have been created by native - migrant society and cultural exchanges. It is necessary in
studies to find out cultural values from regional country in affirmation of unity in diversity of
this region.
Khmer culture has evolved from the traditions of both Hinduism and Theravada
Buddhism. The paintings of Khmer pagodas, the performance on stage of Khmer dramas, its
literature and belief highlight aspects of both Hinduism and Buddhism.

The Yak - one of the images appearing in Hindu literature and culture finds a place of
depiction in the Khmer culture. The Yak is portrayed by an image of a tall man in an
armored jacket, a scimitar in his hand, possessing phenomenal strength, large, wide-open
eyes, a large mouth with spiky sharp canine teeth. Paintings and sculptures in Khmer pagodas
in particular, and Thervada Buddhist Pagodas of South East Asia countries in general, show
the Yak image as a giant-guardian who protects the residents and also the pagodas from
lurking dangers. The Yak is thus a symbol in both religions of a good Samaritan and a
protector cum defender.

Keywords: Yak, Guardian, Theravada Buddhism, Khmer, Southeast Asia.

In the limited scope of a scientific article, we would like to study the image of Chan
(Yak) in Khmer culture.

Yak is an image with many acculturating influences of Indian culture and we believe
that studying the image of the Ox from the perspective of culture and art will help clarify the
culture of Southeast Asian residents. On the basis of analyzing the image of Chan( Yak) in
Khmer culture, we wish to provide more evidence for the cultural and religious integration in
Southeast Asia, thereby affirming the unity in diversity of. Southeast Asian culture.

1. The origin of the image of Yak

David M. Lucas, an American scholar, says that "Yak", also known as Yaksha or
Yakshini ( female version), is the guardian of natural treasures; mentioned not only in
Buddhism but also in Hinduism, Jainism and Asian belief systems (David M. Lucas &
Charles W. Jarrett, 2014, p.2563).
According to us, synthesizing from documents related to the images of Dharma
protectors and gods, we determined that the Yak image came from the Hindu culture, until
Buddhism became popular. In Thai people, Hinduism became a remnant, Yak also changed
in meaning, becoming an image to protect temples. A DVARPAL or Guardian of the door.
A summary of the images in India that may be the origin of the Yak image in
Thailand is as follows:
Because the Yak system is very diverse and complex, we would like to initially
summarize a few images in India that can be the origin of the Yak image as follows:
Dvarapala: In most Southeast Asian languages (including Thai, Burmese,
Vietnamese, Khmer, and Javanese), these guardian characters are called dvarapala. Dvara
(Sanskrit dvāra) means gate, and pala (Sanskrit Pala) means protection. A dvarapala
(Sanskrit) is often depicted as a fearsome warrior or giant guarding a gate, often armed with
weapons - most commonly gadha sticks. The dvarapala statue is a popular sculptural motif in
Hindu and Buddhist cultures.
Yaksha (or Yakkha): Belonging to the benevolent force. Be the custodian of the
hidden treasures on earth and in the trees. In Jain and Buddhist mythology, Yaksha is
described as a bisexual: harmless on the one hand but a cannibal on the other, similar to
Rakshasa. Males are called Yaksha. Like the so-called Yakshi or Yakshini.
Asura: Represents demonic forces. Asura's attributes are good or bad depending on
different religions. According to Hinduism, Asura is arrogant, fierce, ugly, and ignorant.
According to Buddhist scriptures, Asura is one of the "eight groups".
Kubera: An ugly dwarf with a deformed body. During the Vedic times, Kubera was
the master of demons that lived in the dark. King of the Yakshas. Today, Kubera is one of the
eight gods who protect the property of God and help the poor (called the God of wealth).
Thus, the Yak image can be called a religious art.

2. The image of the Yak in the performing arts

The type of classical Cambodian theater is called Lakhol. According to author Pich
Tum Kravel recorded in the book Khmer Mask Theatre, there are 3 forms of Lakhol:
1. Lakhol Kbach Boran: in the ancient form, with all female actors playing the role of
"rom" - dancing. For example, the role of Preah Ream, Preah Leak is a male role but
also played by a female character. These actors can perform Reamker plays and can
also perform other plays such as Preah Chinavong, Tupsangwa, Preah Waysandor...
2. Lakhol S'romonl: this form belongs to Spek Thom (shadow puppet form) - only acting
Reamker story.
3. Lakhol Khol: is Lakhol wearing a mask, but the actors are all male dancers (Lakhol
Bros) and only act Reamker stories.

The difficulty in understanding Khmer ancient culture arises due to the fact that there
are so many changes in its history.
Classical Cambodian theater usually has four types of roles: Prince, Princess, Monkey
and Yeak (Yak). The role of Prince and Princess is played by the actress. Monkey is the role
used to increase the value of the main role, which is played by the male. This role requires the
actor to be very flexible, showing unexpected, fast, lifelike and humorous movements. The
fourth type of role is the role of Yak, also played by a tall female dancer wearing a mask.
This legendary character has a large body and a fierce appearance. Usually it has an evil
character.
 It is not unreasonable to say that the role of Yak is the soul of the Lakhol stage. Yak is
considered as a god with a full personality: cunning, wise, cruel, fierce, loving, prophetic...
The role of Yak is mainly divided into two forms: Yeak slot and yeak kaach. It is interesting
that Khmer residents with a deep Buddhist moral background have created a new form of
Yak monk, which means that Yak has taken refuge, called "Yak cansol", demonstrating the
influence of Buddhism. to Hinduism.
The Lakhol stage is also a ceremonial stage. Performing Lakhol meets the dreams and beliefs
of the Khmer people and is also to ward off evil spirits or to pray for rain. There are stories
that in the past, when there was an uneasy situations and disturbances, Reamker performance
were held to pacify the populace. After the death of the main Yak in the show, Khmer
residents considered the exit of evil forces.
With the motif of killing Yak with the above meaning, performing Lakhol gives
viewers a very special psychological state of enjoying the stage, half real and half unreal,
feeling like Yak is a demonic character that exists invisible in the world somewhere around
them. This psychological state has a great and very special effect in educating each person's
personality. People must try to live well in order to be protected by God and Buddha so that
they won't be harmed even in the present life or future life. In general, Khmer theater is
associated with religion and belief. The shoulder is a symbol representing what is evil,
deceitful, and dangerous. Destroy this force to lead a peaceful life and reach for good values.
That is the moral and humane lesson that Khmer folk artists convey to themselves and the
community.

3. Yak image in Theravada Buddhist art

The Khmer's ideals of life are mostly dominated by Theravada Buddhism, so in daily
life, not only monks but also the people practice according to the Dharma: receiving precepts,
giving alms, and chanting. Much of the life of Khmer people from birth to adulthood, old age
and death, all joys and sorrows are associated with the temple. According to Theravada
Buddhism, Khmer people only worship Shakyamuni Buddha, follow the path he instructed,
live to accumulate merit and virtue so that when they die, they will be liberated to Nirvana.
With the thought of doing meritorious deeds, the temple has been a spiritual support and a
source of comfort in the lives of Khmer residents. Despite the poverty and hardship, the
Khmer temple must be spacious, showing the quintessence and identity of the community.
Khmer pagoda also acts as a cultural centers. In addition to religious activities, the temple is
also a place for large and small festivals, cultural and sports activities. The temple is also a
school for moral and spiritual cultivation, vocational training, literacy and even arts.
Khmer sculpture is very rich in topics, genre as well as materials. most of the
sculptures in the temple show themes drawn from Reamker's stories, from Hindu legends,
and Jataka tales.
In terms of genres, there are two forms: round statues and reliefs. The statue is round
like Buddha, the beasts: the elk, the Krut bird, the phoenix, the fairies... and the reliefs are
decorative patterns in the door frame, gable, door, door lids... is one of the motifs that hold an
important position in Khmer visual arts (especially Khmer temples in the South Vietnam). It
is often seen standing in front of the temple gates or around the fence where the main hall is
for the purpose of protecting the temple. In Khmer ancient stories, especially in the Reamker
epic, the character Yak appears as a symbol of evil. However, in Khmer visual art, the Yak
motif is placed in the temple premises. This shows that Yak has been "reformed", serving the
good, and consequently this good submitting to the Buddha. Deeper in religious history,
Buddhism embraces Hinduism, but the tolerant spirit of Buddhism still accepts the existence
of Hinduism as a remnant of the temple. This is the characteristic of Khmer Theravada
Buddhism.
 Khmer artisans call the motif of Yak guarding the temple gate a "protector of the
Dharma" named Ayot Yak. It is possible that under the hands of plastic artists, the temple's
antler will have different colors, different skin colors, different faces, different postures... due
to sampling from a certain Yak character in Reamker , but all come from an old legend in
Reamker's plays. According to a Khmer artist:
Ream Eyso was a teacher in the Royal Palace of Ayot Yak. Ayot Yeak was assigned to
keep the door and wash the feet of the gods who came to see Preah Eyso. However, anyone
going in and out of the Royal Palace passed by Ayot Yak and always tapped his head,
causing the hair there to grow like that. Ayot Yak became bald and became very upset and
asked Eyso for some magic to prevent this from happening again. Eyso gives Yak a spell on
the tip of his index finger called "one pointing", which can send people flying far away when
pointed at. Therefore, Ayot Yak abused this magic and made everyone go in and out of the
Royal Palace, making even Eyso worried that he had gone too far and left. Once Preah
Eyso's sister, Preah Nearey, came to visit and did not see him, so she guessed that something
had happened. She then plotted to entice Ayot Yak to dance with her by bending her arms
inside her. Ayot Yeak did not know it was a ruse, so he followed it, so he pointed his finger at
himself and was thrown far away to the people who had been "one yang" by Yeak. Seeing
everyone, Yak was surprised and pointed his finger at others to ask "Wow, see you here
again?". So everyone who was Yak only went back to the old place, leaving only Ayot Yeak
imprisoned.

Ramakian mentions a Yak named Nonthok. Yak Nonthok is the embodiment of later
Yak Tosakan (according to the Reamker version, Tosakan is Krong Reap). The story goes
that, Nonthok is Yak, the gatekeeper, who is responsible for washing the feet of the gods and
fairies when they come to see Phra Isuan (Siva) on Mount Kailash. He was always teased by
them. So he asked Phra Isuan for a spell on the tip of his finger that, when pointed at, blinded
that person. Since then, Nonthok has blinded many of the fairies who asked to see Phra Isuan.
Phra Isuan sent Phra Narai (Vishnu) to subdue Nonthok. Phra Narai transforms into the
beautiful and charming Absorn Nonthok, dancing body-bending dances. Nonthok did as he
pointed his finger at his leg and broke it. Absorn transforms back into Phra Narai and defeats
Nonthok. Nonthok reincarnated and became Yak Tosakan with ten faces, twenty arms, with
weapons in each hand.
Besides, oral folklore also has a story related to this gatekeeper Yak. They told of the
king's forest-guard Yak on the other side of a river, near which wizards lived and the Yaks
loved to tease them. The wizards often cross the river and have to ask Yak for help. Yak
agrees but often annoys the wizard by asking random questions. Once, Yak released a
magician into the river and was cursed by this man, Yak would have to stand guard at the
palace gate to repent for his disrespectful behavior.

