Unit –V

Automation and Robotics

Automation: Definition, Types - Fixed, Programmable & Flexible
Automation with examples.
CNC technology: Introduction, components of CNC, Advantages
and Applications of CNC, CNC Machining Centers and Turning
Centers.
Robotics: Robot Anatomy, Joints & Links, Common Robot
Configurations, Applications of Robotics in Material Handling,
Processing, Assembly and Inspection.
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Components of Electric and Hybrid
Vehicles, Batteries for EV, Chargers, Power devices, Drives and
Transmission, Advantages and disadvantages of EVs and Hybrid
vehicles.
 AUTOMATION

Introduction to Automation:
 The concept of Automation has evolved from the term
mechanization, which had its beginnings during the Industrial
Revolution, Mechanization meant the replacement of human
power with some form of mechanical power.

 Mechanization resulted in series of inventions such as Steam

Engine by Watt, mechanical loom invented by Jacquard, Power
loom by Edmund Cartwright, etc.

 Another historical development was the analytical engine by

Charles Babbage which sowed the seeds for development of
the modern computer.
 Though Mechanization reduced human efforts, it did not
replace human with its technologies. Then came the need for
automation.

 In 1946, the term automation was first coined by Delmar S.

Harder of the Ford Motor Company to describe increased use
of automatic devices and controls in mechanized production
lines.

 When initially coined by Harder, the term Automation was used

to describe automatic transfer of parts from one metalworking
machine to another.

 But, Automation is now used both manufacturing and non-

manufacturing context to describe a variety of systems where
the human effort and intelligence are substantially substituted
by mechanical, electrical, or computerized action.
 In a general sense, automation is a technology of executing a
process by way of programmed commands along with
automatic feedback control to ensure proper execution of the
instructions thereby resulting in a system that is capable of
operating without human intervention.

 With constant technological improvements, automated systems

have become advanced to a level of capability and
performance that far surpasses the human abilities to
accomplish similar activities.

 Automation has given birth to other technologies that are widely

popular on their own today.

 Example: Robotics, CNC

Three Classes of Industrial Automation:
Basic Elements of an Automated System:
 An Automated system is the system that is used to realize
automation.
 As shown in Figure there are three basic elements of an
automated system. The three basic elements of an automated
system are:
1. Power Source
2. Program of Instructions
3. Control System

Fig. Basic elements of an automated system

 Principally in an automated system, the program of instructions
are fed to the control system where these instructions are
executed and a power source is used to provide power to drive
the process as well as operate the control system. The process
then becomes an "automated process“.

Program of Instructions:
 The set of actions that is accomplished by an automated
system are determined by the program of instructions.
 Each part produced in a manufacturing operation requires
following of sequential processing steps within a work cycle.
 These processing steps for the work cycle are specified in a
work cycle program.
The Work Cycle Programs in an automated system must include the following
features:
a. Distinct number of steps involved in the work cycle. Example: Simple steps of
load, process and unload.
b. Number of Process parameters (which are the inputs to the process), are the
process parameters continuous or discrete? How are these parameters
actuated? Will the parameters change during the step?
c. Is the work cycle completely automated or is there any human involvement?
d. Does the production style remain the same throughout the cycle (as in fixed
automation) or does it changes across batches (as in programmable
automation) or does it require processing different product styles or models in
each cycle (as in flexible automation)?
e. Does the start dimensions vary? If so adjustments are required in the work
cycle.
f. Does it require the operator to enter processing data for each cycle of work?
Control System:
The function of the Control System is to execute the program of
instructions and make the process to carry out a manufacturing
operation.

There are basically two types of Control systems:

1. Closed loop Control system
2. Open loop Control system

Closed loop Control System (Feedback Control System):

In this control system, the output variable is compared to an input
parameter and the difference between the output variable (which is the
actual condition) and input parameter (which is the input condition) is
sensed and fed back to drive the output according to input
The basic elements of a feedback control system are:
a. Input parameter: This is the set point which defines what must
be the output value.
b. Process: Process is the operation that is being controlled.
c. Output variable: The output variable is the actual value of the
parameter.
d. Feedback Sensors: Sensors measure the output variable and
feeds it back to the control system. Thus, a feedback loop is
created between input and output.
e. Controller: The function of the controller is to compare the actual
output with the desired input, compute the difference and make
suitable process adjustments that reduces the difference
between output and input.
d. Actuators: The adjustments made in the process are
actuated by hardware devices called Actuators that uses
hardware devices like motor or valve to physically control the
actions.
Advantages of Closed loop Control system:
1. The response to an input signal is faster
2. Can be used to stabilize systems that are inherently unstable in the open-
loop form.
3. Closed loop systems are more accurate since the feedback ensures that
the difference between the actual output and desired input 'is minimal.
Thus errors are also minimal.
4. Closed loop systems are less affected by disturbances.

Disadvantages of Closed loop Control system:

1. The use of sensors for feedback increases the system cost.
2. More complex than open loop system since more number of components
are used.
3. Since stability is the main concern in a closed loop control system, more
care must be taken to design such a system
Open loop Control System:
In this control system, there is no comparison of the output variable to
the input parameter since feedback element is missing here. The Open
loop control system is given below in terms of a simple block diagram
The open loop control system is chosen when the actions performed by
the control system are simple, the reliability of the actuator is very high
and the reaction forces counteracting the actuator are so negligible that
they do not have any effect on the actuator.
Advantages of an Open loop control system:
1. Simple system to operate
2. Does not involve much cost since feedback is not present.

Disadvantages of an Open loop control system:

1. There is no measurement of output versus input. Thus we
cannot say that the system output is achieving the desired
input requirements.
2. Actuator will not have its intended effect on the process.
3. Open loop systems are more affected by disturbances.
Definition of Automation:
 The word 'Automation is derived from Greek words "Auto"(self)
and "Matos" (moving).

