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Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing

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DOI: 10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_4

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Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing

Elias Khalil, Joy Sarkar, Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Md. Shamsuzzaman,

and Dip Das

Abstract All over the world, dyeing is considered one of the significant parts of
the textile colouration process. It refers to both the dyeing and printing process.
Dyeing is the specific colouration of textiles, while printing is the localized appli-
cation of colourants by a suitable method base on the design. The conventional
aqueous dyeing process consumes a significant quantity of water, creating wastew-
ater processing difficulties that arise global environmental threats and an alarming
concern for sustainable development. This chapter discusses the scope, processing
techniques, required machinery and equipment, advantages, and other aspects of
the innovative and emerging sustainable, eco-friendly dyeing technologies. It will
cover supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing, air dyeing, plasma-assisted dyeing, and
laser-assisted dyeing. It is not limited to these but also discusses ultrasound-assisted
dyeing, microwave-assisted dyeing, foam dyeing, enzymatic dyeing, reverse micelle
dyeing, ozone-assisted dyeing, nano-bubble dyeing, and electro-chemical dyeing.

Keywords Water consumption · Supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing · Laser ·

Ozone · Plasma · Nano-bubble dyeing

1 Introduction

Textile wet processing technology comprises many operations, including desizing,

scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing techniques, after treatments, and
other related activities. Desizing refers to the removal of size materials from woven

E. Khalil (B)
Bangabandhu Textile Engineering College, Kalihati, Tangail, Bangladesh
e-mail: eliaskhalil52@[Link]
J. Sarkar
Department of Textile Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna,
Bangladesh
Md. M. Rahman · Md. Shamsuzzaman · D. Das
Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 97
Md. M. Rahman et al. (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and
Clothing Technology, [Link]
98 E. Khalil et al.

fabric, while scouring is an activity related to removing all types of organic and
inorganic impurities from the substrate. This process is called the heart of the dyeing
process. Bleaching is the destruction of natural colour for imparting the desired
colour according to requirement. Dyeing includes particular colouration onto the
fabric, and printing is the localized application of colourants. Finishing is done to
make the clothes useable and sometimes for fulfilling specific purposes.
This chapter is concerned with technological advancement in the dyeing process.
For a better understanding of essential dyeing operations, it is necessary to keep a
sound knowledge of the dyeing systems, methods, and concepts about colourants
used in the colouration process.
Any wet processing operation, including dyeing and printing, can be carried out in
three methods: discontinuous or batch-type, continuous, and semi-continuous. Since
all operations are performed on a single machine in the discontinuous process, it is
essential to load the machine, perform the functions according to a predefined plan,
unload the equipment, and thoroughly clean it until a new cycle begins. Small lots
of substrate can be processed in this method suitably and flexibly. It consumes a lot
of time for processing, and variation in results may occur from one batch to another.
For continuous processes, operations are performed by a sequence of machines;
each machine performs the same procedure all the time. Each device is assembled to
the particular specifications of production. Though the initial cost is high, a higher
production rate is achieved through this system. A semi-continuous process is a
blended system, where some operations are carried out continuously, and others are
performed on the batching system. The initial set-up cost is reasonable, and small
and medium-sized lots of substrate can be performed suitably. Again dyeing can be
completed in an exhaust and padding manner [1].
Three primary classes of colourants are used in the colouration process of textiles:
dyes, pigments, and lakes. Three components are necessary for a material to be
a dye in its structure. These three components are chromophore, chromogen, and
autochrome. Chromogen holds unsaturated chromophores, and chromophores are
the colour-bearing part of a dye. At the same time, auxochromes are substituted
with acidic or basic chemical groups in dye structure that increase the shade’s
depth. Stains may be soluble and insoluble in water. Pigments are insoluble chem-
ical compounds that may be organic or inorganic, fixed to the surface of textile
fabrics or garments are effectively trapped there with the help of a particular class
of chemicals named binder. Ingrain dyes, or lakes, are created when two chemicals
are added to a fiber concurrently or separately [2]. During the colouration process,
a significant number of textile chemicals and auxiliaries like detergents, levelling
agents, anti-foaming agents, sequestering agents, dispersing agents, anti-crocking
agents, thickening agents, emulsifying agents, wetting agents, optical brighteners,
acid, alkali, salt, etc. are being used to make all the operation effective or for obtaining
a predetermined effect. These auxiliaries or chemicals may be temporary or perma-
nent, surface-active, or non-surface active compounds [3]. Colourants are attached
to the textile substrate with the help of different types of forces. This force may be
a physical force like a hydrogen bond and Van der Waals force or a chemical force
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 99

like an ionic or covalent bond. The efficacy of the fastness properties of colourants
depends on such types of points [4, 5].
Water is considered the universal solvent and universal dyeing media [6]. All
the conventional wet processing operations are carried out with this solvent. The
dyeing and finishing process of one kilogram of cotton fibers requires almost 125
L of water. Water consumption of a medium category textile industry is around 1.6
million litres/day to produce 8000 kg of fabric. Dyeing consumes 20% of this, and
printing consumes 8% [7]. The clothing industry is the second-largest polluter on
the planet, behind only the oil industry [8]. According to Greenpeace International,
China, India, and Bangladesh are the most populous nations in this respect. In the
garment industry, cotton is a primary component. The production of a cotton T-shirt
and jeans requires around 20,000 L of water [9, 10]. Significant amounts of unfixed
colourants are discharged into water sources during dyeing, and about 10–15% of
the dye is lost to the natural ecosystem as wastewater. Percentages of use of water in
different wet processing operations are shown in Fig. 1 [11].
Several parameters characterize the released wastewater. These parameters are the
higher values of COD (chemical oxygen demand), BOD (biological oxygen demand),
TDS (total dissolved solids), TSS (total suspended solids), chlorides, sulfates, pH,
and phenols content. Since these contaminants and dyes are not biodegradable, they
cause serious health issues [10, 11]. The dyeing industry changes the ecosystem
by reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen, causing the death of marine species
and increasing BOD. The wastewater’s toxicity causes various illnesses, including
congenital disabilities and decreased female fertility, and reduces the photosynthesis
of plants [14]. The World Bank has discovered 72 poisonous chemicals in our water
solely due to textile dyeing, 30 of which are irremovable [15]. About 90% of wastew-
ater is dumped into waterways without being treated in developing countries. Around
200 tons of fresh water are needed to dye one ton of fabric, although 750 million
people worldwide do not have the opportunity to drink safe water [8].

34
35
Water Consumption (%)

30
24
25
20
20
14
15
10 8

5
0
Dyeing Printing Boiler Bleaching Others
Wet Processing Operation

Fig. 1 Water consumption in different textile wet processing operation [11]

100 E. Khalil et al.

Numerous operations are carried out in textiles’ industrial processes for different
purposes. Dyeing is, in fact, the most widely performed process. These processes are
expensive and environmentally unfriendly due to the massive amounts of energy and
water used and the waste produced. The dyeing process uses a lot of water and energy,
and the used water, along with greenhouse gases, is released into the atmosphere as
a pollutant. Approximately 10,000 tons of dyes were manufactured globally in one
year, with 7000 tons of dye being used in the textile industry [16, 17]. The textile
manufacturing sector emitted nearly 1.2 billion tons of CO2 in 2015, more than that
of all international flights and marine export processing emissions [18]. The textile
dyeing industry is also responsible for air pollution. The primary sources of this
pollution caused by the dyeing industry are the use of boilers and power generators,
as well as the emission of harmful gases from different vehicles associated with the
movement of textiles and related goods from one location to another. Textile factories,
in general, emit volatile organic compounds (VOC), which can have a wide-ranging
and immeasurable effect, spreading in all directions from these places [11].
Textile processing consumes a lot of energy for drying, heating, and operating the
required machinery, which causes the emission of greenhouse gases and increases
carbon footprint. The complex structure of textile materials is the main reason behind
this. For example, the yearly textile manufacture in 2008 was projected at 60 billion
kilograms, and 1.074 billion kWh of electricity and 6–9 trillion litres of water were
estimated for producing it. Total thermal and electric energy requirements were
stated as 18.8–23 MJ and 0.45–0.55 kWh, respectively, for industrial and consumer
use [19]. Different threatening issues for the environment caused by the textile and
clothing industry are shown in Fig. 2.