Compared with Yak Nonthok Thai, Ayot Yak Khmer also have similarities in that
they both hold the duty of guarding the door and all have magic in their fingers. But under the
creative hands of each folk artist, Yak keeps the Khmer temple door with different skin
colors, different faces, different postures...
- In terms of genre and location: Yak is shaped into two forms, round statues and
reliefs. Two large Yak statues are usually placed on either side of the main gate
leading to the Khmer temple. Some others create the image of Yak on the fence
surrounding the temple, on the window in the main hall... Here, the image of Yak
means a protector protecting the security of the temple, protecting the cities. fruit of
Buddhism.
 - About color: The main color used is dark red-brown, to depict the fierce and magical
features of this character; The next most used color is green.
- About design: Yak motifs are shaped according to the prescribed rules in most Khmer
arts, artisans always focus on Yak's face and through that, we can recognize some of
them. Basic points about magic and the role of the Yak image. Yak's mouth is shaped
in two ways: open mouth and pursed lips. Yak's magic is also shown through the
crown, Yak has a multi-tiered crown that is full of magical Yaks. Yak soldiers have
curly hair close to the scalp and do not wear a crown.

Phù điêu Chằn trên tường chùa Rùm Đuôl, Chằn tạo thành hành lang bao quanh chùa
xã Đôn Xuân, huyện Trà Cú, tỉnh Trà Vinh Coslar, huyện Trà Cú, tỉnh Trà Vinh

Southeast
ChằnAsia is alốimulti-ethnic,
trấn giữ multi-cultural
lên chính điện Chùa Rùm Đuôl, xã and multi-religious
Chằn (tượng tròn)region.
trấn giữDespite
cổng chùabeing
Hang very
rich and diverse, countries in the region still have unity based on common elements of a
Đôn Xuân, huyện Trà Cú, tỉnh Trà Vinh
thị xã Trà Vinh, tỉnh Trà Vinh
geographical, historical and cultural area.
On the basis of the unity in diversity of Southeast Asian culture, we find that the Yak
motif is also in that frame; folk artists have breathed their soul into each of their works in
their own way. They retain the original features and show the delicate level of the artist.
Those are the works built by thinking, by feeling, demonstrating their ability to adapt to the
circumstances of the land where they have been attached all their lives.

Chằn ở Vat Xỉ Mương, Lào Chằn ở Vat Xỉ Mương, Lào

(theo tích về chằn có phép thuật ở đầu ngón tay) Ảnh: Nguyễn Thị Tâm Anh
The earliest versions of the Ramayana can be found in Cambodia and are known as Reamker.
The Angkor Wat temple belong to the 12 th or 13th century also has several bas-reliefs which
are based on the episodes of the Ramayana (Santosh N. Desai 1970: 10).
In Thailand, although the Ramayanic influence on this country can be traced back as
far as the 13th century, it is, nevertheless, not until the beginning of the Rattanakosin Period
(about 1781 A.D.) that the glory of Rama took expression into epic poems (Swami
Satyananda Puri 1998: (6)).

Conclusion
With the common characteristics of Southeast Asian residents, the Khmer's life is
mainly based on wet
Hình tượng Chằnrice cultivation.
quy phục Đức Phật They have Chằn
beliefs suchviên
trong khuôn as chùa
worshiping the goddess
Phật Ngọc, Bangkok, Thái Lan of
rice, worshiping(Buddhastones, worshiping totemistic mascots
Park, Laos) such as snakes, dragons, birds,
(Chằn Kuchkiriwan và Kuchkirito: chằn có chiếc vòi voi)
crocodiles, worshiping gods who protect the family and the inhabited land such as Arak,
Neakta ... The indigenous cultural background of Khmer residents has blended with Indian
culture through Hinduism and Buddhism to create a unique culture.
Yak is one of the images that Khmer people have been influenced by Indian culture
fused with indigenous beliefs. Khmer culture has combined elements of Hinduism and
Buddhism with folk beliefs to create a unique image.
In the performing arts of the Khmer, the Yak image has a prominent position,
considered by the Khmer as the soul in the classical theater. In addition to entertainment
purposes, the ogre in these types of stages is also meant to pray for rain, banish diseases, evil
spirits and bad things in life for peace. The image of the lizard in general represents the evil,
the evil that exists in human life. Ox is also a symbol of difficulties and obstacles to test
human will. Yak also expresses the desire for self-improvement and is a ritual symbol in the
spiritual life of Khmer residents. Thus, beyond the usual meaning of an image, Yak has
become a "sacred" cultural symbol.
In the visual arts, Yak is not only a motif of endless creativity for Khmer artisans but
also for artists throughout mainland Southeast Asia. The image of Yak is depicted in a
number of protective positions, preventing evil spirits from entering the temple, mainly with
standing or sitting postures majestically in the premises of the Khmer temple. Khmer visual
arts mainly take their themes from Brahmin myths and Buddhist dialogues. The image of Yak
here has been converted and submitted by the Buddha and has become a protective force for
the temple, thereby, promoting the spirit of tolerance and righteousness of Buddhism to
overcome violence. Khmer folk artists with their talents have expressed the above profound
meaning. It is a cultural image expressing the desire to reach the values of Truthfulness-
Compassion-Beauty
Thus, starting from an image derived from Indian culture bearing the mark of
Hinduism, Yak has almost become an image close to Buddhism, which shows the harmony
between Hinduism and Buddhism. Religion, Buddhism with folk beliefs form the typical
cultural nuances of the Khmer people - and also the common nuances of the Theravada
Buddhist countries of Southeast Asia.

References
1. Nguyễn Thị Tâm Anh 2008: Hình tượng Chằn (Yak) trong văn hóa Khmer Nam Bộ, Luận văn
Thạc sĩ Văn hóa học, Trường ĐH KHXH&NV Tp. HCM.
2. D. G. E. Hall (bản dịch của Nguyễn Phúc Tấn) 1968: Đông Nam Á sử lược, Nhà sách Khai trí
xuất bản lần thứ 1.
3. Phạm Đức Dương - Trần Thị Thu Lương 2001: Văn hóa Đông Nam Á, NXB Giáo dục, 312tr.
4. Geetesh Sharma (Thích Minh Trí dịch) 2012: Những dấu vết văn hóa Ấn Độ tại Việt Nam,
NXB Văn hóa Văn nghệ Tp. HCM.
5. Hoebel, E. Adamson 2007: Nhân chủng học - Khoa học về con người, NXB Tổng hợp Tp. Hồ
Chí Minh, 1473tr.
6. Đỗ Thu Hà 1998: “Thử so sánh sử thi Ramayana cổ đại của Ấn độ với Riêm Kê của
Campuchia”, Tạp chí Văn học số 3, tr. 56 – 65.
7. Đỗ Thu Hà 2002: Vấn đề bản địa hoá sử thi Ramayana Ấn Độ tại một số nước Đông Nam
Á, Nxb Văn hoá Thông tin, Hà Nội, 500tr.
8. Phan Thu Hiền 2006: “Đôi nét bản sắc văn hóa Lào qua quá trình bản địa hóa sử thi
Ramayana trong Phra Lak Phra Lam”, Bài tham dự Hội thảo văn học Lào.
9. Sở VH – TT Tỉnh Sóc Trăng & Phân viện VHNT Việt Nam tại TP. Hồ Chí Minh 1998: Về sân
khấu truyền thống Khmer Nam bộ, NXB Sở VH – TT, 173tr.
10. Garrett Kam 2000: Ramayana in the Arts of Asia, Select Books Pte Ltd, Singapore.
11. Pich Tum Kravel 1995: Sbek Thom – Khmer Shadow Theater, Southeast Asia Program, Cornell
University.
12. Pich Tum Kravel 2000: Khmer Mask Theater, Toyota Foundation, Phnom Penh.
13. Pich Tum Kravel 2001: Khmer Dances, Toyota Foundation, Phnom Penh.
14. Rattanakosin Bicentennial 1982: The Ramakian (Ràmàyana) Mural Paintings along the
galleries of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha, Bangkok, Thailand.
15. Reyum Publishing 2002: The Reamker, Painted by Chet Chan, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
16. Dokras Uday, Dokras Deepa- The Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Indonesia-
[Link] and [Link], 2019
17. Dokras Uday, Prambanan Temple-BOOK, (75) Prambanan Temple-BOOK | Dr. Uday Dokras
- [Link]

Chapter 3
Tantricism in Ellora

Dwarapalas are present on the two sides of the door to shrine. A shivling rules the shrine.
There is a circumambulatory passage around the shrine.

The MYSTERIOUS Cave 21 / Rameshwara Cave

At a distance of 400 m from Kailasa Temple and 500 m from Ellora Caves Bus Stop, Cave
21, also known as Rameshwara Cave, is located midway between Cave 16 and 29. The
Rameshwara Cave was excavated in the late 6th century AD and is supposed to be the earliest
among the Hindu Caves at Ellora and also one of the noteworthy caves in Ellora. This cave is
famous for the sculptural representations and its unique beauty.

This cave is also dedicated to Lord Siva who was worshipped in the form of linga. A Nandi is
placed just in front of the cave over a raised platform. The cave consists of a rectangular
mandapa and the sanctum. The mandapa is provided with a dwarf wall which is fully sculpted
on the exterior in vertical and horizontal bands. The entrance to the mandapa is flanked by
sculptures of River goddesses Ganga and Yamuna. Pillars emerge at regular intervals from
the dwarf wall with very beautiful and elegant salabhanjikas.
Ellora Cave 21 – kala and kali designed /presemted as NETHER Creatures from
PATAA

The mandapa is 16 feet in height and measures 69 feet by 251 feet with a shrine at each end,
cut off by two cushion capital pillars. The walls of the mandapa and two cells one each on the
north and south have massive sculptural representations. The walls of the cell on the south
have representations of Saptamatrikas, Nataraja, Kali and Kala on western wall. The walls of
the north cell have representations of the marriage of Siva and Parvati, Subrahmanya and
Mahisasuramardini. On either side of the entrance to the shrine are two huge depictions,
Ravananugraha murti to its north and Siva and Parvati playing the game of chausar to its
south. The entrance doorway of the shrine is very elaborate, divided into different segments,
and profusely carved. The entrance is guarded by two dwarapalas, one on each side. The
sanctum contains a linga. A circumambulatory passage is scooped out of the live rock for
pradakshina.
The Dwarpalas look like creatures from Patala. In Indian religions, Patala (Sanskrit:
पाताल, IAST: pātāla, lit. that which is below the feet), denotes the subterranean realms of the
universe – which are located under the earthly dimension. Patala is often translated
as underworld or netherworld. Patala is described as more beautiful than Svarga (subtle
dimensions, loosely translated as heaven). Patala is described as filled with splendid jewels,
beautiful groves and lakes.
In Vajrayana Buddhism, caves inhabited by asuras are entrances to Patala; these asuras,
particularly female asuras, are often "tamed" (converted to Buddhism)
as dharmapala or dakinis by famous Buddhist figures such as Padmasambhava..In Hindu
cosmology, the universe is divided into the three worlds: Svarga, Prithvi or Martya
(earth/mortal plane) and Patala (gross dimensions, the underworld).[5] Patala is composed of
seven realms/dimensions or lokas, the seventh and lowest of them is also called Patala
or Naga-loka, the region of the Nagas. The Danavas (demon sons of Danu), Daityas (demon
sons of Diti), Yakshas and the snake-people Nagas (Serpent-human formed sons of Kadru),
live in the realms of Patala.
KALA is the Sanskrit word for time. KALI, the great compassionate and fierce
goddess, also is the taker of time/keeper of time/dissolver of time. Kali is
greatly compassionate when we offer ourselves to Her for our awakening.
She becomes fierce in the face of obstacles when we are sternly attached to
our identities. With time everything is taken. When we hold onto anything,
there is pain that follows its loss since nothing is constant. Everything is a
passing expression on the canvas of consciousness. Be with what is and know
that misery is as transient as pleasure.