 Automation can be defined as “the set of technologies of

carrying out a process or procedure without human assistance
and achieves performance superior to manual operation”.

Types of Automation:
The automation of production systems can be classified into three
basic types.

1. Fixed Automation or Hard Automation

2. Programmable Automation or Soft Automation

3. Flexible Automation
1. Fixed automation:
 Fixed automation or hard automation is a type of automation which
uses special purpose equipment in order to automate a fixed
sequence of processing or assembly operations.

 The programmed commands are contained in the equipment in the

form of cams, gears, wiring etc.

 The equipment is designed to be efficient for the fixed set of

operations.

 Usually each of the operation in the sequence is simple involving a

plain linear or rotational motion or both.

 But integration and co-ordination of one or more operations can

introduce complexity in the hard automated system.
 This type of automation is highly recommended for mass
production systems that require high rate of production.

 Examples of Fixed automation are transfer lines found in the

automotive industry, paint shops, distillation process, automatic
assembly processes, chemical processes, etc.

Advantages of Fixed Automation:

1. The production rates realized are high.
2. Since goods are mass produced, the unit cost will be low.
3. Material handling is automated by the specialized equipment
and thus special robot intervention is not required.

Disadvantages of Fixed Automation:

1. High initial investment for the special purpose equipment.
2. Not flexible to accommodate product variety / product
changes.
2. Programmable automation:
 The Programmable automation or soft automation is chosen in
production systems where the volume of production is relatively low
and there are a number of variety of products to be produced.

 Here, the equipment for production is designed to be adaptable to

variations in the product styles/configuration.

 The step by step instructions in the form of a program controls the

sequence of operations and these programs are read and interpreted
by the system.

 For every new batch the production equipment must be re-

programmed and changed over to as per the new product
configuration.
Advantages of Programmable Automation:
1. Very much suitable for batch production.

2. Flexible to adapt to the changes in the product configuration

since sequences can be programmed and reprogrammed.

Disadvantages of Programmable Automation:

1. The cost of the general purpose equipment is high.

2. Production time is lost due to frequent setup changes, loading

of fixtures and also due to reprogramming. This reduces
production rate compared to fixed automation

Examples of Programmable automation include Numerically

Controlled (NC) machine tools, industrial robots, and
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC). In industries
programmable automation is found in production of brackets,
hinges, locks, door knobs, musical instruments, weaving, etc.
3. Flexible automation:
 This type of automation is used for mid production size and combines
the features of both fixed automation and programmable automation.

 The flexible automated system is built in a way such that it can both
produce a variety of products and with almost no time lost for setup
changes from one configuration to another.

 Even programming does not cause lost production time.

 This is because programming is done off-line at a computer terminal

without using the production equipment itself.

 The system is therefore capable of producing many varieties in the

product mix under various schedules without need for batch changes.
Advantages of Flexible Automation:
1. For the variety of product configurations, continuous production is possible.

2. Flexible to adapt to the changes in the product configuration in very less

time using an off-line computer terminal for programming and re-
programming.

3. Improved quality of the product.

Disadvantages of Flexible Automation:

1. The cost of investment is huge since the equipment is custom-built.

2. Only medium production rates can be achieved unlike fixed automation.

3. Compared to fixed automation, unit cost of the product is higher.

Example of a Flexible Automation System is the use of CNC Machine Tools

along with Robots and Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV). In industries, flexible
automation systems are used in fabrication, assembly and machining
processes.
The main advantages of automation are:
1. Automation results in increase of productivity: Use of
automated systems can increase the efficiency in performing
tasks which results in higher productivity.

2. Improvement in Product Quality: Automated systems

perform the manufacturing process with less variability
compared to human workers and hence product quality is
improved.

3. Increase in accuracy and repeatability: When an automated

system is programmed to carry out a task over and over again,
the accuracy and repeatability compared to a human worker
far greater.

4. Improved safety at the workplace: Automated systems can

perform tasks in hazardous and unfriendly environment which
when done by humans would be prone to injuries and
accidents. This improves workplace safety.
5. Reduction in manufacturing lead time: Automated Systems can
reduce lead time for manufacturing due to speed, consistency and
less/zero defects.

6. Reduced direct human labour costs and expenses: Using

automated systems implies less number of employees are required to get
the job done. By having less number of employees, there are numerous
costs that are directly reduced such as payroll, benefits, sick days, etc.

7. Mitigation of Potential Labour Shortages: Automation can mitigate

the effects of potential labour shortages. It decreases dependency on
skilled labour and fills the void created due to a skilled worker retirement.

8. Automated Systems can carry out processes that cannot be done

manually. Example, automated systems can carry out certain processes
in a nuclear radiation environment which is not possible by human labour.

9. Automation can reduce or eliminate day-to-day manual and clerical

jobs.
Disadvantages of Automation:
Though automation has a bright future, it has got its downside.
The main disadvantages of automation are:

1. Though automation effectively replaces human labour in

performing various tasks, it results in increased unemployment
and poverty which counters job creation efforts.

2. High initial cost: The initial investment involved in the

automation of a new product or plant is very large. Though the
cost of automation may be amortized or spread among many
units of products over some time period, the unit cost of the
product manufactured using automation will still be higher
compared to the product manufactured without automation.
This may be at competitive disadvantage.
3. Automated systems can pose Security Threats since with a
limited level of intelligence it is more susceptible to committing
errors outside of its immediate scope of knowledge.
(Example, lack of application of simple rules of logic to general
propositions).