17-20% global water

10% Gobal carbon polluter 2nd largest polluting
emission industry

10–15 % dye is lost 21 billion tons

Textile and Clothing
to the environment garbage every year
Industry

10000 tons of dyes are Consumption of about 200

manufactured per year litres of water for producing
1 kg of textiles.

Fig. 2 Different issues caused by the textile and clothing industry

Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 101

2 Advanced and Sustainable Dyeing Technologies

Traditional dyeing and finishing techniques harm the environment, and the demand
for clean, sustainable, and long-term alternatives is rising daily [20]. As a result, the
most significant thing in the textile industry is to practice sustainability in textile
production. Sustainable textile manufacturing refers to practices that meet existing
textile manufacturing needs while maintaining the equilibrium between industry
and the environment [21]. As a pillar of sustainable development goals (SDG) by
the United Nations (UN), it is necessary to ensure the protection of the environ-
ment [22]. Manufacturing textiles with minimal quantities of water and energy and
environmentally sustainable chemicals is a logical solution to meet the need for
sustainability [11]. Use of non-toxic and biodegradable products, filtering run-off
water, application of renewable energy, usage of recycled materials, decent work
conditions, improving the supply chain and green logistics, use of lesser chemi-
cals, minimizing air pollution, conservation of water, and advanced and modern
sustainable machinery may also be essential tools for sustainable solution [21, 23].

2.1 Use of Lesser, Nontoxic and Biodegradable Chemicals

The garment industry uses over 8,000 chemicals to produce the 400 billion square
meters of fabric sold globally annually. Many of them are poisonous and remain
in the system. Heavy metals are contained in dyes and fixing chemicals, bleaches,
solvents, and detergents. These contaminants not only pollute the water and envi-
ronment but also significantly affect the health of factory employees. Chemical use
begins in the early stages of crop production with the help of pesticides and herbi-
cides. It persists through the various stages of cloth production in the dyeing and
finishing steps. Azo dyes account for 60–80% of all fabric colourants, emitting
toxins when the fabric comes into contact with the skin, causing significant health
risks [21]. Many experiments on salt-free or low salt dyeing [24–34] and low alkali
or substituted alkali dyeing have been performed in the case of reactive dyes, which
helps to reduce pollution levels [35–37]. Most dyeing chemicals are poisonous and
hazardous; however, several substitutes may help reduce the contamination load.
For example, in the case of the reduction of sulfur dyes, β-mercaptoethanol, and
glucose may be used without using sodium sulfite, which is widely known as soda
ash [38, 39]; the electrochemical method may be adopted in the reduction of vat
dyes without using Na2 S2 O4 and NaOH [40–44]; hydrogen peroxide and sodium
perborate may be alternative of potassium dichromate on oxidation of sulfur and
vat dyes [39, 44, 45]; dicyanamide as hydrotropic agents in exchange of CH4 N2 O;
formic acid as neutralizing agents without using acetic acid, fatty alcohols may be
alternative of alkylphenolethoxylates as wetting agents [46].
102 E. Khalil et al.

2.2 Dyeing in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

In the textile industry, dyeing technology attached to supercritical carbon dioxide

(CO2 ) has shown greater interest in recent years. In comparison with traditional
water-based aqueous dyeing, it offers several advantages. Due to carbon dioxide’s
nontoxic, nonflammable, and recyclable properties, dyes may be reused, and no
other chemicals are needed to add to the dyeing process. Furthermore, energy can
be saved in this process, and the dyeing time can be reduced significantly since
substrate-drying is not required for it [47, 48].
Pure fluids at higher pressure and temperature than critical value are known as
supercritical fluids. The critical values are the maximum temperature and pressure at
which the substance will remain in equilibrium as a vapour and liquid state. They have
characteristics identical to those of a gas and a liquid, and they can be quickly changed
by adjusting the pressure. The phenomenon is conveniently illustrated using the phase
diagram for pure carbon dioxide (Fig. 3). This diagram depicts the conditions under
which carbon dioxide occurs as a vapour, liquid, solid, or SCF.
In Fig. 3, the curves indicate the temperatures and pressures at which two phases
coexist in equilibrium conditions. Carbon dioxide reaches its critical stage at a pres-
sure of 72.79 atm and a temperature of 30.98 °C [49]. Supercritical carbon dioxide is
considered a sustainable solvent or green medium for numerous chemical processing
in textile materials [48, 50]. This outstanding and sophisticated technology is appli-
cable not only for the dyeing process but also for the pretreatment and finishing of
the textile product. Figure 4 represents essential dyeing equipment where supercrit-
ical CO2 is used for the dyeing process. It has temperature controllers, a stainless
steel container with a heating system, a monometer, and a powerful cooler. Below
100 °C, this machine can operate with a capacity of the pressure of 350 bars. Disperse
dyes can be fed into the device and supercritical CO2 fluid before being combined
with the materials. The dyes used in this method have an excellent diffusion property,

Fig. 3 Phase diagram for

pure carbon dioxide [49]
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 103

Temperature Dye Bath

Pressure
controller Regulator
5 7 8
CO2 Circulated CO2 Heating Stirrer
Pump Bath Separator
Cylinder Cooling Bath

1 2 3 4 6 9

Fig. 4 Schematic representation of the apparatus (1) CO2 cylinder, (2) Circulated cooling bath,
(3) CO2 pump, (4) Heating bath, (5) Temperature controller, (6) Stirrer, (7) Dye bath, (8) Pressure
regulator, and (9) Separator (“Reproduced from Penthala et al. [51], with kind permission from
Elsevier”)

resulting in high evenness on the surface as well as the interior structure of the fabric.
In this process, the residual dye material can be extracted and saved for future use
[51].
This technology has several benefits in textile applications, particularly dyeing.
The low mass transfer resistance and high diffusion rates are found in the critical
CO2 dyeing process. In this system, it is facilitated to penetrate dye into the fibers,
resulting in a shorter dyeing time. Since the dyeing process in supercritical CO2 does
not use water, therefore drying stage can be eliminated, which helps to save energy
and time. All dye molecules can react with the fiber because the dye particle is not
hydrolyzed. The dye can separate from supercritical carbon dioxide and recover it
quickly. Separated CO2 can be used again for the dyeing process. The most critical
issue in this process is that salt and alkali are not required as dyeing additives.
In the process of grey cotton dyeing in supercritical CO2 , it is essential to remove
wax materials from the cotton pile fabric. It reduces the co-solvent and surfactant’s
effectiveness in supercritical CO2. The remaining wax also helps improve the grey
cotton’s hydrophilic nature. In addition, the water wettability of grey cotton fabric
was significantly increased after de-waxing [52].
Huang et al. investigated the dyeing process of zipper tape using supercritical
carbon dioxide. In this process, dyeing was done in different batches and carried out
continuously with dispersed dyes using two different autoclaves. The excellent (rated
4–5) colour fastness properties were achieved in this method. The shade consistency
was observed while using alternative autoclaves of dyed samples [53].
The potential and the challenges of processing sheep wool by using supercritical
CO2 were studied by Salem et al. Dyeing technology in supercritical CO2 is a viable
green approach for processing wool [54]. Several scholars have explored the solu-
bility of various dyes in sCO2 . Many data on the effect of pressure and temperature on
the solubility of dispersed dyes are available in scCO2 [55, 56].
104 E. Khalil et al.