The pairs of Dvarapalas guarding the temple and placed in its exterior (at the entrances) are
larger in size and more ferocious or threatening in appearance , with a “dare not enter” look
to their faces and gestures , perhaps to keep away the evil influences. The Dvarapalas
flanking the doorway to the sanctum are comparatively modest.
The Dwarapalas in the Hoysala temples are particularly graceful with ornate jewellery to suit
the delicately carved interiors; gently holding lotuses as if inviting the devotee to God’s
home. The historical development in the depictions of Dvarapalas is quite interesting. The
Dvarapalas in the Pallava temples were made fierce. But, the Dvarapalas of the Chola
temples are truly awesome intended to strike terror in the hearts of the wicked. They are
massive towering up on the walls, snarling you down with sharp oversized fangs, riding on
the Yali (mythical beast) making one feel tiny and submissive. However , by the time of
Vijayanagar (15-16th century) the Dvarapalas grew a shade smaller but muscular and more
ornate; they didn’t appear to lean on a mace or a lance- like weapon but stood tall or cross-
legged.

But the artistic excellence in depicting the Dvarapalas reached its zenith in the Hoysala
architecture. Their intricate patterns, adornments are chiselled like a jewel, with extreme care.
They are magnificent works of art in their own right.

Tantric Connect between Khajuraho and Ellora

The 34 monasteries and temples, of Ellora extending over more than 2 km, were dug side by
side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in Maharashtra. Ellora, with
its uninterrupted sequence of monuments dating from A.D. 600 to 1000, brings the
civilization of ancient India to life. The invaluable ensemble of 34 caves at Ellora in the
Charanandri hills of western India’s Maharashtra State showcases a spirit of co-existence and
religious tolerance through the outstanding architectural activities carried out by the followers
of three prominent religions: Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Jainism. The rock-cut activity was
carried out in three phases from the 6th century to the 12th century. The earliest caves (caves
1–12), excavated between the 5th and 8th centuries, reflect the Mahayana philosophy of
Buddhism then prevalent in this region. The Brahmanical group of caves (caves 13–29),
including the renowned Kailasa temple (cave 16), was excavated between the 7th and 10th
centuries. The last phase, between the 9th and 12th centuries, saw the excavation of a group
of caves (caves 30–34) reflecting Jaina philosophy.

Most Khajuraho temples were also built between 885 AD and 1000 AD by
the Chandela dynasty. Historical records note that the Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples
by the 12th century, spread over 20 square kilometers. Of these, only about 25 temples have
survived, spread over six square kilometers.

Now coming back to Ellora, amongst the caves of the Buddhist group, Cave 10 (Visvakarma
or Sutar-ki-jhopari, the Carpenter’s cave), Cave 11, and Cave 12 (Teen Tal, or three-storied
monastery, the largest in this category) are particularly important. These caves mark the
development of the Vajrayana form of Buddhism and represent a host of Buddhist deities.
The prominent caves of the Brahmanical group are Cave 15 (Dasavatara, or Cave of Ten
Incarnations), Cave 16 (Kailasa, the largest monolithic temple), Cave 21 (Ramesvara), and
Cave 29 (Dumar Lena).

Amongst these, Cave 16 is an excellent example of structural innovation, and marks the
culmination of rock-cut architecture in India featuring elaborate workmanship and striking
proportions. The temple is decorated with some of the boldest and finest sculptural
compositions to be found in India. The sculpture depicting Ravana attempting to lift Mount
Kailasa, the abode of Siva, is especially noteworthy. The remains of beautiful paintings
belonging to different periods are preserved on the ceilings of the front mandapa (pillared
hall) of this temple. The Jaina group of caves (caves 30 – 34) is exquisitely carved with fine,
delicate sculptures, and includes fine paintings dedicated to the Digambara sect. Through
their art and architecture, the Ellora Caves serve as a window to ancient India, including
socio-cultural phenomena, material culture, politics, and lifestyles.

Appearance of the term "Tantra" in Indian texts

Period Text or author Contextual meaning of tantra

1700–1100 BCE Ṛigveda X, 71.9 Loom (or weaving device)

Essence (or "main part", perhaps

1700-? BCE Sāmaveda, Tandya Brahmana denoting the quintessence of
the Sastras)
1200-900 BCE Atharvaveda X, 7.42 Loom (or weaving)

Yajurveda, Taittiriya
1400-1000 BCE Loom (or weaving)
Brahmana [Link]

Pāṇini in Aṣṭādhyāyī 1.4.54 and

600-500 BCE Warp (weaving), loom
5.2.70

pre-500 BCE Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa Essence (or main part; see above)

350-283 BCE Chanakya on Arthaśāstra Science;[28] system or shastra

Īśvarakṛṣṇa author of Sānkhya Doctrine (identifies Sankhya as

300 CE
Kārikā (kārikā 70) a tantra)

320 CE Viṣṇu Purāṇa Practices and rituals

Poet Kālidāsa on Abhijñānaśāk Deep understanding or mastery of a

320-400 CE
untalam topic

Gangdhar stone inscription Worship techniques (Tantrodbhuta)

423
in Rajasthan Dubious link to Tantric practices.

Sabarasvamin's commentary on
550 Mimamsa Sutra 11.1.1, 11.4.1 Thread, text; beneficial action or thing
etc.

Chinese Buddhist canon (Vol.

18–21: Tantra
500-600 Set of doctrines or practices
(Vajrayāna) or Tantric
Buddhism

Extensive knowledge of principles of

600 Kāmikāgama or Kāmikā-tantra
reality
 Sanskrit scholar and
poet Bāṇabhaṭṭa (in Harṣacarit
Set of sites and worship methods to
606–647 a and in Kādambari),
goddesses or Matrikas.
in Bhāsa's Cārudatta and
in Śūdraka's Mṛcchakatika

Set of doctrines or practices, teachings,

Philosopher Abhinavagupta in
975–1025 texts, system (sometimes
his Tantrāloka
called Agamas).

Jayaratha, Abhinavagupta's
1150–1200 Set of doctrines or practices, teachings
commentator on Tantrāloka

System of thought or set of doctrines

1690–1785 Bhaskararaya (philosopher)
or practices, a canon.

Tantra (तन्त्र) are the esoteric traditions of Hinduism that developed on the Indian
subcontinent from the middle of the 1st millennium CE onwards. The term tantra, in
the Indian traditions, also means any systematic broadly applicable "text, theory, system,
method, instrument, technique or practice". A key feature of these traditions is the use
of mantras, and thus they are commonly referred to as Mantramārga ("Path of Mantra") in
Hinduism or Mantrayāna ("Mantra Vehicle") and Guhyamantra ("Secret Mantra") in
Buddhism.

Tantric traditions and Shaktism

Toward the end of the 5th century, the cult of the mother goddess assumed a significant place
in Indian religious life. Shaktism, the worship of Shakti, the active power of the godhead
conceived in feminine terms, should be distinguished from Tantrism, the search for spiritual
power and ultimate release by means of the repetition of sacred syllables and phrases
(mantras), symbolic drawings (mandalas), and other secret rites elaborated in the texts known
as Tantras (“Looms”).

In many respects the Tantras are similar to the Puranas. Theoretically, the Tantras deal with
(1) knowledge, or philosophy, (2) Yoga, or concentration techniques, (3) ritual, which
includes the construction of icons and temples, and (4) conduct in religious worship and
social practice. In general, the last two subjects are the most numerous, while Yoga tends to
centre on the mystique of certain sound-symbols (mantras) that sum up esoteric doctrines.
The philosophy tends to be a syncretistic mixture of Sankhya and Vedanta thought, with
special and at times exclusive emphasis on the god’s power, or shakti. The Tantric texts can
be divided into three classes: (1) Shaiva Agamas (traditions of the followers of Shiva), (2)
Vaishnava Samhitas (“Collections of the Vaishnavas,” a name borrowed from the Vedic
Samhitas), and (3) Shakta Tantras (“Looms of the Followers of the Goddess Shakti”).
However, they all have the common bond of venerating the Goddess.
The surviving Hindu Tantras were written much later than many of those of
Tantric Buddhism, which may have heavily influenced the Hindu texts. Although there is
early evidence of Tantrism and Shaktism in other parts of India, the chief centres of both
were in Bengal, Bihar, and Assam.

Shaiva Agamas

Like much other Hindu sacred literature, this literature is vast and spans several centuries. It
is possible here to summarize only classes of texts within the various traditions.

The sects of Agamic Shaivas (Shiva worshipers who follow their own Agama
—“traditional”—texts) encompass both the Sanskritic Shaiva-siddhanta—i.e., those who
accept the philosophical premises and conclusions of Shaivas in the north—and the
southern Lingayats or Virashaivas (from vira, literally “hero”; a lingam is the Shiva emblem
that is worshipped in lieu of images). The Shaiva-siddhanta traditionally has 28 Agamas and
150 sub-Agamas. Their principal texts are difficult to date, though most of them probably
were not composed before the 8th century. Their doctrine states that Shiva is the conscious
principle of the universe, while matter is unconscious. Shiva’s power, or shakti, personified
as a goddess, causes bondage and release. She is also the magic Word, and thus her nature
can be sought out and meditated upon in mantras.