4. Additional Costs: Other than a high investment cost,

automated systems also involve excessive development costs
due to research and development, preventive maintenance and
cost of training personnel to operate automated systems. These
costs offset the costs supposed to have been saved by
automation.

5. With excessive automation, humans become slaves of

automated machines creating too much dependency on machines
rather than human intelligence.
CNC technology: Introduction, components of CNC, Advantages and
Applications of CNC, CNC Machining Centers and Turning Centers.

NC/CNC Machines
Numerical Control :
NC is the method of automation of machine tools or other equipment
that are operated through precise programmed commands containing
coded alphanumeric data which are encoded on a punched paper tape
or an alternative storage medium.
Introduction :
 The history of NC Technology dates back to 1940s.
 It was pioneered by John Parsons of the Parsons Corporation, US.
Parsons in 1940 tried to generate a curve automatically by milling
cutters by providing coordinate motions.
 In the late 1940s Parsons came up with the idea of using punched
cards containing coordinate position system to control a machine
tool.
 The machine was directed to move in small increments and generate
the desired finish. In 1948, Parsons demonstrated this concept to the
US Air Force.
 The US Air Force recognized this concept and sponsored the project
at the laboratories of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
 Following intensive research efforts, MIT demonstrated the first NC
prototype in 1952 and in 1953 MIT proved the potential applications
of the NC.
 Numerical Control is used in various machine tools such as lathe,
boring mill, drill press, milling machine, cylindrical grinder, turning
center, etc.

Numerical Control [NC] : Is a form of programmable automation is

which the processing equipment is controlled by means of numbers,
letters and symbols For a particular work part or job, program of
instructions are coded using numbers, letters and codes. NC is used in
machine tool applications such as drilling, milling and turning metal
parts and also is assembly.
Basic components of NC grove: A NC system consists of
(1) Program of instructions
(2) Machine control unit
(3) Processing equipment
1. Program of instruction: It is the detailed step-up-step commands fed to the
control unit that directs the processing equipment. The program is coded in a
medium called punch tape and is submitted to the machine control unit.
2. Machine control unit: It consists of electronics and control hardware that
read and interpret the program for instruction. Also it converts these instructions
into mechanical actions of the machine tool. They use micro processors.
3. Processing equipment: Is the component that performs eight useful work.
The processing equipment performs machining operations such as milling
machines drilling, lathe etc and also motors and controls.
Advantages of Numerical Control:
1. Reduces time required for machining.
2. Reduces the number of jigs and fixtures.
3. Reduces time to machine.
4. Reduces human error.

Disadvantages of Automations:
1. High initial cost.
2. Requires special skill to program codes.
3. Operation training and maintenance needed.
Computer Numerical Control:
Definition: Computer Numerical Control or CNC is an advanced form of
the NC system where the machine control unit is a dedicated
microcomputer instead of a hard-wired controller, as in conventional
NC.
 Computer Numerical Control has evolved during the rapid
improvements of the computer technology.
 The advent of Microprocessors from the 1970s have helped in quick
advancements in the Computer Technology and is in turn adapted in
modern CNC Technology.
 Today's CNC Controller has latest features like high speeds of
operation, large memories, bus architectures, improved servers, etc.
 CNC Technology has powered the Machine Tool industry today.
 It is used in majority of machine tools like machining centers, turning
centers, grinders, lathes, drilling machines, etc.

Definition : Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

 It may be defined as a numerical control system in which a
dedicated microcomputer or stored program is used to perform
as the machine control unit.
Elements of a CNC system:
1. Input Device
2. MCU or Machine Control Unit
3. Machine Tool
4. Driving System
5. Feedback devices
6. Display Unit

Fig. Elements of a CNC system.

1. Input Unit:
 Receives all the commands from operator interface and
feedback status in the form of AC, DC, and analog signals.
 Software is the input by means of magnetic devices.
a. USB (Universal Serial Bus)
b. Serial Communication
c. Ethernet Communication
d. Conversational programming
2. Control Unit:
 Receives instructions from memory unit and interprets them
one at a time.
 This information from operator and machine interface is
processed, interacted and manipulated by hardware logic
 a. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
b. CNC Memory
c. Input / Output Interface
d. Machine Tool Controls
e. Sequence Control for Auxiliary Functions

3. Memory Unit:
 Acts as a storage device for storing instructions, data
received from input and results of arithmetic operations.
 It also supplies information to output unit.
 Programes are stored in RAM (Random access memory)
and ROM (read only memory)
4. Arithmetic Unit:
 Performs arithmetic calculations and results are stored in
memory unit.

5. Output Unit:
 The output from memory unit and signals are converted to
compatible signals from Analog to control axis drive
servomotors.
 Output signals are used to turn off devices, display
information, etc.
6. Operator Interface:
 Consists of (a) punched tape (b) magnetic devices.

7. Machine interface:
 Consists of all devices used to monitor and control machine
tool like control valves, servo mechanisms

8. Feedback devices:
a. Position Feedback Devices
b. Velocity Feedback Devices
Sequence control for auxiliary functions Apart from the general
functions like spindle speed, feed rate, etc, certain auxiliary
functions like coolant control, emergency stop, tool changing
function, etc are carried out under part program controls. A
Programmable Logic Controller or PLC is generally used to
manage the Input Output interface for such additional functions
Machine Tool
This can be any type of machine tool such as a Machining center, a turning center, a
lathe, milling machine, etc.
The essential parts of the machine tool include the machine table, machine slide, the
driving leadscrew, ball screw, rigid and heavy machine structure, automatic tool
changing system, spindle and spindle drive system, chip removal system etc
The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs along the Z
axis. In other machine tools, there are additional axes such as A, B or C that allow rotary
motions around the X, Y and Z axes.
Driving System
A drive system essentially is made up of amplifier circuits, drive motors and ball
lead-screws.
The control signals (position and speed) of each axis are fed by the Machine
Control Unit (MCU) to the amplifier circuits.
Then, the control signals are augmented to actuate drive motors which in turn
rotate the ball lead-screws to position the machine table.
The commonly used types of electrical motors include DC Servo Motor AC
Servo Motor, Stepping Motor and Linear Motor
Salient Features of CNC Controls:
When compared to the hard wired NC technology, the MCU of a
CNC offers the following additional standard features:

