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Psychology: A Scientific Discipline ● Scientific knowledge is
● Science is broadly based on verifiable
classified into three basic evidence so that other
groups investigators can observe
1. Physical sciences (physics, or measure the same
chemistry, zoology) PCZ phenomena and verify its
2. Biological accuracy in future
sciences(zoology, botany, 2. Objectivity:
physiology) ZBP (consideration,
3. Social sciences acceptance, unbiased)
● Science objectively studies
(psychology,sociology,eco
the phenomenon under
nomics) PSE
consideration
Science:
● Science is derived from a ● Objectivity means the
Latin word ‘scientia’ which ability to see and accept
means knowledge the facts as they are and
● It is the pursuit and not as the investigator
application of knowledge and might wish them to be
understanding of the natural ● Objectivity means that all
and social world following a sources of biases,
systematic methodology prejudices, beliefs, wishes,
based on evidences Key values, preferences, etc
features of science: are set aside while
1. Empirical evidence: investigating a particular
(evidence, observation, phenomenon
verification) 3. Scientific causality:
● Science is an evidence- (cause, two variables,
based approach to study effect & cause)
and interpret information ● Science aims at finding out
● Empirical evidence refers the cause-effect relationship
to acquiring information between variables under
through direct observation consideration
or experiments
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● In a scientific study, a enables in establishing a
researcher tries to control scientific theory
all extraneous variables in 6. Predictability:
order to find out the effect of (prediction, explanation)
● Predictability is an
the independent variable
important feature of
(cause) on the dependent
science
variable (e effect)
● Scientists do not merely
4. Systematic exploration:
(sequence, scientific describe the phenomenon
steps) being studied, but also
● Science adopts a certain attempt to explain it and
sequential procedure for make predictions
studying a particular accordingly.
phenomenon History of psychology as a
● Sequential procedure science :
includes few scientific 1. Psychology begins as a
branch of philosophy:
steps like identifying the
● Origins dates back to the
problem, formulation of
Ancient Greeks
hypothesis, collection of
● Did not first emerge as a
facts, analysis of facts,
branch of science
scientific generalisation
● Was a branch of
and prediction
philosophy until the 1870s
2. Psychology emerges as
5. Replication: a separate discipline in
(reproduction, reliability 1879:
and establishment) ● Wilhelm Wundt (German
● Replication means
psychologist) established
reproducibility of scientific
the world’s first
knowledge under the same
psychology laboratory in
circumstances stated
1879 in Germany at
anywhere and anytime
University of Leipzig
● Replication assures the
reliability of results and it
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● This event is considered as human
the official start of consciousness
psychology as a separate 5. Emergence of
scientific discipline Psychoanalysis:
● In contrast to the early
3. Emergence of
structuralism: schools of thoughts, an
● Structuralism is widely Austrian physician named
regarded as the first Sigmund Freud proposed
school of thought in a theory of Psychoanalysis
psychology in early 1890s ● He gave
● Wilhelm Wundt and his importance to the study of
student Edward B. the unconscious mind
Titchener advocated 6. Emergence of
Structuralism Behaviourism:
● During the early 20th
● Wilhelm Wundt used the
century an American
method of introspection to
psychologist named John
study the conscious
B. Watson advocated a
experiences like sensation,
new school of thought
perception, etc
known as Behaviourism
4. Emergence of
Functionalism: ● Behaviourism rejected
● Functionalism both the study of
was advocated conscious experiences and
by William unconscious mind and
James made psychology a more
● He is known scientific discipline by
as the father of focusing on the study of
‘American observable behaviours
Psychology’ 7. Emergence of
● s● He Humanistic psychology:
● The first half of the 20th
emphasised on
century was dominated by
the study of
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Psychoanalysis and
Behaviourism
● During the second half of
the 20th century, Carl
Rogers, an American
psychologist advocated
the new perspective
known as Humanistic
Psychology
● In contrast to the study of
unconsciousness
advocated by
behaviourism, humanistic
psychology stressed upon
the study of power of free
will, self-determination
and self-actualisation
8. Emergence of
Behaviourism:
● During the 1960s,
Psychoanalysis and