Emergence of Tantras centering on Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti

Starting in the early centuries of the common era, newly revealed Tantras centering
on Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti [Link] are tantric lineages in all main forms of modern
Hinduism, such as the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, the Shakta sect of Sri-Vidya, the Kaula,
and Kashmir Shaivism.
In Buddhism, the Vajrayana traditions are known for tantric ideas and practices, which are
based on Indian Buddhist Tantras. They include Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Esoteric
Buddhism, Japanese Shingon Buddhism and Nepalese Newar Buddhism. Although Southern
Esoteric Buddhism does not directly reference the tantras, its practices and ideas parallel
them.
Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have also influenced other Eastern religious
traditions such as Jainism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism, and the
Japanese Shintō tradition.
Certain modes of non-Vedic worship such as Puja are considered tantric in their conception
and rituals. Hindu temple building also generally conforms to the iconography of
tantra. Hindu texts describing these topics are called Tantras, Āgamas or Samhitās. In
Buddhism, tantra has influenced the art and iconography of Tibetan and East Asian
Buddhism, as well as historic cave temples of India and the art of Southeast Asia.
Tantra (Sanskrit: तन्त्र) literally means "loom, warp, weave". According to Padoux, the
verbal root Tan means: "to extend", "to spread", "to spin out", "weave", "display", "put
forth", and "compose". Therefore, by extension, it can also mean "system", "doctrine", or
"work".
The connotation of the word tantra to mean an esoteric practice or religious ritualism is
a colonial era European invention. The term is based on the metaphor of weaving, states Ron
Barrett, where the Sanskrit root tan means the warping of threads on a loom. It implies
"interweaving of traditions and teachings as threads" into a text, technique or practice.
The word appears in the hymns of the Rigveda such as in 10.71, with the meaning of "warp
(weaving)". It is found in many other Vedic era texts, such as in section 10.7.42 of
the Atharvaveda and many Brahmanas. In these and post-Vedic texts, the contextual meaning
of Tantra is that which is "principal or essential part, main point, model, framework, feature".
In the Smritis and epics of Hinduism (and Jainism), the term means "doctrine, rule, theory,
method, technique or chapter" and the word appears both as a separate word and as a
common suffix, such as atma-tantra meaning "doctrine or theory of Atman (Self)."
The term "Tantra" after about 500 BCE, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism is a
bibliographic category, just like the word Sutra (which means "sewing together", mirroring
the metaphor of "weaving together" in Tantra). The same Buddhist texts are sometimes
referred to as tantra or sutra; for example, Vairocabhisambodhi-tantra is also referred to
as Vairocabhisambodhi-sutra

According to Hindu belief, the events of the Mahābhārata took place in the Dvapara Yuga.
Dvapara Yuga (a.k.a. Dwapara Yuga), in Hinduism, is the third and third best of the
four yugas (world ages) in a Yuga Cycle, preceded by Treta Yuga and followed by Kali
YugaDvapara Yuga lasts for 864,000 years (2,400 divine years).
According to the Puranas, this yuga ended when Krishna returned to his eternal abode
of Vaikuntha. There are only two pillars of religion during the Dvapara Yuga: compassion
and truthfulness. Vishnu assumes the colour yellow and the Vedas are categorized into four
parts: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. During these times, the
Brahmins are knowledgeable of two or three of these but rarely have studied all the four
Vedas thoroughly. Accordingly, because of this categorization, different actions and activities
come into existence.

Who are Dwarapalakas and What is their Importance

When we take a walk through ad inspect the temple, we will find various sculptures with
different poses present in and around the temple. These sculptures are not carved just to make
the temple look more beautiful. They are carved based upon the various spiritual scriptures
like Agamas, Shilpa, and Vastu Shastra’s with inner meaning and also to awaken the spiritual
sense. One of the most interesting among them is Dwarapalakas.

So, who are these Dwarapalakas? And what is their importance in Temples?
Who are Dwarapalakas?

Dwarapalakas are the two guardian deities or the gatekeepers of the temple entrances or the
Dwaras. The name Dwarapalakas is a combination of two words Dwaram and Palakas. In
which Dwaram stands for door or entrance and the Palakas for [Link] are a common
feature of almost all the South Indian Temples and their statues differ from temple to temple
based upon the chief deities like Shiva, Sakthi, or Vishnu.

Within a temple, there can be different Dwarapalakas depending upon the place they stand
like in front of the main sanctum(Garbhagruha) or in front of Avaranas.

Appearance and Iconography

The appearance of the Dwarapalakas differs between the temples based upon the Agama the
respective temple followed during its [Link] can be seen in a standing pose
mainly on either side of the sanctum sanctorum or at the entrance of the [Link] Shaivite
temples, They can be usually seen with four hands holding a Pasha(noose) and
Trishula(trident) (some times replaced by Damaru or Danda basing on Agamas) with their
upper hands and one of the lower hands holding a Gada (blunt mace) and another showing
Suchi or Tarjani Mudra or sometimes Vismaya hasta.

The Shaivagamas describes the Dwarapalakas as three-eyed with Jatamakuta (long braided
Hair arranged in a form representing the crown) and wearing a sacred thread in the form of a
serpent(Nagayagnopavita).Dwarapalakas are usually seen in different standing positions and
can sometimes be with ferocious and fearsome face, fang teeth, large eyes, showing mudras
with hand to indicate that we are going to enter the place of the god. So, one should be in a
controlled mind without any other thoughts except on the [Link] the Vaishnava temples,
Dwarapalakas can be seen with four hands holding Shanka and Chakra in the upper hands.
While one of the lower hands shows Abhaya mudra and the other holding a [Link] of the
best places you can see the Dwarapalakas that looks astonishing was in Arunachalam temple
placed before entering the sanctum sanctorum of Agni lingam. You can also see similar
statues in Meenakshi Amman temple and the Brihadeeswara temple.
Importance of Dwarapalakas

1. The main activity of the Dwarapalakas is to protect the energy of the temple and also
to remind the people entering the temple that this is the place of the god. So, while
entering the main shrine one should be careful without any unnecessary thoughts in
the mind.
2. Before entering the abode of God, one should take permission from Dwarapalakas by
praying them in the heart. Even the priests who open the entrances of the temple also
ask the permission of the Dwarapalakas in their mind and heart before opening the
gates.
3. The Suchi Mudra projected by one of the hands of Dwarapalakas directs towards the
god inside the temple indicating, go and pray to God with devotion and the god will
remove your sins and problems.
4. While the Tarjani mudra indicates the devotees should be careful and not to do any
mistake as you are entering God’s abode.

Some Dwarapalakas show the Vismaya hasta indicating that by the mercy of the god many
people fulfilled their lives. You too offer your devotion to god’s mercy and make your life
fulfilled.

In most of the temples, almost all the offerings done to the chief deity will also be offered to
the Dwarapalakas.

Names of Dwarapalakas basing upon the Chief Deity

Chief Deity Dwarapalaka Name Dwarapalaka Name

God Shiva Nandi Mahakala

Dindi Mundi

Shringi Bhringi

Gopati Ananta

Vijaya Bhringi

Vimalan Subahu
 God Vishnu Jaya Vijaya

Chanda Prachanda

Shankhothamangi Chakrothamangi

Dhatru Vidhatru

Bhadra Subhadra

Goddess Shakthi Shankhanidhi Padmanidhi

God Ganesh Mandodara Gundodara

God Murugan Sumukha Sudeha

Stories of some Dwarapalakas

The story of Jaya-Vijaya

Jaya and Vijaya were the gatekeepers of God Vishnu. These deities can be seen in the Vishnu
temples standing on either side of the main sanctum or sometimes on the temple doors.

The story about these two deities goes in this way. Once, Jaya and Vijaya obstructed the entry
of Sanat kumaras (The four sons that were born from the Bramha’s mind) to Vaikunta and
said that Lord Vishnu is resting now they cannot be allowed in. But, the Sanat kumaras said
Lord Vishnu is always available to his devotees and asked Jaya and Vijaya to let them in. But
they refused to do so.

Finally, the argument heated up and the Sanat kumaras cursed the gatekeepers to lose their
position and shall be born as mortals on the earth.

Later, Jaya and Vijaya approached Lord Vishnu and requested him to lift their curse. But
Lord Vishnu said, the curse on both of you cannot be reverted, instead gave them two
options. One option is to take seven births as his devotee on earth or to take three births as his
enemy to come back to Vaikunta.
Interestingly, the gatekeepers had chosen to be his enemies. The internal meaning of this act
was they could not bear the pain of staying away from their master for seven births. Hence,
they choose to be enemies for three births.

Later, they were born as different demons each birth and ended by Lord Vishnu in different
avatars. The three births are as follows, demons Hiraneykashipu and Hiranyaksha in Satya
yuga. Ravana and Kumbhakarna in Treta yuga and Shishuplala and Dantavakra in Dwapara
yuga.

The story of Nandi and Mahakala

Nandi and Mahakala are one among the Dwarapalakas of God Shiva. Their story tells the
merciful nature of God Shiva to his devotees.

(Please don’t get confused with the name Nandi. The Nandi mentioned in this story was
different from the Nandeeshwara, who is also popularly known as Nandi(Son of Shiladha
Muni))

Nandi was a wealthy merchant living in a small town called Avantipura. On the other hand,
Mahakala was a hunter who lives in the forest. Nandi used to worship a Shiva lingam present
in a small temple that is close to the forest. He used to worship the Shiva lingam with
diamonds and precious jewels.

Once, Mahakala who came to hunt saw the same shiva lingam worshipped by Nandi and he
immediately throws away all the precious stones and jewels around the Lingam thinking that
their sharp edges and the hard surface can cause pain to the Great God.

Mahakala too used to do rituals to the Shiva Lingam by catching hold of water in his mouth
and by spilling it on the Shiva lingam as abhishekam and also offers Bilva leaves and the
food he hunts.

One day Nandi finds that someone was trying to remove all his offerings (jewels) daily and
thought to take away the Shiva lingam to his home.

On the next day, as a daily routine during the hunt, Mahakala visits his Lord’s temple and
finds the Shiva lingam has been taken away and was struck with grief and cried a lot. He
asked God where are you who took you from this place and so [Link] Mahakala tore his
body parts and made a Shiva lingam and prayed the God there and went unconscious. For his
ardent devotion and steadfastness towards him, God Shiva immediately appeared and granted
a boon to be a Dwarapalaka.

At the same time, Nandi listens to the bell sounds coming from the temple and went to see
what is happening inside the temple. On seeing God Shiva along with his Ganas and
Mahakala he realized the true devotion of Mahakala and requested him to introduce to the
Great God by [Link] took him to God Shiva and explains Nandi’s devotion and
introduces him as his friend. But, Lord Shiva replied I don’t know about his devotion
However as you are saying that he is your friend I will also grant him as a
[Link] asked the forgiveness for his mistakes and asked for god’s mercy. God
shiva accepted and appointed him as a Dwarapalaka along with Mahakala. Dwarapalakas
whether required or not, and which dwarapalakas has several factors to be considered and is
entirely based on the principles of Agama Shastra that the temple is constructed upon. So it is
recommended to approach any Agama shastra scholar or Shilpa shastra scholars/stapati’s for
guidance on temple construction.

Temple Architecture
A Dvarapala or Dvarapalaka (Sanskrit, "door guard is a door or gate guardian often portrayed
as a warrior or fearsome giant, usually armed with a weapon - the most common being
the gada (mace). The dvarapala statue is a widespread architectural
element throughout Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina cultures, as well as in areas influenced by
them like Java.
Jaya-Vijaya - the Dvarapalas of the god Vishnu's abode Vaikuntha are often depicted his
temples, guarding the doors. Here they are guarding the sanctum of the Vishnu
temple, Chennakesava Temple.