1. Part Program Storage

2. Varied program input options.
3. Program editing at the machine tool
4. Fixed cycles and programming subroutines
5. Various types of Interpolation
6. Position Set feature
7. Look Ahead function
8. Cutter length and size compensation
9. Calculations for acceleration and deceleration
10. Communication Interface
11. Diagnostics
Applications of CNC Machines
Metal Removal Industries
CNC machines are extremely useful in metal removal industries such as automotive
industries, aerospace industries, and in making jewellery. This technology removes
excess metal from raw materials to attain the desired end product. CNC machines can
also be used to create shaped products in the manufacturing industries, which may
include threaded, rounded, rectangular, square, or even three-dimensional products.
Industries for Fabricating Metals
There are several industries that require thin metal plates such as steel plates, to create
end products. Several metal fabrication tasks such as drilling precision holes, flame or
plasma cutting, welding and shearing have been made easier with CNC machines.
Electronics:
Electronics: Computers and motherboards have brains with millions of tiny parts that
must be made with precision.
Firearms:
Firearms: CNC machines are used to create barrels, ammunition clips, pins, triggers,
and several components of the gun.
Milling:-Milling is a machining operation of producing flat, helical
surfaces by means of multiple cutting edged rotating tools called
“Milling Cutters”. After the advent of computer numerical control
(CNC), milling machines evolved into milling machining centers

CNC Machining Center

Turning:-Turning is a machining process carried out in lathe
machine, Where tool moves parallel to axis of lathe and removes
diameter of material. CNC Lathe or CNC Turning Center are
rapidly replacing older producing lathes.
CNC Machining centres are classified THREE types
1. Vertical machining centre (VMC) :-It has its spindle on a
vertical axis relative to the work table vertical machining centre
is typically used for flat work that requires tool access from
top. Milling Centre is a type of vertical machining centre
2. Horizontal machining centre (HMC):-It is used for cube
shaped parts where tool access can be best achieved on the
sides of the cube. Turning centre or Lathe is a type of
Horizontal machining centre
3. Universal machining centre (UMC) :-It has a work head that
swivels its spindle axis to any angle between horizontal and
vertical making this a very flexible machine tool.
Vertical machining centre (VMC)
Horizontal machining centre (HMC)
Universal machining centre (UMC)
CNC Machining Centers and Turning Centers
 Several of our application examples of single station
manufacturing cells consisted of CNC machining centers.
 The machining center, developed in the late 1950s before the
advent of CNC, is a machine tool capable of performing multiple
machining operations on a work part in one setup under NC
program control.
 Today's machining centers are CNC.
 Typical cutting operations performed on a machining center use a
rotating cutting tool, such as milling, drilling, reaming, and tapping.
 Machining centers are classified as vertical, horizontal, or
universal.
 The designation refers to the orientation of the machine spindle.
 A vertical machining center has its spindle on a vertical axis
relative to the worktable, and a horizontal machining center has
its spindle on a horizontal axis.
 Numerical control machining centers are usually designed with
features to reduce non-productive time.
These features include the following:
1. Automatic tool-changer:
 A variety of machining operations means that a variety of
cutting tools is required.
 The tools are contained in a tool storage unit that is integrated
with the machine tool.
 When a cutter needs to be changed, the tool drum rotates to
the proper position, and an automatic tool changer (ATC),
operating under part program control, exchanges the tool in the
spindle for the tool in the tool storage unit.
 Capacities of the tool storage unit commonly range from 16 to
80 cutting tools.
2. Automatic work part positioned:
 Many horizontal and universal machining centers have the
capability to orient the work part relative to the spindle.
 This is accomplished by means of a rotary table on which the
work part is fixture.
 The table can be oriented at any angle about a vertical axis to
permit the cutting tool to access almost the entire surface of
the part in a single setup.
3. Automatic pallet changer:
 Machining centers are often equipped with two or more
separate pallets that can be presented to the cutting tool using
an automatic pallet changer while machining is being performed
with one pallet in position at the machine; the other pallet is in a
safe location away from the spindle.
 In this safe location, the operator can unload the finished part
from the prior cycle and then fixture the raw work part for the
next cycle.
A modern NC turning center:
It is capable of performing various turning and related operations,
contour turning, and automatic tool indexing, all under computer
control. In addition, the most sophisticated turning centers can
accomplish
(1) Work part gaging (checking key dimensions after machining),
(2) Tool monitoring (sensing when the tools are worn),
(3) Automatic tool changing when tools become worn, and
(4) Automatic workpart changing at the completion of the work
cycle.
CNC TURNING
CNC Turning is manufacturing process in which a
round(cylindrical) material is held in a chuck and rotated while
a tool is fed to the piece to remove material to create the
desired shape.
CNC lathes or CNC turning centers have tooling mounted on a
turret which is computer-controlled.
Designed mainly for machining shaft-type workpieces supported
by chuck and heavy-duty tailstock center.
Turning Center Equipments
I. Steady rest- Allow facing and threading on end of shafts
II. Follower rest - Used to support long, thin shafts
III. Bar-feeding mechanism - Permits machining of shafts and
parts from bar stock smaller than spindle through-hole
IV. Production part loader - Can complete part changeover
when individual precut shafts machined
Another development in NC machine tool technology is the mill-
turn center, which has the general configuration of a turning
center, but also the capability to position a cylindrical work part at
a specified angle so that a rotating cutter can machine features
into the outside surface of the part.
Advantages of CNC:
1. Improves reliability.
2. Provides greater flexibility.
3. More compatible.