2.3 Nanotechnology Based Dyeing

It was stated earlier that the conventional dyeing process consumes significant water.
Hence different wastewater management strategies are applied to make zero liquid
discharge [57]. However, using this strategy is time-consuming and expensive. As a
result, rather than implementing waste management methods, it is preferable to mini-
mize waste generation [46]. Using sophisticated low-liquor ratio machinery in the
textile wet processing industry is one way to remove or reduce waste discharge [58].
The common use of material to liquor ratio for exhaust textile dyeing with
the exhaust method usually varies from 1:5 to 1:40, depending on various factors
like processes, dyes, and fabrics [12, 59–61]. Although even dyeing has occurred with
a high liquor ratio, it necessitates more energy, water, and auxiliaries [62].
Researchers are continuously working to lower the liquor ratio of the exhaust dyeing
process [63].
Nanobubbles have a wide range of uses in a variety of fields. Nanobubble tech-
nology is commonly used in denim jeans finishing techniques with an extremely low
liquid ratio in the textile arena [64]. Nanobubble works as a transporter of different
chemicals on the surface of the substrate in textile processing [65].
Mohsin et al. studied nanobubble technology to dye bleached cotton fabric in the
exhaust method with a low liquor ratio of 1:1 with eleven different reactive dyes.
The study shows that in a nanobubble dyeing machine, when dyeing cotton fabric,
three liquor ratios can be used, which are 1:1, 1:5, and 1:10. The recipe solution in
the form of a nanobubble (with pressure nozzle jet) was spread for 8 s onto the fabric
at 3 bar pressure. Nanobubbles were formed due to the high rate of solution flow,
and the researchers observed the size of the bubble. It was found to have excellent
results in the case of dry and wet rubbing fastness, wash fastness, depth of shade,
and air permeability in the case of liquid ratio 1:1 compared with 1:5 and 1:10 by
performing the necessary test [66].
Another nanotechnology-based dyeing process is the nano-dye process. It is
sustainable and eco-friendly technology developed by Florida, USA-based company
Nano-Dye, LLC. This new revolutionary green process is also known as cationic
textile dyeing. This process can be applied to cotton and blended textiles with the
exhaust method.
When submerged in water in the conventional reactive dye process, raw cotton
takes on a negative charge. Dyestuff has a negative control when submerged in water.
Both having negative charges repel each other, making bonding difficult. But in the
nano dye process, the negative amount of raw cotton when submerged in water is
changed to a positive charge. The positive cotton charge and negative dye stuff charge
attract each other, making bonding stronger and more straightforward.
Furthermore, eliminating contamination in the effluent allows wastewater treat-
ment plants to be cost-effective and for future clean colouration processes. Existing
dyeing machinery and equipment can be utilized in this process. Salt-free dyeing, up
to 90% exhaustion rate of dyestuff, a large amount of water and energy saving lower
overall dyeing cost and makes this technology sustainable. The improved dye jet
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 105

production per hour of the Nano-Dye Process allows for lower energy consumption,
which prevents climate change [67].
Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) based dyeing is currently a sustainable and envi-
ronmentally sound dyeing technique. NFC is a harmless nanomaterial. It can be
produced from readily available cellulose sources. Cut wood pulp is the primary
source of this cellulose. NFC hydrogel is a stable colloidal dispersion made by
mechanical homogenization. Cellulose powders are passed through a homogenizer
with the help of high force. Thus nanofibrils are created from cellulose fibers. This
phenomenon is known as defibrillation. Nanocellulose hydrogel of NFC is used as
an effective carrier of dyestuff to the textile substrate. At first, NFC nanofibers are
dyed under the appropriate condition with reactive dyes in the exhaust method, which
produces coloured NFC hydrogel. The assembled hydrogels are then deposited on
the surface of the textile substrate by some specific method at an appropriate temper-
ature. This novel NFC-based dyeing technique utilizes less water. It saves alkali and
salt due to the strong attraction to the cotton fiber and high surface area of NFC, which
results from a higher dye fixation rate than the conventional exhaust approach. If this
sustainable and low-cost technique can be economically viable, the textile industry
will advance to the next level [68].

2.4 Plasma Assisted Dyeing

The four primary phases of matter are solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. Yet,
researchers are finding new forms of matter that occur under intense conditions.
Plasma is a state of matter identical to a gas, but all the ions bear an electrical charge
(Fig. 5).
Often, plasma occurs at shallow pressure because the ions are much farther sepa-
rated than in a gas. Plasma may consist of ions, electrons, or protons. Examples of
plasma include lightning, the aurora, the Sun, and the interior of a neon sign [69].
When electromagnetic radiation is coupled to process gas, plasma creates a mixture
of ions, electrons, neutrons, photons, and free radicals. Depending on the working
pressure, there are two types of plasma, hot and cold. Textile fabrics may either be

Fig. 5 Four basic states of matter

106 E. Khalil et al.

treated with cold (non-thermal) or low-temperature plasma due to the degradation of

textiles at elevated temperatures [70, 71].
Moreover, plasma treatment is classified into many categories depending on the
chamber’s pressure, voltage, and power generation frequency [72, 73]. This unique
blend of particles and energy can be used to clean, etch, activate, or cover a variety
of surfaces [74]. For example, fiber properties can be determined by making it
hydrophobic inducing plasma. Water, stain, and oil repellent, hydrophilic, antimi-
crobial, flame-retardant, UV-protective, antistatic properties, and changes in dyeing,
printing, biocompatibility, and adhesion can all be achieved by changing the fiber
surface at the nanometer stage (Fig. 6) [75].
The practical results of plasma-treated textiles rely on the types of gases used in
the plasma chamber. The biggest benefit of using this approach is that it modifies the
surface properties without changing the bulk properties of textile substrate [76, 77].

Dyeing &
Printing

Flame
Hydrophilic
retardent

Application of Hydrophobic
Composite plasma in & Super
Textile hydrophobic

Anti-felting
Medical
of wool

Oleophobic

Fig. 6 Plasma treatment on textile processing

Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 107

Figure 7 represents the typical plasma application on a textile material in a low-

pressure environment. When the vacuum system (dot lines) of this figure is ignored,
the schematic layout of atmospheric pressure plasma may be assumed from this
figure. Plasma applications are usually carried out at pressures ranging from 0.01 to
10 mbar. Various methods may do plasma treatment. These techniques are corona
discharge, glow discharge, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD), and plasma jet. Corona
discharge is the earliest treatment technique, generating a very mild ionization. The
electrode spacing in this technique is extremely low, making it ideal for thin textile
fabrics. However, owing to a non-uniform plasma surface treatment, material damage
is dangerous.
Dielectric barrier discharge is an improved method in which an insulating
substance such as ceramic or glass is placed over the electrode to restrict current
and minimize the risk of a gas spark. Although this method does not create a uniform
effect on the textile surface and often results in uneven treatment, it delivers a better
outcome than corona discharge. In this case, glow discharge is preferable because
it may generate a homogenous and consistent effect on the surface of the textile
substrate. Finally, the plasma jet method, which is the most recent addition, may be
applied evenly (on one side only) to any formed material [78, 79].
Plasma application causes physicochemical modifications in the surface compo-
sition of textiles. It is used to improve dyeability [80]. At various stages of the
pretreatment phase before dying, plasma treatment enhances the wettability of cotton
fabric. This improvement in wettability by plasma was caused not only by size or