Behaviourism were
replaced by the new
perspective known as
Cognitivism
● American psychologist
named Ulric Neisser is
generally considered as
the founder of Cognitivism
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Researches in Cognitive [Link] terms of experimental
Psychology study higher method:
1. Problem: aim/goal
cognitive processes like
2. Hypothesis: tentative
memory, decision-making,
solution- reject, accept,
problem solving,
partially accept
intelligence, languages etc
3. Independent variable:
with tools like MRI and
variable
PET scans
4. Dependent variable:
Research methods in
psychology: depends on independent
1. Experimental method: variable and is measurable
● Experimental method is 5. Intervening variables:
one of the most scientific extra factors
method of studying 6. Experimenter: conducts
behaviour experiment
● It is the method which has 7. Participant: on whom
assigned the status of experiment is being
science to psychology conducted
● In experimental method, [Link] features of
the experimenter conducts experimental method:
experiments using 1. Experimental method is
following steps: a. one of the most objective
Identifying problem method of collecting data
b. Developing hypothesis 2. It enables accurate
c. Selecting an observations in controlled
experimental design and conditions
standardising the 3. Experimental method
experimental and
helps in finding out the
procedure
d. Conducting experiment cause and effect
and collecting data relationship between two
e. Analysing data or more variables
f. Drawing conclusions
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●
4. The findings of telephonic calls or direct
experimental method are interaction with
verifiable respondents
2. Survey method: 3. Observation method:
● A survey is de ned as a ● Observation method is a
research method used for research method which is
collecting data from a pre- very useful in the areas
de ned group of where experiments cannot
respondents (sample) to be conducted
gain information and ● It is a method in which
insights on various topics behaviour is observed in a
of interest such as natural or laboratory
political opinion, setting
consumers’ preferences ● Observation carried out in
etc a natural setting is called
● Survey method makes use natural observation
of questionnaires, ● Observation carried out in
checklists, rating scales, a laboratory setting is
inventories, interviews etc called controlled
to collect the required observation
information ● Observation method is
● Survey method is largely widely used by child
used by social psychologists, clinical
psychologists, educational psychologist, social
psychologists, industrial psychologists etc
psychologists etc ● Observation method can
● Survey method is an be treated as a scientific
economic and an efficient method and will be
method of data collection beneficial when it is used
● Surveys can be with the specific purpose
undertaken using email, of the research and
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planned in a systematic current level of
way psychological functioning
4. Case study method: ● A researcher while using
● Case study is one of the case study method may
qualitative research use several techniques like
methods used in observation, interview,
psychology psychological tests etc to
● This method is mostly collect information about a
used by clinical particular individual
psychologists 5. Correlation studies:
● Sigmund Freud and Jean ● There are certain studies
Piaget were the two which make use of
important figures to use correlation as a statistical
case study method wisely tool to understand the
● Case study is an in-depth relation among variables
look at an individual, ● Such studies are called
group or a particular event correlational studies
● Case study can be treated ● Correlation is a statistical
as a scientific method as it tool used to measure the
provides rich descriptive relationship between two
information often or more variables
suggesting hypotheses for ● If the change in one
further studies variable appears to be
In case study method a accompanied by a change
researcher collects in the other variable, the
information about a two variables are said to
particular individual be correlated and this in
(case) from multiple independence is called
sources such as parents, correlation
family members, peers, ● The extent of correlation
teachers, colleagues, etc between two variables is
to assess the individual’s
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●
measured by correlation c
coefficient o
● A correlation coefficient is r
always a number between r
-1.00 to +1.00 e
● The sign (+ or -) of a l
correlation coefficient a
indicates the direction of t
the relationship between i
the variables o
Th n
e :
r
e 1
.