Applications of NC/CNC Machines:

1. These machines are used to machine parts.
2. With complex machining requirements.
3. Which require high precision.
4. Where many changes are needed.
5. Requiring fast and slow speed of machining.
6. Required in small quantities of respective batches.
Disadvantages of CNC machines:
1. A thorough programming knowledge is required by the
operators or programmers. This again requires skilled
programmer and hence the cost of labour can be high.
2. Cost of a CNC Machine is high compared to the Conventional
Machine Tools.
3. The spares of CNC Machines are relatively costlier than
Conventional Machines.
4. CNC Machines require air conditioned environment and / or a
chiller unit. Thus extra costs are involved.
 Robotics

Robot Anatomy, Joints & Links, Common Robot Configurations,

Applications of Robotics in Material Handling, Processing,
Assembly and Inspection.

 Robot are machines which are flexible, have the ability to hold,
move, and grab items.
 They are controlled by micro computers which when
programmed guide the machines through predetermined
operations.
Robot Definition: The Robot Institute of America in 1979 defined a
Robot as follows.
 “A Robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator,
designed to move material parts, tools or specialized
devices through variable programmed motions of
performance of a variety of tasks”.

Robot can be defined as a programmable, multifunction

manipulator designed to move materials or parts, tools or
specialized devices.
 Robots are fitted with sensors.
 Hence robots are machines with some degree of
intelligence.
 Industrial robots are capable of handling a variety of jobs like
material handling, spot welding, spray painting, mini-centre etc.

 Definition : Robotics may be defined as „the science of

designing and building robots suitable for real size application
in automated manufacturing and non-manufacturing
environments‟.

Robot Anatomy:
1. Manipulator:
The manipulator is an arm-like mechanism which is designed to
manipulate or move materials, parts or tools without direct human
contact.

2. Joint:
A joint is the one that integrates two or more links to provide
controlled relative movement between input link and the output
link.

3. Link: The link is a rigid member that connects the joints. Link
can be an input link and an output link. The movement of the input
link causes various motions of the output link.
4. Degrees of freedom (DOF):
The degrees of freedom describe a robot's freedom of motion in
the three-dimensional space.

5. End effectors:
End effectors or end-of-arm tool is the device at the end of the
robotic arm which is shaped like a hand or as a special tool
depending upon the application.

6. Base:
The support for the robot arm is called as the base.
Joints and Links:
There are various types of joints that are used in the construction
of a robot. These joints are called the robot joints. There are
majorly five types of robot joints:

1. Rotational joint or the R-joint: This type of joint allows rotary

relative motion where the axis of the rotation is perpendicular
to the axes of the input link and the output link. This is shown
in Fig (a)

2. Linear joint or the L-Joint: This type of joint allows a

translational sliding motion between the input and the output links
with the axes of the links parallel as shown in the Fig (b).
3. Orthogonal joint or the O-joint: This type of joint allows a
translational sliding motion between the input link and the output
link with the axis of the output link perpendicular to the input link
as shown in Fig. 5(c).

4. Twisting joint or the T-joint: This type of joint allows rotary

motion where the axis of rotation is parallel to the axes of the input
and output links as shown in the Fig (d).

5. Revolving joint or the V-joint: In this type of joint, the input

link axis is parallel to the rotational axis of the joint whereas the
output link axis is perpendicular to the rotational axis of the joint
as shown in the Fig (e).
Robot Joints:
A joint in an industrial robot is similar to that in a human body.
It provides with a relative motion between two parts.
Most have industrial joints have mechanical joints which can be
classified into five types.
i. Rotational joint(R)
ii. Linear joint(L)
iii. Twisting joint(T)
iv. Orthogonal joint(O)
v. Revolving joint(V)
(Prismatic Joint = L and O) (Revolute Joint = R, T and V)
Types of End Effectors:

• The robot's wrist alone cannot interact with its environment, it

need robot‟s peripherals like grippers, tools and the sensor
systems which allow the robot to interact with its environment.

• The term end effector is used to describe the hand or tool that
is attached to the wrist.

• The end effector represents the special tooling that permits

the general-purpose robot to perform a particular application.
This special tooling must usually be designed specifically for
the application
• End effectors can be divided into two categories: grippers and tools.

• Grippers would be utilized to grasp an object, usually the work part,

and hold it during the robot work cycle.

• There are a variety of holding methods that can be used in addition to

the obvious mechanical means of grasping the part between two or
more fingers. Additional methods include the use of suction cups,
magnets, hooks, and scoops.

• A tool would be used as an end effector in applications where the robot

is required to perform some operation on the work part.

• These applications include spot welding, arc welding, spray

painting, and drilling. In each case, the particular tool is attached to
the robot's wrist to accomplish the application.
Classification of robots based on configuration:
1. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical coordinate configuration robot
3. Cartesian coordinate configuration robot (Rectilinear)
4. Joint arm configuration Robot (Revolute)
5. SCARA
1. Polar Configuration (Spherical Configuration) Robot:
 In this configuration there are two rotary motions, one about
vertical axis and another about horizontal arms in parts A and B
The arm C has a linear motion parallel to the horizontal axis.
 Joint is known as TRL Movement of arm C can be presented by
polar coordinates (R, q).
Advantages of Polar Configuration Robot:
 Long reach capability is initialized in horizontal position.