Fig. 7 A schematic arrangement how plasma is applied on textile material

108 E. Khalil et al.

wax elimination but also by physicochemical modifications on the surface (e.g., the
inclusion of functional groups and a change in surface energy) [81]. The dyeability
and printability of cotton are related to the creation of new chemical groups on the
cotton surface, which is associated with the formation of cellulosic radicals, which
then chemically react with plasma particles [82]. Pandiyaraj et al. treated grey cotton
fabric with atmospheric plasma and then dyed it with reactive dye. The reported
higher color strength of the dyed fabric is due to the increase in surface energy and
wettability of cotton fabric [83]. About 45.2% of plasma treatment is carried out
on wool substrate among all textile fibers [84]. Plasma treatment on wool causes an
etching effect, which removes the fatty acid coating partially or entirely and creates
hydrophilic groups that facilitate dyeability (varies with plasma gas) of wool fiber
with acid dye [85]. Higher color strength of silk fiber with reactive dye after using
plasma treatment was reported by Iriyama et al., and plasma treatment on other
natural fibers like hemp, flax, coir, jute, bamboo, sisal, etc. was also investigated by
many researchers [85].
Atmospheric plasma treatment on PET fabric improves wettability, dyeability, and
roughness of fibers and creates polar oxygen-containing groups. This treatment also
enhances the dye penetration ability of PET fibers in silk-screen and inkjet printing.
The number of C–OH, C=O, and COOH groups on the surface of PET fibers increased
with air and air/helium plasma, resulting in a significant rise in overall surface energy
and a decrease in contact angle. On the surface of PET fabrics, oxygen/argon plasma
treatment triggered polymer chain scissions, resulting in a significant number of
reactive groups. These anionic groups attracted the weakly cationic dye molecules,
which increased dye absorption and diffusion on PET fibers [86–88]. Appropriate
plasma application on nylon raised the oxygen and nitrogen content of the fibers’
surface, reduced the wetting period, and increased roughness, allowing acid and
dispersed dyes to exhaust faster [89]. Plasma-induced acrylic acid grafting on PP
fibers increased dyeability with basic shades, and the air corona treatment method
on acrylic yarn induces a meaningful effect on dyeing behavior [90, 91].

2.5 Laser Assisted Dyeing

The part of the electromagnetic spectrum has a wavelength of 400–700 nm. A laser is
a modified form of visible light. Lasers have been used in all branches of science and
technology since 1960. The word “laser” is an acronym for “light amplification by
the stimulated emission of radiation.” Quantum mechanics of physics can analyze
the principle of laser products. The electrons inside the atom revolve around the
nucleus in its orbits.
The orbits of electrons are shown as energy levels. All electrons in orbit possess
equal energy, and the electrons of the orbits closest to the nucleus have the lowest
power. This energy level is called the ground state. If electrons absorb energy in any
way, they get excited and move from a higher energy level. But after a while, the
electrons leave that level and return to their energy level by releasing extra energy.
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 109

The process of releasing extra energy is called spontaneous emission. Suppose the
electrons in an atom can interact with a photon of a specific point. The electrons
become excited by absorbing the photon’s power and moving to a higher energy
level. When it returns to its initial energy level, it expels the energy absorbed through
photons. The power of this emitted photon is equal to the point of the absorbed
photon. Thus, the flow of billions of photons is obtained in seconds. The energy
of each photon is similar, and each goes in the same direction simultaneously. This
intense current of photons is known as laser.
Laser is highly monochromatic and can be sharply focused. It is produced when
photons are emitted by stimulating the electrons in an amplifying medium from
a suitable substance. This medium can be solid, gas, semiconductor, etc. Particular
wavelength light is applied to the meaning. So that when the electrons of the substance
are excited, it produces Laser. As a result, photons are emitted. If the active medium
is ruby, it is called a ruby laser, similar to carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The energy and
wavelength of lasers produced from different mediums are also not the same [92].
Lasers are categorized according to their ability to cause damage. The Laser
Institute of America (LIA) has created seven laser classes: Class 1, Class 1M, Class
2, Class 2M, Class 3R, Class 3B, and Class 4. Class 4 carbon dioxide lasers are the
most frequently used in textile production. Carbon dioxide lasers are high-powered
and comparatively efficient compared to other lasing mediums. They can operate in a
continuous wave mode. Carbon dioxide lasers have a wavelength of 10.6 μm, which
lies in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The energy beam is in the
form of heat, which is utilized to burn away the surface of whatever it hits. Thus, it
causes surface modification of the textile substrate. This technology is widely used
in denim processing. However, change in surface properties is closely related to the
dyeing properties of textiles [93].
Kan et al. studied the dyeing behavior of pulsed UV excimer laser pretreated
woven PET fabric under atmospheric conditions. A ripple-like structure of PET
surface, in the presence of hydrophilic functional groups, is found to increase the
oxygen-to-carbon ratio. Due to all changes, dye diffusion is accelerated in the fiber,
like polyester [94]. Morgan et al. examined the dyeing process with carbon dioxide
laser-enhanced in wool fabric with reactive dye. It was revealed by microscopic
examination that removing external scale from the wool fiber is possible, which helps
dyestuff enter the thread more quickly [95]. Akiwowo et al. studied the modification
of knitted and woven PET fabric with carbon dioxide laser.
The technology is used to improve dye penetration with a graphical approach.
This process, a digital dyeing process, involves CAD and laser technology to create
laser-dyed designs. As a result, the laser beam could be used to modify textile fibers
with regulated laser energy as an image-making tool. The laser beam could scan
through seams and stitching while maintaining high-resolution visual qualities and
tonal definition. Using traditional image-based coloration techniques on finished
garments is impossible, as shown in Fig. 8 [96]. It has also been found that the
pretreatment of polyamide fabrics with a carbon dioxide laser before dyeing results
in a high level of satisfaction. This process helps to improve dye absorption and
create free amino groups by breaking amide linkages on that fiber surface. Laser
110 E. Khalil et al.

Fig. 8 Digital laser-dyed sports bra tops [96] “Reprinted by permission of Informa UK Limited,
trading as Taylor & Francis Group, [Link]”

application also causes a reduction in crystallinity and an increase in the amorphous

region, which allows for more excellent dye absorption [97–99].

2.6 Foam Dyeing

Foam is an aggregation of gaseous bubbles dispersed in a liquid. The foam bubbles are
separated from one another by a thin layer of liquid. This layer is named lamellae. The
foam is formed either in the solid or gaseous state. The mixture of solid and gas forms
solid foams and is unsuitable for textile garments. On the other hand, the mixture of
gas and liquid formed gaseous foam is used in many applications in textile industries.
The gaseous foam is divided into two categories: condensation and dispersion foam.
Condensation foam is developed from the chemical reaction or causing the physical
change of gas within the liquid. The dissolved gas in condensation foam can be
liberated, which yields an inappropriate blow ratio. Results instability of foam and
make inappropriate to use for textile processing.
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 111

On the other hand, if the gas is introduced and mixed with liquid from the external
source, then dispersing foam is formed. It is the most common type of foam available
in textiles processing. Usually, the air is used as a gas, and water is used as a liquid.
This type of foam contains a surface-active agent that acts as a foaming agent [100].
Foams are used for many textile chemical processes, like desizing, printing, finishing,
and dyeing. The characteristic of foam depends on blow ratio, stability, viscosity,
bubble size, and bubble distribution [101].
The study showed that the Foam technique is often used with a wet pick-up of 20–
40%, whereas, in traditional pad dyeing, the wet pick-up is typically in the 60–100%
operational range. As a low-add-on technique, foam processing in textile processing
utilizes foam to apply chemicals and colourants to the textiles, resulting in significant
water, a shorter drying period, increased efficiency, less waste and energy savings
due to the substitution of water with air.
Foam application limits the amount of water added to the textile substrate by
replacing some water in the formulation with air. The chemical formulation is mixed
with air in a foam generator to create a foam usually having a perfect bubble size.
The incorporation of air into the formulation creates a large volume which can be
spread on the textile fabric more uniformly than can the unframed liquid [102].
Foam processing involves several distinct steps. Foam is generated after liquor
preparation and applied to the textile substrate (fabric and yarn). After mechanical
treatment processes such as drying, fixation, etc., foam dyeing can be employed
according to the requirement. A typical flow chart foam processing is shown in Fig. 9.
In the foam dyeing process, at first, a fixed volume of foam containing the
dye is prepared. Secondly, it is applied to the textile substrates using appropriate
standard methods. It is a basic theory of foam dyeing technology. The foam is
applied to the textile substrates with direct and indirect applicator systems. There-
fore, the liquid distribution in the fabric with simultaneous drainage and diffusion
thoroughly. Figure 10 illustrates the padding mangle approach of foam application
on textile fabric.
The main advantage of the foam dyeing process is that it can be employed in
synthetic and natural fibers of different fabric structures by using several dye classes.
Yu et al. investigated low add-on foam dyeing with a Neovi-foam system and
two-stage pad dyeing of plain woven cotton fabric using a reactive dye. Foam and
conventional pad dyeing were carried out with 30 and 80% wet pick-up, respectively.
The foam was generated using mechanical agitation for 3 min, and the blow ratio and

Fig. 9 Block diagram of

foam processing on textile
substrate
112 E. Khalil et al.

