QUANTITATIVE THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

PN JUNCTION WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE OR OPEN CIRCUIT

CONDITION:
In a piece of sc, if one half is doped by p type impurity and the other half is
doped by n type impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two
halves or zones is called PN junction. As shown in the fig the n type material has
high concentration of free electrons, while p type material has high concentration
of holes. Therefore at the junction there is a tendency of free electrons to diff use
over to the P side and the holes to the N side. This process is called diffusion. As
the free electrons move across the junction from N type to P type, the donor atoms
become positively charged. Hence a positive charge is built on the N-side of the
junction. The free electrons that cross the junction uncover the negative acceptor
ions by filing the holes. Therefore a negative charge is developed on the p –side of
the junction..This net negative charge on the p side prevents further diffusion of
electrons into the p side. Similarly the net positive charge on the N side repels the
hole crossing from p side to N side. Thus a barrier sis set up near the junction
which prevents the further movement of charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes. As
a consequence of induced electric field across the depletion layer, an electrostatic
potential difference is established between P and N regions, which are called the
potential barrier, junction barrier, diffusion potential or contact potential, Vo. The
magnitude of the contact potential Vo varies with doping levels and temperature.
Vo is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72 V for Si.
The electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-Type
region tends to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively charged p
type regions tend to drive the electrons away from the junction. The majority holes
diffusing out of the P region leave behind negatively charged acceptor atoms
bound to the lattice, thus exposing a negatives pace charge in a previously neutral
region. Similarly electrons diffusing from the N region expose positively ionized
donor atoms and a double space charge builds up at the junction

It is noticed that the space charge layers are of opposite sign to the majority
carriers diffusing into them, which tends to reduce the diffusion rate. Thus the
double space of the layer causes an electric field to be set up across the junction
directed from N to P regions, which is in such a direction to inhibit the diffusion of
majority electrons and holes as illustrated in fig 1.7b. The shape of the charge
density, ρ, depends upon how diode id doped. Thus the junction region is depleted
of mobile charge carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer, space region, and
transition region. The depletion region is of the order of 0.5μm thick. There are no
mobile carriers in this narrow depletion region. Hence no current flows across the
junction and the system is in equilibrium. To the left of this depletion layer, the
carrier concentration is p= NA and to its right it is n= ND.
FORWARD BIASED JUNCTION DIODE
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is
applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type
material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential
barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential
barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow. This is because
the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them
the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite
direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a
characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the
"knee" on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with
little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the
depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance
path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at
which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.
Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing
very large currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias
voltage. The actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept
constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium
and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes. Since the diode can conduct
"infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit,
therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow.
Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to
dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a
very quick failure of the device.

PN JUNCTION UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION:

Reverse Biased Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is
applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type
material. The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons
towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-
type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and
holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a
high potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically
zero current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage.
However, a very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can
be measured in microamperes, (μA). One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr
applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause
the PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the
junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of
maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse
static characteristics curve below.
Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing

circuits where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse
breakdown current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage
output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener
Diodes

BREAK DOWN MECHANISMS

When an ordinary P-N junction diode is reverse biased, normally only very small
reverse saturation current flows. This current is due to movement of minority
carriers. It is almost independent of the voltage applied. However, if the reverse
bias is increased, a point is reached when the junction breaks down and the reverse
current increases abruptly. This current could be large enough to destroy the
junction. If the reverse current is limited by means of a suitable series resistor, the
power dissipation at the junction will not be excessive, and the device may be
operated continuously in its breakdown region to its normal (reverse saturation)
level. It is found that for a suitably designed diode, the breakdown voltage is very
stable over a wide range of reverse currents. This quality gives the breakdown diode
many useful applications as a voltage reference source.
The critical value of the voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction diode
occurs, is called the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the
width of the depletion region, which, in turn, depends on the doping level. The
junction offers almost zero resistance at the breakdown point.
There are two mechanisms by which breakdown can occur at a reverse biased P-N
junction:
1. Avalanche breakdown
2. Zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown
The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the
junction acquire a kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse
voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse voltage (say 5 V or more), the kinetic energy
of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out electrons from the
covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the liberated
electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very large leading
to the breakdown of the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called the
avalanche breakdown. The breakdown region is the knee of the characteristic
curve. Now the current is not controlled by the junction voltage but rather by the
external circuit.
Zener breakdown
Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential
barrier increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The
electric field will break some of the covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms

leading to a large number of free minority carriers, which suddenly increase the
reverse current. This is called the Zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a
particular and constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage, it is
found that Zener breakdown occurs at electric field intensity of about 3 x 107 V/m.

Either of the two (Zener breakdown or avalanche breakdown) may occur

independently, or both of these may occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that
breakdown below 5 V are caused by Zener effect. Junctions that experience
breakdown above 5 V are caused by avalanche effect. Junctions that breakdown
around 5 V are usually caused by combination of two effects. The Zener
breakdown occurs in heavily doped junctions (P-type semiconductor moderately
doped and N-type heavily doped), which produce narrow depletion layers. The
avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions, which produce wide
depletion layers. With the increase in junction temperature Zener breakdown
voltage is reduced while the avalanche breakdown voltage increases. The Zener
diodes have a negative temperature coefficient while avalanche diodes have a
positive temperature coefficient. Diodes that have breakdown voltages around 5 V
have zero temperature coefficient. The breakdown phenomenon is reversible and
harmless so long as the safe operating temperature is maintained.