Disadvantages of Polar Configuration Robot:

 The vertical reach is low.

Application of Polar Configuration Robot:

 Die casting, Forging, Injection Moulding, Dip Coating,
Clean of parts, etc.
2. Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration Robot:
 This has two linear motions L and O and one rotary motion T
Joint is TLO.
 It has a vertical column (A) about which arm (B) can be
moved up and down (L) The linear joint O gives radial
movement of arm Arm B is rotated about column joint (T).
Advantages of Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration Robot:
1. Rigidity is increased and is quite robust.
2. The capacity to carry high payloads.

Disadvantages of Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration

Robot:
1. Work volume is less.
2. Occupies more floor space.

Application of Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration Robot:

 Foundry and Forging application, Investment casting,
Conveyor pallet transfers, Machine loading and Unloading,
etc.
3. Cartesian Coordinate Configuration Robot :
 Cartesian co-ordinate Robot has three linear motions.
 One about vertical and two about horizontal axes.
 LOO notation denotes one linear joint L and two orthogonal
joints (0,0).
 It is also known as rectilinear robot.
Advantages of Cartesian Coordinate Configuration Robot:
1. Allows for simpler controls.
2. Possess a high degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy and
repeatability.
3. They can carry heavy loads and the weight lifting capicity do not
vary the work envelope.

Disadvantages of Cartesian Coordinate Configuration Robot:

1. Limited in their movement to a small and rectangular work
space.
2. Reduced flexibility.

Application of Cartesian Coordinate Configuration Robot:

 To perform pick and place tasks, Material Handling, Loading /
4. Jointed-arm Configuration Robot:
 It resembles the configuration of a human arm.
 It has a shoulder joint and an elbow joint.
 The arm can be swivelled about the base by the
combination of 3 notations TRR.
Advantages of Jointed-arm Configuration Robot:
1. The work volume available is large.
2. Operation is quick.
3. Flexibility is increased.

Disadvantages of Jointed-arm Configuration Robot:

1. Operating procedures are difficult.
2. Quite expensive type of configurations
3. Number of components involved are more..

Application of Jointed-arm Configuration Robot:

 To perform pick arc welding, Spot welding, Spray painting
operation, etc.
5. SCARA:
 It means selective compliance assembly Robot arm.
 It is similar to jointed elbow axis of rotation.
 The axis are vertical instead of horizontal and arm is rigid in
vertical direction but compliant in horizontal direction.
 This permits the robot to perform insertion jobs in vertical
direction.
SCARA configuration Robot
Advantages
1. Floor area is small compare to work area
2. Compliance

Disadvantages
1. Difficult to visualize
2. Rectilinear motion requires complex control of the revolute
joints.

Applications
1. Assembly operations, Inspection and measurements, Transfer
or components
Application of Robots
1. Robots are used for processing involving hazardous,
unpleasant work environment such as heat, sparks, fumes etc.
Example Foundry, spray painting etc.
2. Used in material transfer application e.g., pick and place
transfer from conveyor to conveyor.
3. Used in material handling application
4. Used in spray painting processes for automobiles and
industrial products
5. Used for drilling, grinding, polishing and debarring.
6. Used in Assembly operations and inspection process
1. Material/Part Handling applications:
Most of the applications of the Robot falls under this category.
Here the Robots are used to
a. Transfer materials from one location to another location.
Typical applications are as given below:

 Pick-and-place application: The most common and

simplest application here is the pick-and-place application
where objects are picked from one location and placed to
another location.
ii. Palletizing application:
 Another application that is slightly complex is the "Palletizing
application" where the robot stacks products or carton boxes
onto a pallet at various positions on the pallet to the required
height.

iii. Depalletizing application:

 Here the robot picks parts from an orderly stacked pallet to
another location.
iv. Stacking application:
Here, the robots are used to stack parts one upon another. After
each placement, the vertical position is re-calculated and the new
stacking height is determined.

v. insertion operation: Here, the robots are used to insert parts

into the compartments or spaces provided in a carton.
b. Machine loading/unloading:
 In the machine loading/unloading application, a robot is used to
move the work parts to or/and from the production machine.
 Following are the industrial applications of robots used for
machine loading/unloading:
1. Die casting:
 Here the robot is used to safely unload the parts from a die-
casting machine with the safety gates closed.
2. Forging:
 Forging is one of the toughest environments considering the
extreme heat, pollution and noise.
 The use of a robot immensely helps to face the environment
  Here the robot loads the red hot billet on to the die of the
forging hammer, holds it during the blows and unloads to a
safe place away from the hammer.
3. Plastic injection moulding:
 Here a robot unloads parts from the injection moulding
machine, cuts the runner and drops runner to scrap area.
4. Sheet metal press operation (Press working):
 Here a robot loads a blank into the press, and then after the
press stamping operation is performed the robot unloads the
scrap and throws it into the scrap area.
 The stamped parts from the blank falls in the container placed
at the back of the machine.
5. Machining operations:
 Here the robot loads the raw blanks on to the machine tool and
unloads the finished parts.