Dwaarpalas at a Jain temple

In most southeast Asian languages
(including Thai, Burmese, Vietnamese, Khmer and Javanese), these protective figures are
referred to as dvarapala. Sanskrit dvāra means "gate" or "door", and pāla means "guard" or
"protector".
The related name in Indonesian and Malaysia is dwarapala. Equivalent door guardians in
northern Asian languages are Kongōrikishi or Niō in Japanese, Heng Ha Er Jiang in Chinese,
and Narayeongeumgang in Korean.
Dvarapalas as an architectural feature have their origin in tutelary deities,
like Yaksha and warrior figures, such as Acala, of the local popular religion. Today some
dvarapalas are even figures of policemen or soldiers standing guard.
These statues were traditionally placed outside Buddhist or Hindu temples, as well as other
structures like royal palaces, to protect the holy places inside. A dvarapala is usually
portrayed as an armed fearsome guardian looking like a demon, but at the gates of Buddhist
temples in Sri Lanka, dvarapalas often display average human features. In other instances a
fierce-looking nāga snake figure may perform the same function.
The sculptures in Java and Bali, usually carved from andesite, portray dvarapalas as fearsome
giants with a rather bulky physique in semi kneeling position and holding a club. The largest
dvarapala stone statue in Java, a dvarapala of the Singhasari period, is 3.7 meters tall. The
traditional dvarapalas of Cambodia and Thailand, on the other hand, are leaner and portrayed
in a standing position holding the club downward in the center.
The ancient sculpture of dvarapala in Thailand is made of a high-
fired stoneware clay covered with a pale, almost milky celadon glaze. Ceramic sculptures of
this type were produced in Thailand, during the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods, between
the 14th and 16th centuries, at several kiln complexes located in northern Thailand.
Depending on the size and wealth of the temple, the guardians could be placed singly, in pairs
or in larger groups. Smaller structures may have had only one dvarapala. Often there was a
pair placed on either side of the threshold to the shrine.[3] Some larger sites may have had four
(lokapālas, guardians of the four cardinal directions), eight, or 12. In some cases only the
fierce face or head of the guardian is represented, a figure very common in the kratons in
Java.

Dwarpals are security guards in Hindu temples, and every Divinity has his/her own
Dwarapal. Vishnu, Shiva, Devi and others have those personal Dwarapals.

Western Malwa -6th century

Dvarapalas are regular features of a major Hindu or Buddhist temple complex. They are the
formidable looking ‘gate-keepers’ and guards in service of the presiding deity of the temple.
They are the servants and the protectors of their masters. They are typically envisioned as
huge and robust warriors. The pairs of Dvarapalas are most usually placed at the entrance to
the temple and also at the door way to sanctum (garbha-griha). As you mentioned, each god
or goddess has his or her own set of Dvarapalas.

Classification: Dvarapalas are classified as parivara-devathas, meaning that Dvarapalas are

semi-divine beings of a minor class who form the entourage of the main deity they serve. The
Shilpa Sastra texts that deal with temple architecture (devalaya-vastu) after describing the
temple layout, structure and other aspects with particular reference to the attributes and
disposition of the deity to be installed in the temple , do make a mention of the nature and
appearances of the Dvarapalas to be placed at different locations in the temple complex.
There are in addition, numerous Dhyana-slokas, or word-pictures in verse that present
graphic details of the form, substance and attribute of the deity and his or her
attendants. These verses are meant for contemplation and guidance of the Shilpi, the sculptor.
I do not know if there are any texts that deal exclusively with the depiction of the Dvarapalas.
They form a detail of the larger picture.

Since Dvarapalas are parivara-devathas, their appearance, attributes etc have to be in

accordance with that of their Master, the principal deity that resides in the sanctum. Therefore
their costume, weapons, insignia or emblems are indicative of the powers, virtues and
magnificence of the presiding deity. Their appearances and stance herald the nature and
disposition of the main deity; and also the affiliation of the temple- such as Shiva, Vishnu,
and Devi etc.

Accordingly, the Dvarapalas in a Vishnu temple are rather placid looking; modestly dressed
and ornamented. They are adorned with the signs and emblems of Vishnu such as
the tilaka on their fore heads and urdhvapundra (Nama) on their faces, arms, chest etc.. They
carry in their upper hands the conch (shankha) and discus (chakra); and in the lower hands,
the mace (gada) and a noose (pasha, coil of rope). They stand erect, cross-legged leaning on
their mace as if they are resting. The gestures of their fingers and the look in their eyes
caution one to behave properly in the presence of the divinity. The nature and appearance of
the Dvarapalas of Vishnu are described in the Agama texts: Isvara Samhita and Pushkara
Samhita.

Bhadra Subhadra

Similarly, the Dvarapalas in a Shiva temple take after Virabhadra, the ferocious aspect of
Shiva. They look fierce with bulging eyes, protruding curved sharp canine teeth, horns (at
times); and with their threatening stance and fearsome weapons. They have thick mustaches,
bushy eyebrows and hairy abdomen. They wear the emblems of Shiva, such as the stripes of
ash, animal hides, long flowing unkempt hair etc. They carry a trident, mace, broad-sword
and a noose. They look ferocious, gesture ominously and stand planting firmly a foot on the
mace. The features of the Dvarapalas of Shiva are described in the latter part (uttarardha)
ofKashyapa Shilpa Sastra.

In the Shaktha tradition where the distinctions between the gross and subtle forms are marked
and sharp, the Dvarapalas of the female deities who represent the grosser elements of nature
are fearsome looking females, modeled after the ferocious aspect of their Mother deity. They
carry cutlasses and tridents; wear garlands of skull; and sport wild unkempt hair. Quite often
they are portrayed with flashy eyes, long protruding teeth and tongue spread out of the open
mouth. The Dvarapalas of the Devi are pictured in Kalika Puranam.’
In the Dakshina-chara School (the right handed method) of Sri Vidya tradition the guarding
deities are the physical (sthula) representations of certain symbolic concepts. For instance,
the outermost enclosure (avarana) of Sri Chakra, named Bhupura Chakra – the earth stretch,
has four gates (dvara). The Eastern gate is the way of the mantras; the Southern gate is the
way of devotion or bhakti; the Western gate is for the performance of rites and rituals,
or karma-kanda.; and the Northern gate is the way of wisdom, or Jnana. The Mudra
devathas, the standard bearers, the approach to the divinities and carrying seals of authority,
guard those entrances. They resemble in appearance the auspicious form of the Mother
Goddess and carry weapons such as bow, arrows, goad and noose.

Being security in –charges they are well built, muscular, broad shouldered, very tall and
sporting fearsome moustaches. Each is endowed with four arms. They are elaborately
adorned with Kirita (headgear), Bhuja –kirti (shoulder ornaments), karna-kundala (hanging
earrings). They are always soldier-like and larger than life; but they can hardly be called very
terrifying. The Dvarapala are not provided with halos or garlands. They always carry
weapons; and are always depicted as standing guard. Dvarapalas are always in pair or in even
numbers. The Agama texts recommend four pairs of Dvarapalas, each pair to guard a cardinal
direction. The Dvarapala images are usually scaled in saptha (seven) tala
or nava (nine) tala measure. They are made either with two or four arms.
The Dvarapalas, in each case, are in some way associated with their main deity through a
legend detailed in a Purana. The Dvarapalas of major deities such as Vishnu or Shiva have
recognizable names and specified positions. In the Agamas they are termed Ganeshvara, the
chief of the horde.

For instance the four pairs of Dvarapalas of Vishnu are (i) Chanda and Prachanda ;( ii)
Dhatru and Vidhatru; (iii) Jaya and Vijaya; and (iv) Bhardra and Subhadra. The first named
in each pair stands to the right of the doorway; and the other to the left.
Similarly, the Dvarapalas of Shiva are (i) Nandi and Mahakala (to the East) ;( ii) Herambha
and Bhringi (to the South); (iii) Durmukha and Pandura (to the West) and(iv) Sita and Asita
(to the North).

The Brahma too is said have four sets of Dvarapalas facing four directions: Satya-Dharma;
Priyodbhava – Yajna; Vijaya – Yajnabhadra; and, Sarvakamada – Vibhava.

The Dvarapalas of Skanda are named as Sudeha and Sumukha. They are said to be Brahmin
brothers; but , are depicted with four arms.
The four doors of Ganapathi temple are guarded by four sets of Dvarapalas : Avijna –
Vijnaraja (East ) ; Suvakthra – Balavan (South ) ; Gajakarna – Gokarna (West ) ; and ,
Susoumya (Soumya ) – Shubadayaka (Abhaya ) on the North. They are titled as Ashta-
Prathihari (retinue of eight guards). All of them are short statured having cruel looks and
carrying fearsome weapons.
Along with the Dvarapalas their subordinates are depicted in minor relief at on the base of the
images.
Most of the Dvarapala images are sculpted according to the Agama prescriptions. But the
shilpis do tend to improvise and avail artistic liberties. Sometimes, Shilpis the temple
architects employed massive Dwarapalas at the entrances to symbolically emphasize the
grandeur, majesty and magnificence of the Lord residing in the temple.
For instance, the Dwarapalas at the Brihadeshwara temple of Thanjavur are massive. But,
what is more interesting is theme the sculptures devised to drive home the message. The
entire Dvarapala panel is basically related to the image of the elephant, the largest land-
animal, depicted within its frame; and you have to work back to gain an estimate of the size
and power of the Dvarapala.

At the bottom of the panel is the image of an elephant which is being swallowed by a serpent
which in turn is coiled around the mace held in the hands of the Dvarapala. The serpent looks
quite tiny in comparison to the mace on which the Dvarapala has planted his foot. The mace
looks like a toy in the hands of the Dvarapala. You can work-back the size and power of the
Dvarapala, staring from the elephant.
The Dvarapalas in turn look modest in comparison to the temple and its tower. The Lord who
has in his service such gigantic gatekeepers and who resides in such a magnificent temple
must truly be mighty and powerful, true to his name Brihadishwara.

Kshetrapalas:
While the Dvarapalas guard the doors of their deities, the Kshetrapala, on the other hand,
guards the entire temple –complex. The Kshetrapalas have broader functions; and , in
hierarchy placed higher than Dvarapalas.
The Kshetrapala are the protectors of a settlement, a village, a field or a
temple. Kshetra literally means a field or specifically a field of activity (In a broader sense
the body is the Kshetra the field; and the one who resides in it as the Antaryamin is
kshetrajna).

Kshetrapalas are basically the folk guardian deities who are very popular in village cults.
They are entrusted with the task of safe guarding a Kshetra (a village, a field or a temple)
against dangers coming from all the eight spatial directions. In the villages of South India
Kshetrapalas are placed in small temples or in open spaces outside of the village..Sometimes
in the village open- courtyards blocks of stone are designated and worshipped as Kshetrapala.
They are offered worship on occasions of important community celebrations.

