SYNTAX 2

Coordination (same level of importance)

Example 1: I like coffee and tea.
"coffee" and "tea" are of equal importance, joined by the coordinating
conjunction "and."
Example 2: She studied all night, but she still failed the test.
Two independent clauses are joined by "but."
Subordination (one unit depends on the other)
Example 1: Although I was tired, I kept working.
Simple (single-word) subordinators:
Example: I stayed home because it was raining.
"because" is a simple subordinator linking the clauses.
Complex subordinators (multi-word units):
Ending with "that"
Example: She explained the situation in order that we could understand better.
"in order that" is a complex subordinator.
Ending with "AS"
Example 1 (According as): According as you work hard, you will be rewarded.
Example 2 (As far as): As far as I know, he has already left.
Example 3 (As soon as): As soon as she arrived, the meeting started.
Example 4 (As long as): As long as you stay quiet, we won’t get in trouble.
4. Others
Example 1 (As if): He speaks as if he knows everything.
Example 2 (In case): Take an umbrella in case it rains.
Example 3 (As though): She looked at me as though I had said something
offensive.
c. Correlative Subordinators
AS – SO
Example: As the storm got stronger, so the waves became higher.
AS – AS, SUCH AS, LESS – THAN, MORE – THAN, BARELY - THAN
Example: She is as intelligent as her brother.
Example: I like fruits such as apples and bananas.
Example: This problem is less serious than the last one.
Example: He runs more quickly than his friend.
Example: She barely finished her work than she had to start another task.
THE – THE
Example: The more you practice, the better you get.
WHETHER – OR, IF – OR
Example: Tell me whether you will come or stay at home.
Example: I don't know if he is serious or just joking.
Subordinators plus optional conjunct
Example: Although it was raining, yet they continued playing outside.
Example: Since he apologized, yet she still refused to forgive him.
Example: Because he was late, therefore he missed the bus.
d. Marginal Subordinators
Subordinator + preceding/following adverb
Example: Even if she apologizes, I won’t forgive her.
Example: If only he had studied harder, he would have passed the exam.
Noun phrases functioning as temporal adverbials
Example: The moment (that) she saw him, she started crying.
Example: Every time (that) I visit Paris, I feel inspired.
Prepositional phrases ending in "The fact that"
Example: Because of the fact that she was sick, she missed the exam.
Example: Due to the fact that he was late, he had to wait outside.
Example: In spite of the fact that he had no experience, he got the job.
Participle forms
Example: Supposing that you win the lottery, what will you do?
LECTURE 2
FINITE – contains a verb phrase which is marked for tense or modality, are
usually marked by a clause link
e.g. When I was watching the news at 7, I heard a strange noise in our kitchen.
NON FINITE CLAUSES – are not marked for tense or modality, lack an explicit S as
a subordinator, are more compact than finite clauses
e.g. Watching the 7 o ̉clock news, I heard a strange noise in our kitchen.
VERBLESS CLAUSES - no verb element
While at college, he was a prominent member of the dramatic society.
Subject (S) – Whatever he needs is fine with me.
The entire clause "Whatever he needs" functions as the subject of the sentence.
It is a noun clause, acting as the subject of the verb "is."
Breakdown:
Whatever he needs → subject
is → linking verb
fine with me → subject complement
Postmodifier in a Noun Phrase – The dog who was barking looked quite furious.
The clause "who was barking" is a relative (adjective) clause that modifies "the
dog."
It provides additional information about the noun "dog."
Breakdown:
The dog → noun phrase
who was barking → relative clause (postmodifies "the dog")
looked quite furious → main clause
Object (O) – Teachers usually know when students do not learn.
The clause "when students do not learn" is a noun clause functioning as the
object of the verb "know."
The main verb "know" needs an object, and this clause answers "What do
teachers know?"
Breakdown:
Teachers → subject
usually know → verb phrase
when students do not learn → object (noun clause)
Adverbial (A) – He inspected my passport as if being a suspect.
The clause "as if being a suspect" is an adverbial clause modifying the verb
"inspected."
It explains how he inspected the passport (as if he were a suspect).
Breakdown:
He → subject
inspected my passport → main clause
as if being a suspect → adverbial clause (describes the manner of
inspection)
Complement of an Adjective (Ca) – The workers are ready to move on strike.
The phrase "to move on strike" is an infinitive clause functioning as the
complement of the adjective "ready."
It tells what the workers are ready for.
Breakdown:
The workers → subject
are ready → adjective phrase
to move on strike → complement of the adjective "ready."
Complement of a Preposition (Cp) – He always relies on what she says.
The clause "what she says" is a noun clause functioning as the object of the
preposition "on."
It tells what he relies on.
Breakdown:
He always relies on → prepositional verb phrase
what she says → noun clause (object of "on")
Subject Complement (Cs) – The problem is you cannot try again.