Fig. 10 Foam applicator

with horizontal padding
mangle approach

half-life were used to assess foamability and stability. Foam dyeing was carried out
with the combination of different foaming and stabilizer of different concentrations.
Comparing their findings with conventional aqueous dyeing systems and evaluating
various foaming factors based on colour strength and fixation rate, they concluded
better build-up properties of dyes in the case of foam processing than in conventional
dyeing. It was also reported that sodium dodecyl sulfate, dodecanol, and guar gum
(3:4 in weight were effective foaming agent and stabilizer, respectively. A higher
K/S value of dyed fabric was recorded with an increasing concentration of foam
stabilizer while lowering the dye fixation rate [103]. The comparatively same type of
experiment was carried out by Wang et al. on ultra-fine polyamide filament fabrics
and established some optimum parameters regarding this [104]. Shang et al. studied
the development of the wash-out effect of cotton knitted T-shirts with foam dyeing
using pigments [105].
Bhavsar et al. studied foam dyeing technology of cotton and wool fabric with reac-
tive and acid dyestuff, respectively, with horizontal padding mangle. They introduced
a novel foaming agent named keratin hydrolyzate in the dyeing of both materials.
Foam dyeing performance was compared to conventional cold pad batch and pad
steam processes for cotton and wool, respectively. The foams having different char-
acterizing were determined in aqueous solutions with and without dyeing auxiliaries.
They recorded a significant surface activity of keratin hydrolyzate, excellent foam
stability with dyeing auxiliaries, a blow ratio of approximately 10:1, and bubble
diameters of 0.02–0.1 mm. Dye molecules are transported by hydrolyzed keratin,
and the dyeing mechanism is determined by the pH of the dye solution, keratin,
and fiber. Compared to conventional dyeing methods, foam dyeing of cotton yielded
similar colour strength, while wool yielded greater colour strength. Because of the
synergy between keratin hydrolyzate and wool, the colour strength and levelness
of wool dyeing were improved. Figure 11 depicts the hypothetical mechanism of
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 113

Fig. 11 The hypothetical mechanism of foam dyeing of cotton and wool fabric using keratin
hydrolyzate (“Reproduced from Bhavsar et al. [106], with kind permission from American Chemical
Society”)

keratin hydrolyzate-based foam dyeing of cotton and wool fabrics. Cotton and wool
foam-dyed fabrics have a comparable wash and rubbing fastness to their conventional
dyed samples [106].

2.7 Ultrasound Assisted Dyeing

A medium is required to transmit sound waves from one place to another. The sound
wave propagates by generating vibrational motion, known as the frequency of the
medium particles. The frequency of ultrasound is higher than that of the human
range of audibility. The range of human audible frequency is about 18–20 kHz.
So sound wave with a frequency greater than 20 kHz is referred to as ultrasound
(Fig. 12) [107–109]. Many studies from the 1950s and 1960s describe the posi-
tive benefits of ultrasound in wet textile processes. So application of ultrasound in
textile processing is not a novel concept. Despite promising findings from labo-
ratory research, ultrasound-assisted textile wet processes have yet to be applied
commercially.
Low frequency or conventional ultrasound (20–100 kHz), medium frequency
ultrasound (300–1000 kHz), and diagnostic or high-frequency ultrasound (2–
10 MHz) are the three frequency ranges used in practical fields [110]. The high-
frequency ultrasound has no physical or chemical impact hence not compatible with

Fig. 12 Approximate frequency ranges corresponding to ultrasound

114 E. Khalil et al.

textile processing. Low-frequency and high-intensity ultrasound can run at thousands

of watts, making it robust and suitable for numerous textile chemical operations [111].
Ultrasound acts as a physical stimulus, used for various chemical processing of
textiles such as washing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, finishing, extraction
of natural dyes, and wastewater management. Figure 13 shows some of the possible
uses of ultrasound in textile coloring [112].
The ultrasound-assisted dyeing system changes the average spacing between
water molecules when the sound wave travels through it in compression and rarefac-
tion cycles. During the rarefaction cycle, the distance between neighboring molecules
may surpass the critical molecular distance if the sound’s pressure amplitude is high
enough. A new liquid surface from voids is formed at that point. This process is
termed acoustic cavitation, as shown in Fig. 14 [113].
The acoustic cavitation process causes chemical changes in the liquid/liquid or
solid/liquid phase. The three phases of cavitation are the microbubble’s forma-
tion, growth, and collapse. Microbubbles pulsate, expand, shrink, and even collapse
when ultrasonic vibrations travel through the liquid phase due to the stretching and
compression of the sound wave. High temperature–pressure rapidly develops in the

Preparation
of dye
solution

Extraction of Ultrasound
Dyeing of
natural assisted coloration textiles
colorants of textiles

Preparation
of print paste

Fig. 13 Possible applications of ultrasound assisted coloration of textiles

Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 115

Fig. 14 Process cycle of a cavitation bubble formation [109]

restricted area surrounding the cavitation bubble. As a result, cavitation generates

a powerful shock wave and a high-velocity jet, which enhances micro mixing, heat
and mass transfer, dyes, chemicals, and auxiliary diffusion inside the inter pores of
textile substrates. The ultrasonic cavitation influences frequency, intensity, power,
solvent, viscosity, vapor pressure, and temperature. Figure 15 shows many effects
originating from the sonochemistry’s physical and chemical components responsible
for the dyeing rate acceleration.
In textile dyeing and printing, ultrasonic technologies serve three main purposes.
The first is called dispersion, and it involves breaking up micelles and high-molecular-
weight aggregates into uniform distributions. The second degassing method causes
dissolved or trapped gas or air molecules to be ejected from the fiber into liquid
and removed by cavitation, which improves dye-fiber interaction. The third type of
diffusion accelerates any interactions or chemical reactions that may occur between
the dye and the fiber by piercing the insulating layer that surrounds it [115]. Wet

Fig. 15 Several sonochemical effects on dyeability of textile material [114]

116 E. Khalil et al.

Fig. 16 Schematic diagram of ultrasonic exhaust dyeing of lyocell woven fabric (“Reproduced
from Babar et al. [119], with kind permission from Elsevier”)

ultrasonic techniques use less energy and chemicals, which is good for the environ-
ment and for business. A method of dying with the help of ultrasound that uses lower
temperatures than the usual method can also save energy (thermally) [116, 117].
The mechanical or electric ultrasonic generator, the ultrasonic transducer, which
converts electrical energy into acoustic energy, and the acoustic amplifier, which
concentrates and amplifies the acoustic energy produced by the transducer, are the
three main parts of ultrasonic equipment [118].
Utilizing ultrasonic energy, Babar et al. studied exhaust dyeing on woven fabric
made entirely of lyocell, a biodegradable regenerated fiber. Reactive dyes were
utilised by them as colourants. They contrasted their findings with those of the
traditional dying method. In comparison to conventionally dyed samples, ultrasonic
dyed samples displayed significantly better dyeing performance (colour yield and
dye fixing rate). This methodology was shown to be a better, more affordable, and
generally more ecologically friendly way to conduct future studies thanks to signif-
icant reductions in the use of thermal energy and chemicals. Figure 16 depicts the
procedure they employed for dyeing and post-treatments [119].