In a major temple complex, particularly of Shiva, the Kshetrapala is provided a small shrine
on the North-East side within the temple courtyard for safeguarding the temple. Worship is
offered to Kshetrapala prior to important rituals, praying for efficient and safe conclusion of
that ritual. The Kshetrapala on the other hand have broader functions.
Kshetrapalas are installed and worshipped in Jain and Buddhist traditions also

Buddhist Kshetrapala
The Kshetrapalas are identified with Bhairava the terrible aspect of Shiva; as also with the
ferocious looking Veerabhadra the son of Shiva. . According to one legend Siva created
Kshetrapala along with others to organize the army of Kali when she went to fight the demon
[Link] the Sri Vishvanatha temple at Kasi, the Kshetrapala there also performs the
function of Dvarapala, to guard the Lord against impure elements.
When Kshetrapala attends to Mahakala, the Lord of death who resides in the burning Ghats,
it is said, Kshetrapala wearing a skull cup, holding a chopper, rides a black bear. When the
Kshetrapala are depicted in images, they are generally: awe inspiring, terrifying, huge, three
eyed, untidy, wielding a number of weapons and usually accompanied by dogs .

Chapter 4
Tantric Temples of Khajuraho and Indonesia Tantrism
1. (Hinduism) a movement within Hinduism combining magical and mystical elements a
nd with sacred writings of its own
2. (Buddhism) a similar movement within Buddhism

TANTRISM: AN OVERVIEW

The term tantrism is a nineteenth-century western invention, coined to refer to what were
considered to be a body of heterodox religious teachings, first discovered by European
scholars in Indian works called Tantras. Although there is no term in any Asian language for
tantrism, it continues to be applied by scholars to a bewilderingly diverse array of esoteric
precepts and practices attested across much of South, Inner, and East Asia from the sixth
century ce down to the present day.

The most salient phenomena common to all tantrisms are the use of maṇḍalas, mantras, and
ritual practices in order to map, organize, and control a universe of powerful beings,
impulses, or forces in pandemonium. Here, it is important to note that the specifically tantric
use of maṇḍalas, mantras, and initiations first emerged in India as a religious response to or
reflection of a situation of anomie. With the fall of the imperial Guptas in about 550 ce, much
of the Indian subcontinent was plunged into a centuries-long period of feudalism, in which
multiple, shifting political "centers" were in constant flux, passing under the control of a
series of often low-caste rulers whose claim to dominion over a territory was, from the
standpoint of orthodox religious polity, illegitimate. In order to legitimate their power, these
newly arisen rulers called on a variety of religious specialists to ritually consecrate them with
tantric mantras, transforming them into divine kings, and their conquered territories into
equally consecrated maṇḍalas of royal power. Ronald M. Davidson has encapsulated this
feudal dynamic:
In the medieval military culture, the apotheosis of the king served his strategy of divine
right to the assumption of power, irrespective of his actual lineage. However, the process of
divine royalty conversely implied the royalty of divinity, so the apotheosis of rulers entailed
the feudalization of the gods. … [T]he great and local deities of the period … occupied
positions in metaphysical space analogous to the positions controlled by their devotees in
terrestrial space, with all the attendant rights and responsibilities. At the same time, lesser
divinities became understood as representatives of the imperial divinity, who protected them
in a complex exchange of divine services, just as the vassals owed allegiance and loyalty to
the monarch through the exchanges of goods, services, land, and booty. (Indian Esoteric
Buddhism, 2002, pp. 71–72.)

When one bears in mind the Indian feudal context within which tantrism emerged out of
preexisting Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religious systems, a number of specifically tantric
terms and practices become comprehensible. These include the use of mantras (secret spells)
as "weapons" (śastras ), "missiles" (astras ), and "armor" (kavaca ); ritual practices of
"binding the directions" (dig-bandhana ) as a means to securing a consecrated space from
invasion by demonic forces; the construction of tantric maṇḍalas on the model of fortified
palace-citadels; multiple associations of tantric goddesses with warfare; the bearing of royal
weapons or scepters (vajras ) by tantric initiates; the tantric "acts" (karmas ) of pacification,
subjugation, immobilization, enmity, eradication, and liquidation; and the narrative use of the
language of conquest (both military and sexual) in tantric discourse in general. Here, the
original tantric practitioner par excellence was not the traditional religious specialist—a
Brāhmaṇ priest or a Buddhist or Jain monk—but rather the king, as exemplary member of the
laity. Much of the early history of tantrism is intertwined with the emergence of a new type of
lay religious specialist, "shamanic" ascetic practitioners who identified themselves, through
their supernatural powers, with royal gods and divine kings. To these latter, they offered a
variety of services and products, including spells and potions for the control of women, the
attainment of wealth, and the annihilation of enemies; spirit possession; magical healing and
manipulation of the dead, demons, and other entities; future-telling; and so on. In Hindu and
Buddhist circles, these tantric supermen were called "Perfected Beings" (Siddhas,
Mahāsiddhas ) and "Virile Heroes" (Vīras ); among Śvetāmbara Jains, the "Teachers" (Sūris )
of the Kharatara Gaccha sub-sect have played an analogous role.

Geographical Spread of Tantrism

The origins of tantrism are Indian. All authentic tantric lineages—of deities, scriptures, oral
teachings, and teachers—claim to extend back to Indian scriptures. The founders of every
major tantric tradition, school, or sect either trace their guru-disciple lineages back to an
Indian source, or are considered to be incarnations of bodhisattvas whose cults first arose in
India. The exploded pantheons of tantrism—principal multi-headed and multi-armed deities
proliferating into maṇḍalas of families or clans—are generally Indian, or at least traceable to
Indian prototypes. The great bulk of tantric legends concerns Indian Siddhas and
Mahāsiddhas. The hieratic language of tantrism generally remains the Sanskrit of medieval
India, so that for any lineage-based tantric body of practice to be considered legitimate in
Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Tibetan tantric traditions, its translated root text has had to be
traceable back to a Sanskrit original. In these translated sources, mantras —whose efficacy
resides in their sound shape—will not be translated, but rather frozen (at least in theory) in
the original Sanskrit. Furthermore, Sanskrit characters form the basis of the
hieratic siddham script employed in Chinese and Japanese tantric maṇḍalas and texts. The
yogic practice that is so central to tantrism is also of Indian origin (albeit influenced by
Daoist techniques).

Tantrism has persisted and quite often thrived across much of Asia since its Indian origins in
the middle of the first millennium of the common era. Its practitioners have lived in India,
China, Japan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Korea, and Mongolia, as well as in
the "Greater India" of medieval Southeast Asia: Cambodia, Burma, and Indonesia. The
medieval history of South Asian Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism is saturated with tantrism.
In Hindu India, the Pāñcarātra, Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava, Sahajiyā, Pāśupata, Kāpālika, Śaiva
Siddhānta, Siddha Kaula, Yoginī Kaula, Krama, Trika, Śrīvidyā, Paścimāmnāya, Nāth
Siddha, and Śākta movements, orders, and sects have all been tantric or heavily colored by
tantrism since the medieval period. Medieval Jain tantric works such as the tenth-
century Jvālinī Kalpa resembled coeval Hindu and Buddhist Tantras in every way but for the
names of the deities who were the objects of their ritual practice. Although Buddhism
disappeared from the subcontinent in the thirteenth century, India (including present-day
Pakistan) was the cradle of Buddhist tantrism in its Mahāyāna, Mantrayāna, and Vajrayāna
forms, which were exported into Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet.
Certain of the Yoginī Tantras of early Buddhist tantrism originated in the Swat Valley of
present-day Pakistan, and the tenth-century Kālacakra Tantra, an important Vajrayāna work,
was likely written by an author living in the same region. Tibetan Buddhism is nearly entirely
a Vajrayāna tradition: this applies to the four major existing schools (the Rnying ma
[Nyingma] pas, Bka' brgyud [Kagyu] pas, Sa skya [Sakya] pas, and Dge lugs [Geluk] pa), as
well as to specific forms of practice, such as Rdzogs chen (the "Great Perfection" practice
unique to Nyingma). The ritual of the medieval Chinese state was tantric, and China was the
medieval changing-house for nearly every Buddhist tantric tradition transmitted to Japan,
Korea, and Mongolia. In China, tantrism has persisted, since the twelfth century ce, within
Daoist ritual practice. In Japan, all of the eight traditional schools of Buddhism have a tantric
pedigree: of these, the Shingon and Tendai schools have persisted as Japan's most successful
exponents of "Pure Buddhist Esotericism." In Southeast Asia, Cambodian inscriptions
indicate the presence of Hindu tantric specialists there in the early medieval period; the
medieval kings of Bali underwent Hindu tantric initiations, and present-day Balinese
Hinduism continues to display its Indian tantric origins.

From 1642 until the exile of its Dge lugs (Geluk) pa leadership in 1950, Tibet was a tantric
Buddhist theocracy. Today, the constitutional monarchies of Nepal and Bhutan are the
world's sole surviving "tantric kingdoms," with their state ceremonial comprised of tantric
liturgies and rituals and nearly all of their deities tantric. One of these, Bhairava, is a tantric
god found in every part of Asia, and worshipped in a tantric mode by Hindus, Jains, and
Buddhists alike. Similarly, the originally Indian tantric gods Tārā, Ambikā, Akṣobhya,
Mahākāla, Gaṇeśa, Avalokiteśvara, and Skanda, as well as numerous groups of multiple
tantric deities, are found throughout much of Asia.

Fundamentals of Tantric Practice

Tantric practice consists of a set of ritual and meditative strategies for accessing and
appropriating the energy or enlightened consciousness of the absolute godhead that, coursing
through the universe, infuses its creatures with life and the potential for salvation. Humans in
particular are empowered to realize this goal through strategies of embodiment—that is, of
causing that supreme energy, essence of nirvāṇa, or quality of buddhahood to become
concentrated in one or another sort of template or grid (a maṇḍala or mantra, the human
body, or a ritual structure)—prior to its internalization in or identification with the individual
microcosm. This they may do by appropriating elements of this world (which is real and not
an illusion) such as words, images, bodies, and substances, into rituals that collapse subject
and object, thereby projecting them into a realization of their inherent buddha nature or Śiva-
self.

Drawing on its feudal Indian origins, tantrism also remains a body of practice with explicit
this-worldly aims: the control of all of the beings located in the universal power grid,
including lesser gods, living people, the dead, animals, and demons. While much of tantric
practice has become sublimated into tame forms of "pure esotericism," it must be recalled
that the great volume of early tantric texts were devoted to sorcery—that is, to magical
techniques for controlling other beings against their will. Such remains the primary goal of
tantrism as it continues to be practiced on a popular level throughout much of Asia.

The key to understanding tantric practice is the maṇḍala, the energy grid that represents the
constant flow of divine and demonic, human and animal impulses in the universe, as they
interact in both constructive and destructive patterns. This grid is three-dimensional, in the
sense that it locates the supreme deity (god, goddess, celestial buddha, bodhisattva, or
enlightened tīrthaṃkara )—the source of that energy and ground of the grid itself—at the
center and apex of a hierarchized cosmos. All other beings, including the practitioner, will be
situated at lower levels of energy/consciousness/being, radiating downward and outward
from the elevated center point. Because the deity is both transcendent and immanent, all of
the beings located at the various energy levels on the grid participate in the outward flow of
the godhead, and are in some way emanations or hypostases of the deity himself (or herself).