a
r A
e
p
3 o
s
t i
y t
p i
e v
s e
o c
f o
r
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r between 0.00 to -1.00 ●
e For example, amount of
l exercise and level of body
a fats 3. A zero
t correlation:
i
o
n
:
● When both variables
either increase or
decrease at the same time,
they are said to have a
positive correlation
between them
● In case of positive
correlation, the value of
correlation is found
between 0.00 and +1.00 ●
For example, the amount
of rehearsal and recall
score 2. A negative
correlation:
● When an increase in one
variable is associated with
a decrease in the other
and vice versa, they are
said to have a negative
correlation between them
● In case of a negative
correlation, the value of
correlation is found
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●
When any change in one producing a cumulative
variable brings no body of knowledge that
significant change in other has a clear conceptual
variable, they are said to core that is consequently
have a zero correlation agreed upon by experts in
● In case of zero correlation psychology
the value of correlation 2. Issues related to
coefficient is found to be 0 objectivity and validity
● Some areas of psychology
● For example, height and
such as personality,
intelligence
leadership, creativity,
Challenges in establishing
emotions, attitudes etc
psychology as a science:
rely on “soft” research
Controversies and criticisms of
methods such as surveys
psychology have been made on
and questionnaires etc
theoretical, practical, ethical
● Methods such as
and philosophical grounds
introspection and
1. Psychology in pre-
paradigmatic state: psychoanalysis are
● In contrast to mature and inherently subjective
natural sciences such as ● Therefore, psychology to
physics and chemistry, some extent falls short on
psychology is younger and the criteria of objectivity
a social science and validity
● Though psychology is 3. Issues related to
considered as a science predictability and
replicability:
according to philosopher
● A major goal of
named Thomas Kuhn,
psychology is to predict
psychology is still in a pre-
behaviour by its causes
paradigmatic state
● In psychology making
● Psychology has not
exact predictions is di cult
succeeded yet in
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as people respond human behaviour, at the
differently in same time it accepts the
different situations fact that human behaviour
● Human behaviour is more is dynamic and complex.
di cult to study than ● Some of our behaviours
particles and chemical are commonly seen in
compounds others at the same time
● Therefore, the test results some of our behaviours
in psychology are more are exclusive.
varied, harder to control ● Attaining happiness is
and di cult to replicate man’s greatest aim in life.
4. Objectifying humans: ● While achieving this aim,
● Some existential and every individual feel,
humanistic psychologists thinks and acts
from within the field exclusively.
criticise that by subjecting ● But while being happy one
human behaviour to should see to it that one’s
experimentation emotions, thoughts and
psychologists objectify acts do not get driven by
persons irrational influences and
Since it treats human one should not
beings as things as objects compromise on social
that can be examined by norms, values and ethics
experiments psychology is for being happy.
sometimes portrayed as ● Here the aspect of
dehumanising what is rationality comes in
most essential about being picture in psychology.
human ● Sciences are appreciated
Importance of rationalism: by society when
● Being a science,
application of scientific
psychology tries to
knowledge improves the
establish laws that govern
quality of life.
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●
● Like other sciences, psychology) has given
psychology too helps in values of rational living.
improving the quality of ● He also says that rational
life by applying the people are psychologically
concept of rationality in healthy people and they
day to day life. possess certain
● Stanovich and his characteristics.
colleagues while talking 1. Understanding self-
about rationality stated interest and social
that, “Rationality involves interest: ‘Safeguard your
adaptive reasoning, good self-interest and know
judgement and good others interest’ is almost
decision making.” like a slogan of Rational
● Sternberg and his Emotive Behavioural
colleagues while talking Therapy. Rational people
about intelligence understand what is self-
suggested that Practical promoting and what helps
Intelligence can be de ned them to grow and they
as “the ability to perform take responsibility of
successfully in naturalistic making those choices but
settings in a way that is at the same time take care
consistent with one’s of not violating other
goal.” person’s rights and aid in
● Dr. Albert Ellis who survival of the society in
proposed Rational Emotive which they live.
Behavioural Therapy (one 2. Self-direction : Rational
of the people assume primary
effective and popular responsibility for their
method of intervention in own lives rather than
the field of counselling demanding or needing
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excessive support or
nurturance from others.
3. Tolerance : Rational
people are highly tolerant.
Tolerance is the
willingness to accept
behaviour and beliefs of
others that are different
from one's own. Similarly,
rational people accept
one’s own and others’
right to be wrong.
4. Flexibility : Rational
people are found to be
healthy individuals.
Rational people tend to be
flexible, unbiased in their
thoughts and actions
5. Self-acceptance and
self-responsibility :
Rational people accept
themselves
unconditionally rather
than rating or proving
themselves and also
accept responsibility for
their own thoughts,
beliefs, feelings and
behaviour.
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