6. Heat treating:
 Here the robot loads/unloads parts to/from a furnace.
II Processing operations:
 Robots are used to carry out the processing operations such
as spray painting, spot welding, etc by using a tool at its end-
effectors.
 The tools can be a spray painting gun for spray painting
operation, a spot welding gun for spot welding operation, etc.
 In processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to
perform a process on the work part.
a) Spot welding
b) Arc welding
c) Spray coating
d) Grinding
e) Laser cutting
f) Plasma cutting
g) Waterjet cutting
Following are few processes that use industrial robots:
a. Spot Welding:
 The end effectors of the robot here is the spot welding gun that
applies the approximate pressure and current to the sheet parts
to be welded.
 The spot welding robots have enough number of axes of motion
to approach points in the work envelope at any angle.
 This was difficult to realize in a manned environment in the
absence of robots. Spot welding is used largely in the
automobile industry to weld automobile bodies such as car
panels.
b. Arc Welding:
 The welding here is continuous unlike spot welding. When arc
welding is manually carried out, the conditions are difficult for
the operators since they require Personal Protective Equipment
like welding shield with special glass to avoid UV rays are
under the danger of operating at high temperatures involving
high amount of heat and moreover they must be accurate in
following the welding path.
 These problems are now overcome with the use of arc welding
robots.
c. Spray Coating:
 Spray coating is a process where parts are coated by a spray
gun spraying the fluid on to the surface of the part.
 The fluid passes through the nozzle of the spray gun and is
dispersed at high velocity to the surface to be coated.
 Common examples are powder coating and spray painting.
III. Assembly and Inspection
a. Assembly:
 The combination of two or more parts to form a new object is
called as an assembly.
 The parts that join to form a new entity are securely held
together either by fastening or joining processes.
 Assembly automation using robots will ensure higher
productivity, consistency in quality and cost savings when
compared to manual assembly.
 Robots have saved the assembly workers from the tedious, dull
and repetitive jobs which were quite labour-intensive.
Inspection:
 Inspection is a means to separate poor quality products from
the good ones to ensure the required quality.
 Inspection, when manually carried out is a labour-intensive job
that is also time consuming and costly.
 More inspection means increased manufacturing lead time and
increased product cost without adding any real value to the
products.
 So, the use of robots for inspection activities are slowly on the
rise in industries.
 Following are some of the inspection task cases performed by
robots:

i. The robot arm manipulates an inspection probe that moves

relative to the product to be inspected. The end-effectors here
are the inspection probe. Here care must be taken to present
the part at the inspection workstation at the right position and
the right orientation so that the part is inspected accurately.

ii. Robots can inspect whether the part is present on an

assembly or not. Inspection systems for instance look at an
engine to find out if it is completely assembled or not.
iii. The robot picks part at the cell entry point, loads to the
inspection machine and after inspection unloads the part and then
places to the cell exit point. Few cases may also involve robot
taking additional responsibility of segregating parts based on
inspection result.

iv. Robots are used to detect flaws by comparing the good part
with the bad part. This requires the end users to define what a
good part is and what a bad part is.
Advantages of Robots
1. Provides consistency and repeatability.
2. Lifting and moving heavy objects.
3. Working in hazardous environment.
4. Increasing productivity.
5. Achieving more accuracy than human beings.
6. Performing monotonous jobs.

Disadvantages of Robots
1. Lack of capability to respond is emergencies.
2. Initial and installation cost is high.
3. Replacement of workers causes problem.
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Components of Electric and
Hybrid Vehicles, Batteries for EV, Chargers, Power devices,
Drives and Transmission, Advantages and disadvantages of EVs
and Hybrid vehicles.