This is particularly the case with the tantric guru, the preceptor from whom a practitioner
receives instruction and initiation, and with whom tantric practitioners frequently identify the
godhead at the center of the maṇḍala. Here, the guru, as an already fully realized or
empowered tantric being, plays a pivotal role, linking the human with the divine. In certain
tantric traditions, the male guru's female consort—variously called the Yoginī, Ḍākinī,
"Action Seal," or "Lotus Maiden"—is equally exalted as she is identified with the supreme
female godhead. It is in this particular context that sexualized ritual may be brought to the
fore in tantric initiation: the female consort, as the embodiment of the divine, transmits to the
initiand the transformative energy and wisdom of the godhead through her sexual emissions,
which are considered to be liquid gnosis. In this way, the initiand becomes a member of the
divine family or clan of both his guru and the godhead at the center of the maṇḍala.

Crucial to the initiation process as well as to many other types of tantric practice is the notion
that within the gross body of the human microcosm there is a subtle, yogic body that is the
mesocosmic replica of the divine dyad, the supreme godhead in its male and female
manifestations. This body, comprised of energy channels and centers, drops and winds, is
itself a maṇḍala : viewed from above, the vertical central channel of the subtle body would
appear as the center point of the maṇḍala, with the various energy centers aligned along that
channel being so many concentric circles, wheels, or lotuses radiating outward. As such,
initiation and all forms of yogic practice involve, once again, an effort on the part of the
practitioner to return to the elevated center point of the emanated maṇḍala. Movement toward
the center, effected through a combination of external ritual and internal meditative practices,
basically entails harmonizing one's own energy or consciousness level with that of the
(deities of the) circle in which one finds oneself. First encountered as obstacles, these divine,
demonic, or animal impulses are eventually overcome, and transformed into positive sources
of energy that carry one closer and closer to the deity at the center. Alternatively, one may,
having overcome them, also coerce those same potentially destructive lower-level beings to
do one's bidding, through various ritual technologies.

The Institutionalization and Domestication of Tantrism

As its sociopolitical contexts have changed, so too has the content of tantrism, with persons
from a broader range of society appropriating and adapting its rituals and their attendant
metaphysics to their specific needs and aspirations. In general terms, this has taken the form
of an institutionalization of tantrism by Hindu Brāhmaṇs and Buddhist monks on the one
hand and, on the other, the domestication of its base from lay elites (kings, aristocrats, and
Siddhas) to wider strata of householder society. In spite of periodic reformations or revivals
of "primitive" tantrism in various parts of the Asian world, both of these trends have had the
effect of draining tantrism of its original specificities, of making institutional forms of
tantrism look more like the broader, conventional, or orthodox religious contexts in which
they have been embedded.

Many of the original tantric masters understood speech to be a performative act, and
intentionally subverted conventional language in their teachings and use of mantras as a
means to effect a breakthrough in their disciples' perception of reality. Among their disciples
were members of the literati, who committed these speech acts into writing, writings that
were in turn anthologized, codified, commentated on, and systematized into texts and canons
of texts. Tantric mantras, which were originally secret spells for coercing a wide range of
supernatural entities into doing one's bidding, became "semanticized" into the phonematic
manifestations of powerful gods and compassionate buddhas, who could be accessed through
the mantras ' proper pronunciation. The term mūdra ("seal"), which originally referred to the
sealing together of male and female bodies in sexual union, came to refer to complex hand
and finger positions to be maintained while meditating, or to the parched grain that Hindu
practitioners consume as a tantric sacrament. The homa fire sacrifice rituals of early tantrism,
which often involved the offering of human and animal blood and gore to ravening demonic
entities, became sublimated into either yogic practice or the meditative burning away of
impediments to liberation or salvation in the fire of gnosis. More fundamentally, the tantric
ritual arena came to be sealed off from the powerful but dangerous entities and forces of the
original tantric universe, with the pandemonium of the real world walled out from the quiet
center or the monastic cell or household shrine.

Orthodox Hindu and Buddhist hermeneutical strategies neutralized the heterodox and
heteroprax content of early tantrism by interpreting it in a variety of ways. On the one hand,
much of what was objectionable in the externals of tantric practice was internalized into
yogic, meditative, or imaginative techniques. On the other, such practices were marginalized
into the purview of a limited elite—the Siddhas and Vīras of tantric legend and their
emulators—with more conventional, devotional, salvation-oriented practice recommended
for the religious mainstream of monks, priests, and householders. Here, there was a trade-off
between danger and efficacy, purity and power in the world, in which circumspection was
strongly advised to all but a select few. It was the dangerous content of the early tantric
rituals that most distinguished them from those found in the orthodox Buddhist Sūtra
literature and the Hindu Vedas: but for those who dared to undertake them, and transact in
prohibited substances (sexual fluids, unclean or proscribed food) with problematic beings
(outcaste women, minions of the spirit world) through heterodox practices (sexualized
initiation rituals, sorcery), self-transformation could be instantaneous rather than the result of
several lifetimes of practice.
India is the land of the prince, Siddhartha, who was born under a tree by the
wayside, became the Buddha, and died under a sal tree. He owned nothing but a
begging bowl, and yet the wheel of dharma he set in motion continues to bestow
nirvana twenty-five centuries later.
King Rama of north India built a bridge between Sri Lanka and south India so
that two ethnic groups could intermingle more easily. In contrast, Chinese rulers
built the Great Wall to seal off their country from outsiders. While Roman
emperors celebrated their victories by constructing huge monuments, emperors in
India used their wealth to have sacred fire rituals performed.

Here in the West we have built our universities, museums, and libraries in cities,
but in India they chose jungles and remote hilltops for their centers of learning.
Westerners believe that places of worship should be in easily accessible
locations, but in India the more sacred the site, the more remote the location.

Consider the shrines in the Himalayas: Kedarnath, Badrinath, and the shrines in
and on the way to the remote Valley of Flowers. This is where Hindu and
Buddhist monks built their monasteries, preserved their manuscripts, and
dedicated their lives to self-discovery. Paradox has drawn people from all over
the world (as well as Indians themselves) to explore the enigma that is India.
One of the greatest riddles is a mysterious complex of temples at Khajuraho, in
central India.

Khajuraho are a complex of magnificent temples belonging to all the major

spiritual traditions of ancient India. Covered with intricate carvings, the temples
had been mysteriously abandoned for seven centuries or longer. One wonders
what had inspired people to spend five hundred years building a complex of
elaborate temples, only to abandon the site and let the jungle reclaim them.

The great sage, Matanga (whose daughter was the Divine Mother), chose
Khajuraho as the place to pursue his spiritual practices. Matangeshwara, a
magnificent temple named after him, still stands there today. Further, history
tells us that the Khajuraho complex was built by the kings of the Chandela
dynasty, whose genealogy traces back to Sage Chandrama, the son of the
illustrious sage Atri. In all probability Chandrama lived there, as did his two
brothers, the sages Durvasa and Dattatreya. Clearly the area in and around
Khajuraho is charged with spiritual energy.

The Concept of the Shringara rasa

Shringara rasa - the sentiment of erotic love, and first of the nine rasas / navarasas as they
are called are the natural states of mind experienced by humans. Of the nine sentiments -nava
rasas, shringara occupies an important place in the history of ancient Indian literature and
fine arts. Indian temples show the figures of apsaras depicting the sentiment of love, both in
the theoretical aspects relating to theatrics (as described in Natyashastra by Bharata Muni
around 2nd century AD) as well as in the practical side of life with Kamasutra of Vatsyayana
(by sage Vatsyayana,around 2-3 century AD) as its base. Many erotic sculptures depicting
union also involve dwarf figures at the base as secondary figures which are in pranayama
variations with hatha yoga mudras and are tantra based union figures.
(Though based on Patanjali Yoga sutra assigned between 3-4th century AD, Hatha yoga
gained prominence beyond 5th century AD). Several commentaries on these topics were
written in the subsequent periods and by medieval period the kings who sponsored the
construction of temples, the sthapatis and sculptors were all well versed on these topics along
with religious and philosophical aspects. The outcome was the inclusion of these topics in a
permanent medium of stone in temples for mass communication. This article focuses on how
to understand the shades of shringara rasa that are depicted on the outer walls of Indian
temples and how tantric themes, are different from non-tantric ones as they are based on
different ancient texts
Erotic Sentiment in Indian Temple Sculptures,By Rekha Rao
.THE BENEVOLENT FORCES OF NATURE

The shrine known as Sixty-Four Yoginis is at the core of the entire temple
complex. The spiritual significance of this region, that the general nature of
tantric practices that the adepts undertook here, and the specific characteristics
of the traditions represented by the various temples.

In the tantric tradition, the Sixty-Four Yoginis are the presiding deities that
guide and govern the entire fabric of life. Together they constitute all the
benevolent forces of nature. They are the presiding deities of the sixty-four arts
and sciences, which cover the whole range of human creativity. Tantric texts,
such as Rudra Yamala, explain that it is these yoginis who breathe life into
matter. Manifesting in the form of prana (the life-force), they not only hold the
body and mind together, they also animate them. Awakening these forces is the
essence of spiritual accomplishment. In fact, only when these forces are
awakened do we find meaning and purpose in our own worldly achievements. As
long as they are dormant, we are weighed down by life’s burdens.

According to the tradition, there are special places charged with spiritual energy
which help aspirants reach their goal. This energy gives a unique personality to
each of these sites.
The spiritual energy of Banaras, for example, is characterized by knowledge; at
Allahabad it is characterized by inner balance; at Ayodhya, by self-sacrifice; at
Brindavan, by love; at Bodhigaya, non-attachment; and at
Kamakhya, siddhis (supernatural powers).
At the site of Sixty-Four Yoginis, the spiritual energy of Khajuraho enables us to
experience our body as a living shrine.

Western Entry: One enters the complex through the gate of the western complex
of temples and stands right in front of the majestic Sun temple (the temple of
the Sun god who banishes darkness from the face of the Earth), sometimes
known as the Chitragupta temple. The architectural designs of the temples, along
with the teeming statues of animals, humans, demigods, nymphs, gods,
goddesses, and demons so systematically arranged on the walls, were the
counterparts of the currents and crosscurrents of energies—both positive and
negative, constructive and destructive—that make up our world. Humans too are
a perfect blend of these twofold energies.

Using sculpture and architecture , the builders of the Khajuraho temple

complex have created a dynamic panorama of anger and love, hatred and
kindness, greed and generosity, revenge and forgiveness—one impulse granting
spiritual freedom, its opposite weaving a snare of sensual slavery and frustration.
Seeing this, I understood how the spiritual journey begins: with the recognition
that these same thoughts, feelings, emotions, urges, and habit patterns—both
positive and negative—swirl within each of us. Here are carved exquisite details
a cluster of images depicting humans involved in the base level of our existence
—fighting, fleeing from battle, fornicating, beset by confusion, fear, and doubt.