 The clause "you cannot try again" is a noun clause functioning as the subject
complement of "The problem is."
It defines or renames "the problem."
Breakdown:
The problem → subject
is → linking verb
you cannot try again → subject complement (noun clause).
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
subordinate dependent clauses, modify other sentence elements in a sentence
adverbial clauses (both finite and non finite) are used to realise TIME, PLACE,
MANNER, REASON, RESULT, CONDITION,etc
If you go to a bank, they will rip you off.
LECTURE 3
NOMINAL THAT CLAUSES – That he still needs his help seems to be unbelievable.
NOMINAL INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES –
wh- interrogatives
yes-no interrogatives,
alternative interrogatives
NOMINAL EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSES It is amazing how easily she can do it.
NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES I would like to see whatever is on tonight.
NON FINITE NOMINAL CLAUSES
TO INFINITIVE
That he still needs his help seems (for him) to be unbelievable.
ING PARTICIPLE CLAUSES Thinking about her illness made George feel very sad.
BARE INFINITIVE CLAUSES Turn off the tap was all I did that morning.
ED PARTICIPLE
His homework completed, he wished to relax.
YES – NO INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES
these clauses are introduced by subordinators WHETHER or IF
e.g. Tell me whether I should do it again. He wondered whether the teacher
noticed that error.
they occur in in the same range of functions available to wh – interrogative
clauses.
ALTERNATIVE CLAUSES
WHETHER...OR, IF.....OR
e.g. I do not care whether they join us or not.
- if tends to be more frequent than whether in informal style, but if is more
restricted than whether
 LECTURE 4
NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES – dependent subordinate clauses
May is when the tulips bloom.
ADNOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES – adjective dependent clauses
The lady whom I helped carry her luggage was travelling to Berlin.
SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSES – The lady whom I helped carry her luggage was
traveling to Berlin, which was quite surprising.
Relative pronouns vs. Relative adverbs
The choice of relative pronoun or adverbs depends on –
a. the relation to its antecendent
b. the gender type of the antecendent
c. the type of the clause-RESTRICTIVE-NON RESTRICTIVE
They have 50 men who are working from 6 am to 5 pm, so we hope to finish the
next week.
They have 50 men, who are working from 6 am to 5 pm, so we hope to finish the
next week.
RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE
S- She is satisfied with the bachelor thesis that has been written.
O – She is satisfied with the bachelor thesis that she has already written.
A – She arrived the day that I was ill.
C – This is not the type of modern house that our is.
NONRESTRICTIVE CLAUSES.
S- I spoke to [Link], who was willing to give further details.
O- I spoke to Dr. Rodby, whom I met after the conference.
C – He is an excellent speaker, which no one else there.
A - This is the type of modern house.
RESTRICTIVE (defining) – gives us essential information, restricts the reference of
the noun phrase it modifies,
NON – RESTRICTIVE (non-defining) – add a further specification (additional
information) of something that is already presented as specific, more frequent in
a writing style.
LECTURE 5
adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts
they are like adverbial phrases, but in their potentiality for greater explicitness,
they are more often like prepositional phrases (Greenbaum and Quirk,1999)
We left after the speeches ended.
We left after the end of the speeches.
Contrast adverbial clauses with adverbial phrases, which do not contain a clause.
 I like to fly kites for fun.
SUBORDINATORS : after, before, since, till, until,as, once, when,while, whilst, as
soon as, as long as, ...etc.
CLAUSES OF PLACE
introduced by where, wherever,
can express POSITION and DIRECTION
POSITION (specific meaning) – Where the storm had been, we saw nothing but
destroyed buildings.
DIRECTION (non specific meaning) – He was willing to go wherever they could
find work.
where clause may express the meaning of place and contrast
Where I saw rich people, they saw poor people and poverty.
MANNER CLAUSES
modify the verbs in the main clauses telling us HOW the action or event was
perfomed
introduced by AS, AS IF, AS THOUGH
He solved the problem as one might have expected.
LECTURE 6
DECLARATIVE SENTENCE – states an idea, fact, argument without requiring either
an answer or action from the reader
Punctuation: simple period
Discourse function: statement
e.g. He has done it properly.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE – is used to form questions, ask for a reply
Punctuation: question mark
Discourse function: question, are used to seek information on a specific point
e.g. What shall we do now?
IMPERATIVE SENTENCE – a sentence that gives advice or instructions or that
expresses a request or command
Punctuation: period, exclamation mark
Discourse function: directive, is used to instruct somebody to do something
e.g. Open this window! Immediately!
EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCE – type of sentence that communicates strong emphasis
or emotion
Punctuation: exclamation mark
Discourse function: exclamations, are used for expressing the extent to which the
speaker is impressed by something or somebody
direct associations between syntactic type and discourse function is the norm,
but the 2 do not always match
e.g. What an interesting present !