2.8 Microwave Assisted Dyeing

Between the radio and infrared wavebands of the electromagnetic spectrum is where
microwave (MW) radiation is found. As depicted in Fig. 17, it has wavelengths
that range from about one meter to one millimeter, and its frequencies range from
300 MHz to 300 GHz. It cannot see its characteristics with the naked eye [109].
Microwaves can move at the same speed as light when passing through material
objects. It comprises two oscillating magnetic and electric fields perpendicular to one
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 117

another. They can be transmitted, absorbed, or reflected depending on the medium.

Microwaves reflect off of metal surfaces and pass through PTEF and quartz. In either
scenario, no heat is generated. According to their dielectric characteristics, polar
liquids like water, nitric acid, and others absorb microwaves and generate heat [120].
Microwaves with wavelengths of 1–40 GHz are often used in different applica-
tions. It is possible due to its unique features (frequency and wavelength) and capa-
bility of forming directional waves. Some applications of microwave technology are
terrestrial and satellite communications, e-surveillance, climate monitoring, long-
distance power transmission, military applications; household appliances, indus-
trial processes (microwave heating), scientific research and investigation, etc. [118].
For domestic purposes, the two most frequently utilized frequencies for microwave
heating are 0.915 and 2.45 GHz [121]. Microwaves of high frequencies are used for
industrial production purposes. Microwaves may only be utilized in a small range of
industrial operations due to the high machinery cost and dielectric properties’ depen-
dence on temperature. In the textile coloring industry, microwaves can be used in
numerous chemical processes, including the extraction of natural dyes and wastew-
ater management. Figure 18 shows some microwave radiation applications in the
textile sector [118].
Ionic conduction and dipolar rotation are the mechanisms by which microwaves
produce heat. The electric field is the primary source of heat production. A water
molecule in dipolar rotation spins back and forth continuously, trying to align its
dipole with the oscillating electric field; heat is generated by friction between the
spinning molecules. A free ion or ionic species travels translationally across space
in ionic conduction, trying to align with the changing electric field. The conflict
between these moving species generates heat, just as it does in dipolar rotation, and
the greater the temperature in the surroundings of each ion, the more effective energy

Fig. 17 Electromagnetic spectrum [109]

118 E. Khalil et al.

Fig. 18 Application of
microwave technology in
textile coloration

transfer occurs. The more polar and ionic a species is, the more efficient the rate of
heat production is in both instances (Fig. 19) [120].
Because of having lower energy than chemical bonds, microwaves cannot affect
the molecular structure of any material. It may only cause kinetic molecular exci-
tation. Microwave heating is also known as volumetric heating. Microwave energy
can penetrate directly into the internal portion of textile material and cause uniform
and consistent heating of excess or unfixed dye liquor or liquid particles to evaporate
effectively. Ionic conduction and dipolar rotation of polar components of an aqueous
dye solution increase the dye fixation rate by enhancing the diffusion of dye molecules
on the textile substrate. On the other hand, conventional conduction heating methods
depend on the thermal conductivity of a material. Heat energy is transmitted first
from the source to the vessel and then from the vessel to the desired material. It is a
slow and inefficient way to transfer heat because the different thermal conductivities
make it hard to control the temperature and take longer to reach thermal equilibrium
as shown in Fig. 20.
Microwave heating suits bulky materials such as yarn packages, skeins, and loose
fiber. This energy heats deep within the material and dramatically accelerates bulky
materials drying slowly in convection drying systems. If the electrode system is set

Fig. 19 a Ionic conduction, where positively and negatively charged ions under electric field
induced by microwaves crossing the molecules and, b–c dipolar rotation of water molecules, where
b indicates without electric field and c indicates with the influence of electric field induced by
microwaves. (“Reproduced from Melloet al. [120], with kind permission from Elsevier”)
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 119

Fig. 20 Microwave heating and conductive heating [122]

up, microwave energy can be used to dry flat fabrics, nonwoven webs, and yarn
sheets.
Microwave-assisted extraction of colorants may be done before dyeing or concur-
rently with dyeing [123, 124]. Extracted colors or other organic compounds may
be used during the dyeing cycle, and heating can be done either by boiling or
microwaving.
Oneret et al. studied microwave-assisted exhaust dyeing and conventional dyeing
of polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) single jersey knitted fabrics with six types of
dispersed dyes. They concluded that microwave heating improves the dye absorption
of poly (butylene terephthalate) fiber, and better color properties and fastness may
be achieved in comparison with the conventional process [125].
A technique based on microwave treatment of flax fiber with urea to enhance its
dyeability with reactive dyes was recently developed due to the low dyeability of flax
fiber. The dyeability of the treated flax fibers was found to be substantially enhanced.
Higher dye absorption on the fiber and an increased reaction probability between the
dye and the fiber were discovered to be the reasons for the improved dyeability of
flax fiber [126].
Adeel et al. investigated the dyeing behavior of wool fabric using extracted
natural cochineal dye, utilizing microwave irradiation and employing bio-mordant
and chemical mordant. Cochineal dye is an animal-based natural colorant, carminic
acid, extracted from cochineal insects. Extracted colorants and wool fabric were
microwave treated for a specific time to dye irradiated and unirradiated wool
fabric, maintaining optimum dyeing parameters and mordants. It is used in sustain-
able dyeing operations with 5% henna and 3% pomegranate as bio-mordants and
Al2 (SO4 )3 and FeSO4 as chemical mordants. It was also discovered that this
120 E. Khalil et al.

microwave treatment and bio-mordant have better colour fastness properties than
chemical ones and suggested possible alternatives of synthetic red–orange dyes for
textile coloration [124].

2.9 Enzymatic Dyeing

Enzymes are naturally occurring proteins with a high molecular weight. It is called
a “bio-catalyst” since it can catalyze chemical reactions in biological processes.
Enzymes are present in plants, microbes, as well as animals. Because of their three-
dimensional configurations and active or catalytic sites, enzymes are particular to
their substrate [127]. The active site is the portion of the enzyme molecule that
interacts with the substrate and integrates it. The form and charge distribution of the
active site assist in substrate recognizing and catalyzing the chemical reaction. The
enzyme molecule first makes a complex adsorbing onto the surface of the substrate
that can be explained by the lock and key model proposed by E. Fisher, as shown in
Fig. 21.
Most enzymes function best in the pH range of 5–9, and their activity increases
with increasing temperature up to a certain extent, decreasing due to thermal denat-
uration. Certain thermo-stable enzymes are stable at a higher temperature. Enzymes
can be applied to various wet processing operations in textiles, such as desizing,
scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, surface modification, wastewater management,
peroxide killing, and denim jeans washing, laundering on a wide variety of natural
and synthetic fiber (Table 1) [128].
Enzyme-containing microorganisms have a high potential for directly processing
novel textile dyes or dye intermediates through regulated fermentation tech-
niques rather than chemical synthesis [129]. It was revealed that laccases
could synthesize red azo dyes with the oxidative coupling of 3-Methyl-2-
BenzoThiazolinoneHydrazone (MBTH) and phenols [130]. In reducing sulfur dyes,
an oxidoreductase enzyme such as catalase has been identified as a viable alternative
to sodium sulfide, a toxic reducing agent [131]. Removal of excess colorant from
over-dyed fabric can be achieved with the help of an enzyme. Chata et al. studied