Khajuraho complex is home to the largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples in India.
These temples are noted for their architectural beauty and erotic [Link] not all
temples are Tantric. Why some are and others are not is open to speculation. They were built
by different people with differing beliefs. That could be one explainationm. Most Khajuraho
temples were built between 885 AD and 1000 AD by the Chandela dynasty. Historical
records note that the Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by the 12th century, spread over
20 square kilometers. Of these, only about 25 temples have survived, spread over six square
kilometers. Of the surviving temples, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is decorated with a
profusion of sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of ancient Indian
art. The temple complex was forgotten and overgrown by the jungle until 1838 when Captain
T.S. Burt, a British engineer, visited the complex and reported his findings in the Journal of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

When these monuments were built, the boys in the place lived in hermitages, by
being brahmcharis (bachelor) until they attained manhood and these sculptures helped them
to learn about the worldly role of 'householder'. The Khajuraho group of temples were built
together but were dedicated to two religions, Hinduism and Jainism, suggesting a tradition of
acceptance and respect for diverse religious views among Hindus and Jains in the region.

The Chausath (64 ) Yogini temple

The Chausath (64 ) Yogini temple is a ruined Yogini temple in the Khajuraho town
of Madhya Pradesh, India. Dated to the late 9th century, it is the oldest surviving temple at
Khajuraho. Unlike the Yogini temples at other places, it has a rectangular plan, but like them
it is hypaethral, open to the air.

The construction of the Khajuraho Yogini temple can be dated to approximately 885 CE. It is
the earliest extant temple at the Chandela capital, Khajuraho. Ruins of Yogini temples have
been found at other places in and around the territory formerly ruled by the Chandelas or their
feudatories, including Badoh, Bhedaghat Dudahi, Lokhari, Hinglajgarh, Mitaoli, Nareshwar,
and Rikhiyan. This suggests that the cult of the Yoginis was well-established in the Chandela
territory. The Chausath Yogini temples are connected to the Kapalika and Kaula sects.
 Jain temple cluster in Khajurao in 1885:
L to R: a small temple, Parshvanath temple
with entrance, Adinath temple, two smaller temples
with ruins with 3 columns. The Shantinath temple,
out of the view, would have been on the left.
in Chhatarpur district, Madhya Pradesh, India, about 175 kilometres southeast of the city
of Jhansi.
During the Chandela rule, many towns in Bundelkhand, including Khajuraho, were home to
large and flourishing Jain communities. At Khajuraho the Jains apparently lived on the east
side of town. A number of Jain temples from that period have survived in this part of
Khajuraho in various states of preservation. Many Jain inscriptions from the Chandela period
can be seen at Khajuraho. All the Jain temples are now enclosed within a modern compound
wall constructed in the 19th century, with the exception of the Ghantai temple, when the
restoration of the temples was initiated. There is also an archaeological museum where
historical Jain artifacts from the chandella period are preserved.A key difference between the
Jain temples and most other Khajuraho temples is that the Jain temples are alive with active
praying and worship. Digambar Jain monks still visit from time to time and can be seen
meditating, studying or preaching.
Two of the large temples still stand in a good state of preservation in the original form. The
portico of the Adinath temple is a later addition. The enclosed Shantinath temple houses a
massive monolithic Shantinath image. It also incorporates at least one other Chandella period
temple. To the east of these temples are several small Chandella temples that have been
restored using masonry. The temple complex underwent restoration in 1870 AD, when
a Gajarath festival was organized by Kanchhedtilal Jain of Nagaur marking a renewal of the
site accompanied by installations of new images, as indicated by the [Link] stone
structures were stabilized using masonry and the Shantinath temple was constructed
incorporating two Chandella period temples.

A number of Jain inscriptions from the Chandella period have been found in Khajurao.
The earliest is the Samvat 1011 (AD 954) in the Parshvanath Temple and the last is Samvat
1234 (1177 AD, it is also the last Chandella era inscription in Khajuraho). Pratishtha events
must have taken place in Samvat 1205 and 1215 with multiple images of those years. During
the time of Kirttivarman (reigned c. 1060–1100 CE), the capital shifted to Mahoba, and
Khajuraho declined. The Jain activity resumed around samvat 1915 (1858 AD), when the
temples were repaired and installation of new images was restarted.

Parshvanath Temple

Parshvanatha temple :- Pārśvanātha Mandir is a 10th-century Jain temple

at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is now dedicated to Parshvanatha, although it was
probably built as an Adinatha shrine during the Chandela period. Despite the temple's Jain
affiliation, its exterior walls feature Vaishnavaite themes. The entrance has an inscription
with a most-perfect magic square. It is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with
other temples in the Khajuraho Group of Monuments.
The temple is believed to have been constructed by a prominent Jain family between 950 and
970 CE, during the reign of the Chandela king Dhanga. A 954 CE (1011 VS) inscription on
the left door jamb of the temple records gifts and endowments of gardens by one Pahila. The
gardens are named Pahila-vatika, Chandra-vatika, Laghuchandra-vatika, Shankara-vatika,
Panchaitala-vatika, Amra-vatika and Dhanga-vadi. The inscription describes Pahila as a
devotee of Jinanatha and states that he was held in great esteem by the king Dhanga.
The earliest idol enshrined in the temple appears to have been that of Adinatha. When the
British archaeological surveyor Alexander Cunningham visited in 1852, he found the
main sanctum deserted. He described it as "Jinanatha temple" and wrote that it had been
repaired by a Jain banker in 1847. In 1860, a Parshvanatha idol was installed in the main
sanctum. An Adinatha statue was placed in a secondary shrine attached to the rear of the
temple.
The temple has been classified as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological
Survey of India.

ARCHITECTURE

The Parshvanatha temple is the largest among the Jain temples of Khajuraho It has an
entrance porch, a small hall, a large hall (mandapa), a vestibule, and a sanctum. The temple
structure has an oblong architectural plan with projections at two ends. The front (eastern)
projection forms the entrance porch, the back (western) projection is a shrine attached to the
sanctum.
The ceiling of the entrance porch features chain and floral patterns, and a pair of intertwined
flying vidyadharas. The door-lintel of the mandapa has the sculpture of Adinatha's attendant:
a ten-armed Chakreshvari riding a Garuda. The sanctum features sculptures of the Jinas.
The outer walls have three bands of sculpturesThese sculptures feature surasundaris (graceful
women), flying couples, dancers, musicians, and celestial beings. Despite the temple's Jain
affiliation, the outer walls also depict Vaishnavite themes including sculptures of Hindu gods
and their incarnations with their consorts. These include Vishnu-Lakshmi, Rama-
Sita, Balarama-Revati, Parashurama, Hanuman, Brahma and Yamalarjuna legend of Krishna.
These sculptures are similar to those of the Lakshmana Temple in modeling, proportions and
poise. Unlike the Lakshmana temple, the Parshvanatha temple doesn't feature explicit erotic
sculptures, although one particular image appears to show a cross-
legged apsara masturbating with an object.
 Vue d'ensemble du temple de Parshvanath à Khajuraho Ce temple est le plus imposant des temples
jaïns du groupe est de Khajuraho. Il est renommé pour la qualité de ses sculptures extérieures. La
religion jaïn n'étant pas touchée par le tantrisme, aucune scène érotique n'existe parmi les décors de
ce temple qui date de la période 950-970. Le Jaïnisme a été fondé au VIème siècle avant J.-C. par
Mahavira (599-527 av J-C), qui était un contemporain du Bouddha. Tous deux s'opposaient au
système des castes, au pouvoir des brahmanes et aux rites hindouistes. La non-violence (Ahimsa)
est l'un des fondements de la religion jaïne. Selon Wikipedia, Parshvanâtha (Parshvanath) - au VIIIe
ou VIIe siècle av. J.-C. - est un ascète membre du clan des Licchavi, qui aurait fondé un ordre
comprenant 8 communautés. Ce temple lui a été dédié au XIXème siècle, cet ascète a été
l'inspirateur de la religion jaïne. Les maîtres sont représentés nus sur les panneaux sculptés.
The inscription containing the 4×4 most-perfect magic square Parshwanath Temple at the
entrance has an inscription with a magic square, called the "Jaina square". This is one of the
oldest known 4×4 most-perfect magic squares. It contains all the numbers from 1 to 16. 1000 yrs
old
The temple has an inscription with a magic square, called the "Jaina square". This is one of
the oldest known 4×4 magic squares as well as one of the oldest known most-perfect magic
squares.
This magic square contains all the numbers from 1 to 16. The sum of the numbers in every
horizontal row, every vertical column and the two diagonal rows is 34.[9]

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11
 16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

The sum of the numbers in the smaller 2x2 squares at the four corners, as well as those in the
central 2x2 square, is also 34.[9]

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5
 9 6 15 4

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

The magic square is pandiagonal, aka diabolic: the numbers in its broken diagonals also sum
up to 34. For example, 7 + (6 + 10 + 11) = 34.

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4
 7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11

16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4

Shrine cells
 Yogini
temple plan, showing the 64 small shrines around a rectangular courtyard, and one larger
shrine at the centre of the wall opposite the entrance
The temple is among the Western group of temples on a 5.4 m high platform. It has a
rectangular plan measuring 31.4 m x 18.3 m. It is one of the historic Yogini temples across
India; many of the others have a circular plan, though those at Rikhiyan and Badoh are also
rectangular, so there was at least a local tradition of building them in this shape. Like all
Yogini temples, the Khajuraho temple is hypaethral, open to the air.
The temple is made of large, coarse granite blocks, with an open courtyard at the centre. The
courtyard was originally surrounded by 65 shrine cells: 10 on the front (north) wall, 11 on the
back wall, and 22 on each side. Only 35 of these 65 cells now survive; each has a small
doorway made of two squared granite pillars and a lintel stone, and a curvilinear tower roof.
Above the lintel of the best-surviving cells is a triangular pediment. There is no surviving
trace of a central shrine, whether to Shiva or the Goddess, as found in other Yogini temples.
Apart from a single much larger cell for the deity, each of the 64 cells for yoginis is
approximately 1 m high and 1 m deep. The large cell is located at the centre of the back wall,
and faces the entrance at the north. It was probably a shrine of Durga. The other 64
("Chausath") cells presumably housed the statues of yoginis.
No sculptures remain among the temple ruins. Three large statues of mother goddesses
or Matrikas, found among the ruins, are now in the Khajuraho museum. The goddesses have
been identified as Brahmani, Maheshvari, and Hingalaja or Mahishamardini. The image of
Brahmani has three faces; her vehicle is a hamsa (swan or goose). Maheshvari is depicted
with a trident and a humped bull. The image of Mahishamardini has one foot on a buffalo that
she has defeated; she is holding its legs, and in two of her eight arms she wields a sword and
[Link] statues are among the oldest sculptures of Khajuraho…. Read the authors
paper…

3 MANDALAs
The 3 circular platforms & the big stupa of Borobudur