Electric Vehicles:
Traction Battery Pack (A):
 The function of the battery in an electric car is as an electrical
energy storage system in the form of direct-current electricity
(DC).
 If it gets a signal from the controller, the battery will flow DC
electrical energy to the inverter to then be used to drive the
motor.
 The type of battery used is a rechargeable battery that is
arranged in such a way as to form what is called a traction
battery pack.
Power Inverter (B):
 The inverter functions to change the direct current (DC) on the
battery into an alternating current (AC) and then this alternating
current is used by an electric motor.
 In addition, the inverter on an electric car also has a function to
change the AC current when regenerative braking to DC current
and then used to recharge the battery.
 he type of inverter used in some electric car models is the bi-
directional inverter category.
Controller (C):
 The main function of the controller is as a regulator of electrical energy from
batteries and inverters that will be distributed to electric motors.
 While the controller itself gets the main input from the car pedal (which is set
by the driver).
 This pedal setting will determine the frequency variation or voltage variation
that will enter the motor, and at the same time determine the car‟s speed.
 In brief, this unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered by the
traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the
torque it produces.
 This component will determine how electric car work.
Electric Traction Motor (D):
 Because the controller provides electrical power from the
traction battery, the electric traction motors will work turning the
transmission and wheels.
 Some hybrid electric cars use a type of generator-motor that
performs the functions of propulsion and regeneration.
 In general, the type of electric motor used is the BLDC
(brushless DC) motor.
Charger (E):
 It is a battery charging device. Chargers get electricity from
outside sources, such as the utility grid or solar power plants.
 AC electricity is converted into DC electricity and then stored in
the battery.
 There are 2 types of electric car chargers:
On-board charger: the charger is located and installed in the car
Off-board charger: the charger is not located or not installed in the
car.
Transmission (F): The transmission transfers mechanical power
from the electric traction motor to drive the wheels.
DC/DC Converter (G): This one of electric car parts that to converts
higher-voltage DC power from the traction battery pack to the lower-
voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and recharge
the auxiliary battery.
Battery (H): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides
electricity to power vehicle accessories.
Thermal System – Cooling (I): This system maintains a proper
operating temperature range of the engine, electric motor, power
electronics, and other components.
Charge Port (J): The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an
external power supply in order to charge the traction battery pack.
Types of Electric Car Batteries:
 Electric car batteries are different from SLI batteries (starting,
lightning and ignition).
 SLI batteries are batteries that are usually installed in gasoline
or diesel cars.
 There are 5 types of electric vehicle batteries for Evs
1. Lithium-Ion (Li-On)
2. Nickel-Metal Hybrid (NiMH)
3. Lead Acid (SLA)
4. Ultracapacitor
5. ZEBRA (Zero Emissions Batteries Research Activity)
Transmission System in Evs:
 When a 3 phase input is given to stator it creates a rotating magnetic field
and hence induces a current in rotor and it starts rotating.
 The speed of induction motor depends on the frequency of AC supply, by
changing the frequency of power supply, the speed of drive can be changed.
 The IC engine requires speed varying transmission whereas electric vehicle
can work on any speed, it does not require a speed varying transmission.
 The power generated in the electric vehicle motor is transferred to a drive
wheel via gearbox. The EV uses single-speed transmission because the
motor is efficient in wide range of condition.
 The output speed of motor is reduced in two steps that is speed reduction
and torque multiplication.
 Electric vehicle has planetary gear set and torque converter instead of clutch
pack
Advantages of an Electric Car:
1. No Gas Required
2. No Emissions
3. Safe to Drive
4. Running Cost: Less
5. Low Maintenance
6. Reduced Noise Pollution
7. Battery Life & Cost
8. Easy Driving
Disadvantages of an Electric Car:
1. Recharge Points
2. The Initial Investment is Steep
3. Short Driving Range and Speed
4. Longer Recharge Time
5. Silence as a Disadvantage
6. Battery Replacement
7. Lower Amount of Choices
Hybrid Vehicles:
 The battery inside of a hybrid vehicle is much larger than your
typical conventional car battery but much smaller than one
found in an electrical like a Tesla.
 Not only does the hybrid battery have to power the basic
accessories like the air conditioner and radio, it also must
power some portion of the vehicle‟s movement as well.
 This requires it to be much larger and more expensive than a
typical car battery.
1. Gasoline Engine:The hybrid vehicle still has a gasoline engine.
This remains to be the main power source of the vehicle since 1
gallon of gasoline has the same energy as half a ton of battery
power.
2. Electric Motor: This is the feature that makes the hybrid vehicle
particularly special. The electric motor has the ability to accelerate
the vehicle by taking power from the battery. However, it can also
give power back to the battery if you slow down the vehicle.
3. Fuel Tank: You will still have a fuel tank to store your gasoline like
in a conventional vehicle. Due to the advanced technology in
hybrid cars, the gas won‟t need to be used as much. You will have
better fuel efficiency and produce fewer emissions as a result.
4. Transmission: Most hybrid vehicles will still use a conventional
transmission that you would find in a regular gasoline car.
However, there are new transmissions being built specifically for
certain hybrid cars, such as the Toyota Prius.
5. Batteries: The batteries are what power the electric motor of a
hybrid car. Not only that, but the batteries can actually take power
back from the electric motor too. This is one way their lifespan can
be preserved.
6. Generator: If you have a series hybrid vehicle, they have a
generator which gets powered by the gasoline engine. From there,
the generator can then generate power for the electric motor and
help recharge the battery. It is basically a way of converting
gasoline into the electrical energy for the motor and battery.
Advantages of a Hybrid Car
1. Environmentally Friendly: One of the biggest advantages of a hybrid car over a
gasoline-powered car is that it runs cleaner and has better gas mileage, which
makes it environmentally friendly. A hybrid vehicle runs on twin powered engine
(gasoline engine and electric motor) that cuts fuel consumption and conserves
energy.
2. Financial Benefits: Hybrid cars are supported by many credits and incentives
that help to make them affordable. Also, less amount of money spent on the fuel.
3. Less Dependence on Fossil Fuels: A Hybrid car is much cleaner and requires
less fuel to run, which means fewer emissions and less dependence on fossil
fuels.
4. Assistance From Electric Motor: The electric motor assists the internal
combustion engine in case of accelerating, passing or climbing a hill.
5. Smaller Engines: The gasoline engines used in hybrid cars are usually small,
light, and highly efficient as they don‟t have to power the car alone.
6. Regenerative Braking System: Each time you apply the brake while driving a
hybrid vehicle, it helps you to recharge your battery a little. An internal
mechanism kicks in that captures the energy released and uses it to charge
the battery, which in turn eliminates the amount of time and need for stopping
to recharge the battery periodically.
7. Built From Light Materials: Hybrid vehicles are made up of lighter materials,
which means less energy is required to run.
8. Automatic Start and Stop: In hybrid cars, the engine is automatically shut off
when the vehicle is idle and starts when the accelerator is pressed.
9. Electric-Only Drive: Hybrid vehicles can be driven entirely with electricity.
This usually happens while moving at low speeds, when the engine is idling at
a stoplight or when the engine starts up. Normally, the internal combustion
engine starts operating only at higher speeds, where it has more efficiency.
This helps increase the overall fuel efficiency of the vehicle.
Disadvantages of a Hybrid Car
1. Less Power: Hybrid cars are twin powered engine. The gasoline engine,
which is the primary source of power, is much smaller as compared to what
you get in single-engine powered cars while the electric motor is of low
power. The combined power of both is often less than that of a gas-
powered engine. It is therefore suited for city driving and not for speed and
acceleration.
2. Hybrid cars are comparatively expensive than a regular petrol car.
3. Poorer Handling: A hybrid car houses a gasoline-powered engine, a
lighter electric engine and a pack of powerful batteries. This adds weight
and eats up the extra space in the car. Extra weight results in fuel
inefficiency and manufacturers cut down weight, which has resulted in
motor and battery downsizing and less support in the suspension and
body.
4. Higher Maintenance Costs
5. Accident from High Voltage in Batteries
6. Battery Replacement is Pricey
7. Battery Disposal and Recycling
8. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Issues: The source of hydrogen can be
both “clean” sources such as solar or wind power or dirty
sources like coal and natural gas. Sourcing from coal and
natural gas undermines the ecological motive for the use of
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.