The energy band diagram of p-n junction under open circuit conditions
 It is known that the Fermi level in n-type material lies just below the
conduction band while in p-type material, it lies just above the valenceband.
 When p-n junction is formed, the diffusion starts. The changes get adjusted
so as toequalize the Fermi level in the two parts of p-njunction.
 This is similar to adjustment of water levels in two tanks of unequal level,
when connected eachother.
 The changes flow from p to n and n to p side till, the Fermi level on two
sides get linedup.
 In n-type semi conductor , EF is close to conduction band Ecn and it is close
to valence band edge EVP onp-side.
 So the conduction band edge of n-type semiconductor can‟t be at the same
level as that of p- type semiconductor.
 Hence, as shown, the energy band diagram for p-n junction is where a shift
in energy levels E0 is indicated.
Switching Characteristics of PN junction diode
Diode is a two terminal PN junction that can be used in various applications. One
of such applications is an electrical switch. The PN junction, when forward biased
acts as close circuited and when reverse biased acts as open circuited. Hence the
change of forward and reverse biased states makes the diode work as a switch,
the forward being ON and the reverse being OFF state.
Whenever a specified voltage is exceeded, the diode resistance gets increased,
making the diode reverse biased and it acts as an open switch. Whenever the
voltage applied is below the reference voltage, the diode resistance gets decreased,
making the diode forward biased, and it acts as a closed switch.

Ringing

As the forward current flows till then, with a sudden reverse voltage, the reverse
current flows for an instance rather than getting switched OFF immediately. The
higher the leakage current, the greater the loss. The flow of reverse current when
diode is reverse biased suddenly, may sometimes create few oscillations, called
as RINGING.

This ringing condition is a loss and hence should be minimized. To do this, the
switching times of the diode should be understood.

Diode Switching Times

While changing the bias conditions, the diode undergoes a transient response.
The response of a system to any sudden change from an equilibrium position is
called as transient response.

The sudden change from forward to reverse and from reverse to forward bias,
affects the circuit. The time taken to respond to such sudden changes is the
important criterion to define the effectiveness of an electrical switch.

 The time taken before the diode recovers its steady state is called
as Recovery Time.
 The time interval taken by the diode to switch from reverse biased state to
forward biased state is called as Forward Recovery Time (tfr)
  The time interval taken by the diode to switch from forward biased state to
reverse biased state is called as Reverse Recovery Time (trr)

 To understand this more clearly, let us try to analyze what happens once the
voltage is applied to a switching PN diode.

Carrier Concentration

Minority charge carrier concentration reduces exponentially as seen away from the
junction. When the voltage is applied, due to the forward biased condition, the
majority carriers of one side move towards the other. They become minority
carriers of the other side. This concentration will be more at the junction.

For example, if N-type is considered, the excess of holes that enter into N-type
after applying forward bias, adds to the already present minority carriers of N-type
material.

Let us consider few notations.

 The majority carriers in P-type, holes = Ppo

 The majority carriers in N-type, electrons = Nno
 The minority carriers in P-type, electrons = Npo
 The majority carriers in N-type, holes = Pno

During Forward biased Condition − The minority carriers are more near junction
and less far away from the junction. The graph below explains this.
Excess minority carrier charge in P-type = Pn−Pno with pno steady state value
Excess minority carrier charge in N-type = Np−Npo with Npo steady state value

During reverse bias condition − Majority carriers doesn’t conduct the current
through the junction and hence don’t participate in current condition. The
switching diode behaves as a short circuited for an instance in reverse direction.

The minority carriers will cross the junction and conduct the current, which is
called as Reverse Saturation Current. The following graph represents the
condition during reverse bias.
In the above figure, the dotted line represents equilibrium values and solid lines
represent actual values. As the current due to minority charge carriers is large
enough to conduct, the circuit will be ON until this excess charge is removed.

The time required for the diode to change from forward bias to reverse bias is
called Reverse recovery time trr. The following graphs explain the diode
switching times in detail.

From the above figure, let us consider the diode current graph.
At t1, the diode is suddenly brought to OFF state from ON state; it is known as
Storage time. Storage time is the time required to remove the excess minority
carrier charge. The negative current flowing from N to P type material is of a
considerable amount during the Storage time. This negative current is,

The next time period is the transition time” from t2 to t3

Transition time is the time taken for the diode to get completely to open circuit
condition. After t3 diode will be in steady state reverse bias condition.
Before t1 diode is under steady state forward bias condition.

So, the time taken to get completely to open circuit condition is

Whereas to get to ON condition from OFF, it takes less time called as Forward
recovery time. Reverse recovery time is greater than Forward recovery time. A
diode works as a better switch if this Reverse recovery time is made less.

Definitions

Let us just go through the definitions of the time periods discussed.

 Storage time − The time period for which the diode remains in the
conduction state even in the reverse biased state, is called as Storage time.
 Transition time − The time elapsed in returning back to the state of non-
conduction, i.e. steady state reverse bias, is called Transition time.
 Reverse recovery time − The time required for the diode to change from
forward bias to reverse bias is called as Reverse recovery time.
 Forward recovery time − The time required for the diode to change from
reverse bias to forward bias is called as Forward recovery time.
Factors that affect diode switching times

There are few factors that affect the diode switching times, such as

 Diode Capacitance − The PN junction capacitance changes depending upon

the bias conditions.
 Diode Resistance − The resistance offered by the diode to change its state.
 Doping Concentration − The level of doping of the diode, affects the diode
switching times.
 Depletion Width − The narrower the width of the depletion layer, the faster
the switching will be. A Zener diode has narrow depletion region than an
avalanche diode, which makes the former a better switch.

APPLICATIONS

There are many applications in which diode switching circuits are used, such as −

 High speed rectifying circuits

 High speed switching circuits
 RF receivers
 General purpose applications
 Consumer applications
 Automotive applications
 Telecom applications etc.