Fig. 21 Lock and key model

of enzyme action
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 121

Table 1 Use of enzymes at

Process Enzymes
various stages of textile wet
processing Desizing Amylase, lipase
Scouring Pectinase, cellulase, cutinase, Lipase,
Xylanase, Proteases
Bleaching Oxidoreductase, xylanase, Laccase
Peroxide killing Catalase
Dyeing Oxidoreductase
Denim finishing Cellulase, oxidoreductase, lipase
Composting of Laccases, cellulase, protease, nylonase,
textile waste polyesterase

natural color stripping from reactive dyed cellulosic fiber with catalase enzyme. They
reported this process as an efficient and environmentally safe way to remove dyes
from fabrics [132]. Yuan et al. investigated laccase-catalyzed dyeing and finishing
of wool fiber with the help of polyethyleneimine (PEI). The amino groups found in
wool and PEI are thought to be responsible for the production of polymeric color
during the catalysis of laccase of catechin and gallic acid. They reported that it
is possible to improve wool’s color and shrink resistance properties by adding a
multi-primary amine molecule and a crosslinking agent to that coloration technique
[133]. Prajapati et al. studied a new design for coloring wool and nylon 6,6 fibers
using laccase oxidation of three aromatic compounds, 1,4-dihydroxybenzene, 2,7-
dihydroxy naphthalene, and 2,5-diaminobenzenesulphonic acid as an alternative to
traditional dyeing methods. By investigating different reaction parameters without
using additional chemicals and auxiliaries, they reported better color fastness prop-
erties and decorative surface pattern effects by varying fiber and fabric structure.
[134].

2.9.1 Electrochemical Dyeing

Popular textile colours like indigo, vat, and sulphur must undergo a reduction stage
using potent reducing agents like sodium dithionite, sodium sulfide, sodium hydro-
sulfide, sodium polysulfide, etc. to reach the reduced state of the dyestuff. These
substances produce environmentally hazardous acidic byproducts [135]. The devel-
oping electrochemical dyeing technology, which has several technological, financial,
and environmental benefits, transfers electrons via electricity rather than chemical
reducing agents. The two approaches for electrochemical dyeing are direct and indi-
rect electrochemical dyeing. In the case of natural electrochemical dyeing, the inter-
action between the dye and the electrode immediately reduces the organic dyestuff
[136]. Direct reduction of the dye on the electrode is incredibly challenging, never-
theless, due to the limited electrical connection between the insoluble dye particles
and the solid cathode. To start the procedure, a tiny amount of leuco dye must be
added to the solution. The direct approach is based on a reaction mechanism as shown
122 E. Khalil et al.

Fig. 22 Mechanism of the direct electrochemical reduction of indigo (“Reproduced from Yang
et al. [137], with kind permission from Elsevier”)

in Fig. 22 where the leuco dye and dye react to form a radical anion of the dye. Then,
this radical anion is electrochemically reduced [137].
In an indirect electrochemical dye reduction process, the dye is not reduced
directly at the electrode. Instead, a reducing agent is applied, which conventionally
reduces the dye before being oxidized. The oxidized reducing agent is then reduced
at the cathode surface, making it usable for dye reduction. During the dyeing cycle,
this step is repeatedly performed. In electrochemistry, a reversible redox mechanism
is an agent that goes through reduction and oxidation processes. This agent is called
a mediator.
Changhai et al. looked at the effect of reducing indigo dye on dyeing in an indirect
way, as shown in Fig. 23. They used iron salt as a mediator (and made it work better
by adding calcium ion), added ultrasonic waves, and made electrochemical dyeing
equipment, as shown in Fig. 24.
The ultrasonic waves were used for cleaning cathodes and speeding up electro-
catalytic performance. After dyeing, washing with an oxalic acid solution effectively
removes iron salts from the fabric. They also reported industry-level better color
fastness properties of dyed materials [138].

2.9.2 Ozone Assisted Dyeing

Ozone is a tri-atomic gas, and it has been used in various industrial applications for
a long time because of its strong oxidation potential [139]. Ozone is present in more
significant quantities in the troposphere and stratosphere. Ozone is generated when
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 123

Fig. 23 Electrocatalytic indigo reduction. a General process for indigo dyeing; b Industrial process
for indigo reduction; c Practical electrocatalytic method for indigo reduction and dyeing [138]

Fig. 24 Device of electrochemical reduction and dyeing (a anode chamber; b cathode chamber;
c ion exchange membrane; d reference electrode; e entry board; f anode electrode; g cathode
electrode; h water pump; i water pump; j tube; m ultrasonic tank; k dyeing pool) [138]
124 E. Khalil et al.

air or another gas containing normal oxygen is exposed to a high-energy source [140].
The primary production methods are electrical discharge, electrochemical processes,
and ultraviolet radiation. The two popular approaches are photochemical and corona
discharge, with the latter being the most applicable [141]. In the textile sector, ozone is
used for fading denim jeans, surface modification, and bleaching cellulosic, protein,
and synthetic fibers. However, the application of ozone in the coloration process of
textiles is a new concept. Ozone can be applied to the textile substrate in a gas or
liquid phase. Aqueous ozone is more realistic than gaseous ozone since the operating
principle of wet processing equipment is ideal for a solution. Because of workplace
health and comfort, using gaseous ozone necessitates using specific airtight machines.
The material used to make the leakproof gasket must be resistant to gaseous ozone
[142].
Perincek et al. studied ozone’s dyeability and bleaching effects on animal-based
angora rabbit fiber. They demonstrated that ozone treatment is an effective method for
improving dyeability in milling-type acid dyestuffs due to cuticle layer modification
of fiber [143]. Lee et al. studied the ozonation of polyester and nylon in six fabrics
and found that it increased the amount of oxygen on the fiber surface significantly.
Water penetration, surface wettability, and dyeability were improved along with the
change in crystallinity of these two fibers [144]. Benli et al. suggested a green process
line in their paper. They investigated the effects of combining ozone and ultrasound
treatment on cotton fabrics before natural dyeing without using a mordant (Fig. 25).
Natural dyes were derived from orange tree leaves and alkanet roots. Except for
light fastness, they indicated that the fastness properties of all dyed samples were
generally satisfactory. However, the light fastness of the pomegranate peel-colored
models was just adequate [145]. Ozone gas has also been used to clean up wastewater
from textiles and eliminate colors.

2.9.3 Air Dyeing Technology

Air Dyeing Technology is a ground-breaking technique that allows water-free textile

printing and dyeing [146]. This technology conveys dye using air rather than water,
so no toxic material is released, and no water is lost [147]. It addresses the modern-
day issue of unnecessary water use and contamination by offering customers an
easy, fast, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective way to color and print fabrics.
Compared to traditional printing and dyeing processes, this process saves up to 95%
of the water, 86% of the energy, and 84% of the greenhouse gases. Water savings on a
single garment will amount to as much as 170 L [146, 148, 149]. Saving a considerable
volume of water and energy, only a single machine is required for performing dyeing
and printing operations, eliminating post-processes such as steaming, washing, and
steering. The air dye process opens up a world of creative design options like dye-to-
dye contrast (different dye colors on opposite sides), print-to-dye (print on one side,
dye on the other), print-to-print (print on both sides), and single-sided print (Fig. 26)
[150, 151].
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 125

Fig. 25 Schematic diagram of proposed green process line (“Reproduced from Benliet al. [145],
with kind permission from Elsevier”)

Single side print Dye contrast Print to dye Print contrast

Print on face side. Dye different colors Print on one side, Print on both sides.
on opposite sides. dye the other.

Fig. 26 Creative design possibilities of air dyeing technology [151]

Two companies have established waterless air dyeing technology in the last few
years: Japan-based Debs Textile Corporation [146] and California-based sustainable
technology company ColorepInc [147].
It is necessary to know that airflow/air jet dyeing differs from air dyeing tech-
nology. In the case of the airflow system, dyeing of textile substrates is carried out
in a closed stainless steel cylindrical vessel in rope form. On the other hand, air dye
technology employs the sublimation technique, which involves transferring inks to
fabrics using customized transfer paper and applying heat and pressure. Although the
application process is similar to conventional heat transfer printing, it employs several
patented innovations that set it apart from competing technologies. The customized
paper is manufactured with FSC-certified high-quality pulp and non-toxic chemicals
126 E. Khalil et al.

Fig. 27 Feature of Air Dye

Environmentally
technology Safe

Speed &
Color Efficiency
Accuracy
Air Dyeing
Technology

Good
Design Colorfastness
Potential

to allow for a high degree of ink sublimation, fast release, deep penetration, and quick
drying Inks have been engineered to produce brilliant colors with excellent results
in the air dyeing method.
In comparison to traditional heat transfer printing, air dyeing machines may
transfer inks onto fabric and make them penetrate deep into the fibers by utilizing
very low pressure, resulting in a smoother hand feel and even dyeing. This technology
can control color penetration, allowing for backside coloration. Some features of air
dye technology are shown in Fig. 27 [146, 150, 152].

2.9.4 Reverse Micelle Dyeing

Micelle formation is an essential phenomenon in the detergency action of surfactants

while scouring. A micelle is a group of molecules associated with three-dimensional
spherical clusters. It is typically an aggregate of surfactants in a colloidal dispersion.
A typical micelle collects water, with the hydrophilic “head” parts on the outside of
the shell and the hydrophobic “tail” parts in the middle.
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 127

Fig. 28 A schematic
diagram of reverse micelle
structure [153]

The reverse micelle represents the opposite structure of the micelle system. These
are spherical Nano-scale self-assembled aggregates, and they can be formed when
certain surfactants are dissolved in organic solvents. In both the presence and absence
of water, reverse micelles may develop. Reverse micelles are macro-emulsions of
water in oil. The attraction of polar portions (hydrophilic heads) of surfactants
towards the aqueous core and hydrocarbon tail towards the non-aqueous phase (oil
phase) is responsible for developing such a type of emulsion as shown in Fig. 28
[153].
Reverse micelles can be utilized as dye carriers to aid the dyeing process of textile
substrates in a non-aqueous medium. It can form a dispersion of water-soluble dyes
by forming a Nano-scale water pool. A water pool is a stable aqueous microenviron-
ment created by solubilizing a small quantity of water in the core area of a micelle
(Fig. 29) [154]. The choice of appropriate surfactants is critical for the creation of
reverse micelles. Thermodynamic stability of reverse micelles may be favored with
fluorinated surfactants. Due to having some significant drawbacks, such as unavail-
ability, environmental effects, and the higher cost of fluorinated surfactants, it isn’t
easy to employ them in practice. As a result, it’s critical to look for other surfactants
that can help micelles form and stay stable. Reverse Micelle dyeing reduces effluent
generation as the used solvent can be recycled easily, minimizes water usage in this
process, which ensures it is an environmentally friendly process, and forms a stable
encapsulation of water-soluble dyes in organic solvent (non-aqueous) media.
Wang et al. studied the reverse micellar dyeing technique of woven wool fabric
with reactive dyes. It is used as a polyethylene glycol (PEG) based nonionic surfac-
tant, n-octanol as a co-surfactant and alkane (octane and nonane) as an organic non-
aqueous solvent medium. They performed dyeing of the above fabric by following
some standard procedure by preparing a reverse micellar solution without using salt.
The sample was also dyed in a conventional water-based dyeing procedure using
sodium sulphate (salt). They revealed satisfactory dye absorption properties and
color fastness properties to laundry in the case of the solvent based reverse micellar
technique without using salt, comparable to the conventional water-based technique
[155].
128 E. Khalil et al.

Fig. 29 Principle of dyeing of textile substrate using reverse micelle technique

Tang et al. investigated the impact of water hardness and pH on reactive dye
dyeing of cotton fibers utilizing a reverse micellar method. They also used PEG-
based surfactants and heptane as an organic solvent. They reported lower color yield
and higher reflectance in an alkaline environment than those in an acidic or neutral
environment. Alkaline hydrolysis of dyes is the main reason behind this phenomenon.
The level of dyed fabric was also influenced by water hardness and the pH of the
dye bath. The CIE L*a*b* value and chromatic properties of the dyed sample were
stable with the change of water pH and hardness [156].
Reverse micellar dyeing of silk fiber with different dyestuffs (direct, acid, and
reactive) shows better results than wool fiber due to low swelling in this system. The
PEG-based dyeing of cotton fabric in this technique with reactive dyes of different
reactive groups was also explored [157]. Table 2 shows some studies carried out by
several researchers about reverse micellar dyeing of different fabrics and surfactants
with numerous non-quous solvents.
Table 2 Different approach of reverse micellar dyeing
Fiber and fabric type Dyestuff Non-aqueous media Surfactant References
Cotton single jersey fabric Reactive dye Heptane Poly (ethylene glycol) tridecyl ether [157–159]
(PEG-12)
Cotton interlock knitted fabrics, Reactive Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane PEG-12 [160]
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing

dye
Cotton interlock-knitted fabrics Reactive dyes Nonane PEG-12 [161]
Wool knitted fabric Reactive dyes Octane and nonane PEG-12 [162]
Cotton interlock-knitted fabrics Reactive dyes Octane PEG-12 [163]
Cotton interlock knitted fabrics Reactive dyes Heptane PEG-12 [156]
Silk habutae and wool muslin Acid, direct and reactive dye Iso-octane Sodium bis-2 [164]
Ethylhexylsulphosuccinate
Wool muslin Reactive and acid dye Isopropyl alcohol and n-hexane PolyoxyethyleneSorbitanTrioleate [165]
Cotton Reactive dyes Isooctane, n-octanol Triton X-100 (Octyl phenol [166]
woven fabric ethoxylate)
129
130 E. Khalil et al.

3 Conclusion

As the market for fibers and fabrics continues to increase in tandem with the world’s
population, garment producers have an ethical responsibility to ensure that the envi-
ronment is not harmed. The sophisticated and emerging sustainable technologies of
dyeing and printing are briefly discussed in this chapter: the appealing ways and
strategic approaches to address environmental issues and lower carbon footprints in
the fashion industry.
Industrial production activities, including textile manufacturing, around the world,
have generated excessive carbon dioxide, creating environmental problems. On the
other hand, supercritical carbon dioxide-based dyeing reveals another aspect of
carbon dioxide that is, ironically, advantageous to the environment. Further research
is needed to fully comprehend the mechanism of dye solubility in supercritical carbon
dioxide and other solvent processes.
Dyeing and other textile processing under a nitrogen atmosphere may be a future
subject of research by scientists. Future research and investigation may be carried
out on applying numerous biodegradable and nontoxic chemicals or auxiliaries as
alternatives to harmful ones. Further research in this area may also be conducted
to demonstrate improved results. The application of enzymes in the pretreatment
operations of textile substrates has been commercialized with massive success. While
enzymatic dyeing, i.e., enzymes in dyeing operations, is still being researched and
investigated, only a few are commercially viable. A suitable surfactant and organic
solvent are required to form reverse micelles that can be used as dye carriers in the
revere micelle dyeing technique. Future researchers should analyze this technique as
it uses non-aqueous media and maybe the future possible dyeing technique for textile
colorists in this water-consuming world. Air dyeing is an emerging technology that
creates a lot of design possibilities in the textile coloration process. Further analysis
should be carried out in this area for a worldwide, feasible application.
Two eco-friendly stimuli, ultrasound and a microwave, can speed up numerous
chemical processes of textiles, including dyeing without using catalysts, are simple
to use, can be applied to a wide range of domains, and result in considerable cost and
time reductions as well as chemical savings. Technological advancements in plasma-
assisted dyeing, laser-assisted dyeing, foam dyeing, and electrochemical dyeing and
their potential impact on mitigating environmental challenges and rising performance
motivate new scientific advances and machine manufacturing to bring about opera-
tional convenience. As a result, more widespread usage of the above techniques on
an industrial scale is anticipated in the immediate future.
Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 131

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